Tungus princes Gantimurovs

There are many examples in the history of Russian colonization of Siberia when local tribes voluntarily accepted the citizenship of the Russian tsar, as a result of which the state included vast lands rich in furs, fish, timber and precious metals.

One of the brightest pages in the development of the Amur region is associated with the name of Gantimur, the leader of the Nerchinsk Tunguses, who in 1667 passed into Russian citizenship, betraying the Chinese Bogdykhan. The demand of the Qing government for the extradition of the rebellious leader, who had great rights to the Amur lands, more than once became a stumbling block in Russian-Chinese negotiations, almost giving rise to open military clashes. However, Gantimur remained a subject of the Russian Tsar, for which his sons were granted the highest princely title.

The history of this ancient family was traced through archival and printed sources by the employees of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography named after A.I. Peter the Great RAS (Kunstkamera) are direct descendants of the princes Gantimurovs. The story is illustrated by miraculously preserved photographs from the family album of the early 20th century. and rare photo documents from the ethnographic collection of the museum

Family photographs of the beginning of the last century were obtained by the authors of the article by accident. Neighbors picked up an album thrown out after the death of their relative in Irkutsk and sent several pictures to St. Petersburg. It is impossible to say with accuracy who is depicted on them, it is only known that these are representatives princely family Gantimurovs. Its founder was Gantimur, the leader of the Tungus tribes, who played a prominent role in the annexation of the Amur lands to the Russian state and became the cause of the border conflict between Moscow and Beijing.

Tungus tribes living in the basin of the river. Cupid, before the arrival of the Russians, they were not subordinate to any neighboring state. Nose mid-seventeenth century, after Russian settlers appeared in the Amur region, the Qing Empire began to attack these lands. By order of the Chinese rulers, troops began to gather in Manchuria and fortresses were built. The small and scattered Amur tribes found themselves in the center of the struggle between two powerful states. Some of the Daurs, Evenks, Buryats and Duchers agreed to accept Russian citizenship and pay yasak to the Russian treasury, others, especially the Sungari Duchers, entered into an alliance with the Manchus.

Chinese zoolin

Prince Gantimur belonged to the Dulikagir family of the Evenks and was a native of the places where the Nerchinsk prison was later founded. For a long time, the princes Gantimurovs led the Evenki nonhumans, who made up the majority of the local population. According to B. O. Dolgikh, in 1689 there were about 5,600 of them. (Dolgikh, 1960). In addition, numerous clans of arable Daurs of the Upper Amur were subordinate to the Gantimurovs (Artemiev, 1994).

In 1656, the Evenks, led by Gantimur, burned down the Shilksky prison, erected by the Cossacks on the right bank of the Shilka against the mouth of the river. Nercha and migrated to the river. Naun (aka Naunjiang), to the territory of China. A. R. Artemiev believes that these actions were caused by the extreme cruelty of E. Khabarov, shown in relation to the natives of the Amur region during the campaigns of 1649-1653. (Artemiev, 1994).

The originality of the Russian colonization movement in Siberia consisted primarily in the fact that vast territories with their small population were annexed to the Russian state without the use of significant armed forces (Yakovleva, 1958). Quite often, Siberian tribes voluntarily became part of a strong feudal state capable of protecting them from the raids of the Mongol and Manchu khans.
main role in the development of large spaces from Ural mountains to the Amur and Pacific Ocean played by small detachments of Cossack explorers and peasant settlers. Following them came the tsarist administration, built prisons and cities.
First half of XVII in. Tomsk, Yeniseisk, Kuznetsk, Krasnoyarsk, Ilimsk, Kansky and Ust-Kutsky prisons were laid. In 1631, the Bratsk prison was built on the tributary of the Angara. In 1632, on the middle reaches of the Lena, the centurion Beketov founded Yakutsk, which soon turned into a large Siberian city, from which Russian detachments went further - to the Amur region and to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk.
In the second half of the XVII century. the construction of Russian cities and forts continued. In 1648, the Barguzinsky prison appeared near Lake Baikal, in 1652 Irkutsk was founded, and in 1654, on the tributary of the Shilka, Afanasy Pashkov founded Nerchinsk, which became the main center of Russian influence in the Amur region.
By the arrival of the Russians, various tribes of hunters and cattle breeders lived in the Amur basin: Evenks, Nanais, Buryats, Daurs, Duchers, Natks, Nivkhs. Along the river Onon and in the upper reaches of the Shilka and Argun rivers lived Mongol tribes; Evenks roamed throughout the Shilka basin; along the left bank of the Amur, from the confluence of the Shilka and Argun to the confluence of the river. Zeya, Daurs lived; along the Amur to the river. The Sungari lived the Duchers, down the Amur - the Nanais, and even lower than the Nivkhs (Dolgikh, 1952)

The Qing authorities granted Gantimur a high rank of tszolin - the fourth most important in the Manchu troops. His annual salary was 12,000 lans of silver and four boxes of gold (Chronicle of the City of Irkutsk, 1996). Gantimur was under Chinese citizenship until 1667. When the Qing administration tried to force him to fight against the Russians near the Kumar prison, he returned to the Russian Amur region.

In Beijing, Gantimur was recognized as having great rights to the Amur lands, and his departure was extremely undesirable for the Manchu authorities, since it created a dangerous precedent. And indeed, other leaders soon followed the example of Gantimur - Tuidohun, Baodai and Wendu, who had an equal status with him (Artemiev, 1994).

The Qing rulers decided to recapture Gantimur by force. In December 1669, a 6,000-strong Manchu army secretly approached Nerchinsk. The letter handed over to the Nerchinsk governor D. D. Arshinsky stated that Gantimur's departure to the Russians was caused by an unfair court decision, and he was invited to come to Beijing and resolve this issue (Artemyev). However, the Manchus failed to lure the Tungus leader.

In December 1675, on the way to China, the tsarist ambassador N. G. Spafariy stopped in Nerchinsk. He informed Gantimur that the king had not ordered him to be extradited to the Qing authorities. At the talks in Beijing, the demand for the extradition of Gantimur was once again voiced. But, as Spafaria managed to find out, it was so stubbornly put forward by the Manchurian diplomats only because they were sure that the Muscovite tsar would not fulfill it. This could serve as a good pretext for open hostilities against the Russians in the Amur region (Artemiev, 1994). For many years, the Qing government demanded that Russia extradite the prince and members of his family, insisting that he was a subject of the Chinese Bogdy Khan and held high positions, enjoying the trust of the ruler, but then betrayed him and defected to the Russians on Shilka (Yakovleva, 1958) .

Innokenty Nikolaevich Shukhov (1894-1956) - Omsk naturalist, hunter, local historian, member of the Russian Geographical Society. On the instructions of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the USSR Academy of Sciences, in 1926 he traveled around the Tara district, conducting ethnographic and anthropological studies of the Evenks

In the early 80s. 17th century Gantimur with his son Katanai expressed their desire to accept the Orthodox faith. In 1684 they were baptized by decree of Tsars John and Peter Alekseevich. Gantimur received the name Peter, and Katanai - Pavel. The following year, Peter, Pavel and Chekulay Gantimurov were sent to Moscow to be presented to the tsars. But on the way, Prince Gantimur fell ill and died. He was buried with honor in Narym. And his son in Moscow was given unprecedented honors for foreigners, admitted to the royal hand, recorded in the nobility according to the most privileged, Moscow list.

Princes conspirators

In the future, the family of the princes Gantimurovs valiantly served the Russian administration in Nerchinsk. He was famous throughout Siberia for his wealth. However, in the 60s. 18th century its representatives turned out to be participants in events related to the actions of one of the impostors.

In 1763, a party of prisoners arrived at the Nerchinsk plant, among whom was a certain Peter Chernyshov, a soldier of the Bryansk regiment, who claimed that he was the emperor who had miraculously escaped Peter III. Many believed him, including Alexei and Stepan Gantimurovs. They helped him with money, food and clothing, promised to deliver him to St. Petersburg as soon as possible.

With their help, Chernyshev escaped in June 1770, but was soon captured. Major General V. I. Suvorov, who was conducting the investigation, wanted to interrogate Stepan Gantimurov, but the prince categorically refused to appear in the office, but it was impossible to take him by force, since he called more than a hundred Tungus from the borders for his protection. As a result, the connection with the impostor had no consequences for the Gantimurovs (Artemiev, 1994).

Last of the princes

In January 1998, one of the last princes of the Gantimurovs, Vladimir Innokentevich, died in Brisbane (Australia).

He was born on July 11, 1906 in his ancestral capital, the village of Knyaz-Urulga. His father, Innokenty Innokentyevich Gantimurov, was transferred in 1909 to the Zaamursky District of the Border Guard, and the family moved to Harbin.

In 1922, Vladimir Gantimurov, at the age of 15, entered the 1st Cavalry Regiment of the 3rd Corps of General Molchanov, located in Vladivostok. After the capture of the city by the Bolsheviks, he emigrated to Harbin. After passing the courses of sports instructors at the Christian Union of Young People (KSMML), he began to teach wrestling, boxing and fencing (Dmitrovsky). At the North Manchurian Olympiad in 1924, he received the title of boxing champion in the bantamweight division.

In 1925-1926. Vladimir Innokentyevich served in the Chinese army, in the detachment of General Nechaev. At this time, he met his distant relative - Colonel Nikolai Petrovich Gantimurov, Prince of Tunguska, a representative of the older branch of the family. Nikolai Petrovich told the young prince a lot about their family, and he became seriously interested in researching his family tree.

“At the request of the nobles of the Gantimurovs for the free allocation of land in the Trans-Baikal Region. April 16, 1899 - June 2, 1905" (RGIA, f. 1274, op. 1, d. 10, l. 1-10)

Memorandum on the issue of land ownership of the nobles of the Gantimurovs

“... In the current century, the Gantimurov family was recognized in noble dignity, and then some of them were allowed to be titled Tungus princes. Since the 1990s, several persons have been added to the family of nobles and princes Gantimurovs every year, and there is no doubt that over time many more Gantimurovs will be recognized in noble dignity, who still did not care about their class rights. In the 80s. when informing the lands located on the left side of the Urulga and Narin-Talach rivers, the Gantimurovs, referring to the mentioned documents, declared their patrimonial rights to these lands, while the Tungus complained about the oppression they experienced from the princes in using the lands. From this arose the boundary case, which was successively considered by the Trans-Baikal regional administration in 1881, 1883 and 1889.
At the same time, the land rights of the Gantimurovs were not clarified, but in order to eliminate the constant clashes over land between the Gantimurovs and the Tungus, the Regional Board decided, until new grounds for the land arrangement of Siberian aliens were developed in the prescribed manner, to destroy the reason for disputes by allocating land to one place for the use of foreigners.
In view of this, all the lands brought to prominence in 1881, which were in the use of the Gantimurovs and Tunguses of the villages of Knyaz-Urulgi, Knyaz-Beregovoy and Knyazhe-Poselye and the uluses of Naryn-Talachinsky and Batursky with an area of ​​​​61,145 acres, were distributed as follows: Gantimurov allocated the dacha of the only property of 34,280 acres, the Tungus in 1883 was indicated in the dacha, with an area of ​​​​only 24,034 acres; the manor places (2,831 acres) located near the villages of Knyaz-Urulginsky, Knyaz-Beregovoy and Knyazhe-Poselye were left in the common possession of princes and Tungus.
‹...› The land use of the ancestors of the Gantimurovs, and even their own until recently, was in the same conditions as the land use of other inhabitants of the region. With land space, they could easily occupy where they wanted and how much free land they needed, and they had a special advantage over other people, since they could also claim already legal areas if the Tunguses of the Nerchinsk clans subordinate to them sat or roamed on the latter. The attorney of the Gantimurovs indicates in his past that until the 50s of this century, his principals did not have land disputes with the Tungus. Consequently, there was no reason for the local authorities to interfere in the land relations of the Gantimurovs. The only case in which, under such a state of affairs, the Gantimurovs would have had the need to lay claim to their rights to the land, there could only be a general survey. But the latter was not in the region.
‹...› If the general land surveying had touched Siberia in time, then perhaps the patrimonial lands of their ancestor would have been credited to the Gantimurovs. Moreover, those lands that were granted to individual service people of their kind would also be recognized as their property. Only one decree of the Nerchinsk Voivodship Office of 1765 has come down to us on the assignment of mowing and cattle release to the salary for two princes. But arable lands should also be assigned to the same princes. Of the latter, in fact, as mentioned above, the salary is compiled. In addition to the named princes, there were other service people from the Gantimurovs, and they had to be withdrawn at different times during the last century for service from the earth. No traces of these outlets have been preserved. ‹...› From 1714, the time of the issuance of the decree on single inheritance, the distribution of estates formally ceased, and from 1736 such distribution was actually terminated. The distant Trans-Baikal outskirts, however, continued to live in the old Moscow order - service people continued to make up according to salaries. But even here, finally, the moment should have come for the transformation of estates into estates. This moment would be a general survey. In view of the absence of the latter, the estate lands, thanks to the same above-mentioned special conditions in which local land ownership was located, disappeared in the total mass of lands generally occupied by the population without documentary rights defined on them.
All these considerations prompt us to recognize the moral right of the family of nobles and princes Gantimurovs to receive land in the upcoming land management of the region.

Information about the nobles of the Gantimurovs

Among the Tungus of eastern Transbaikalia there is a group of people who differ both in their origin and in their special legal status from other foreigners of the region. This group of persons is the Tungus princes Gantimurovs. They come from a Chinese native of Prince Gantimur, who entered Russian citizenship in 1667 with his ulus people and was soon baptized.
In 1890, the Governing Senate for the first time recognized Gantimurov as a noble, and since then 10 people have officially been included in the noble family, while the rest of the family members have not yet been recognized as nobles. The Gantimurovs live in the Urulga department, the hereditary head of which is recognized as the eldest in the Gantimurov family. There are only 32 households with 109 male souls. Most of the Gantimurovs (26 households with 83 male souls) live within the Urulginsk administration, the rest have only recently settled in the Kuzhertaevsk administration.
In terms of their way of life, the Gantimurovs are not much different from the settled foreigners of the Urulga department. But some representatives of the genus, who were not touched by local research, which dealt only with the rural population, switched to an urban lifestyle. So it is known that one Gantimurov serves in the city of Chita in the Trans-Baikal regional government. There are Gantimurovs living outside of Transbaikalia. Among the persons enrolled in the nobility is Gantimurov, who lives with his family at the Irkutsk salt plant.
Until 1881, the Gantimurovs owned land jointly with the Tungus in the villages of Prince-Urulginsky, Prince-Beregovoe, Prince-Poselye and the uluses of Naryn-Talachinsky, Batursky and Kuzhurtaevsky, having dachas for the sole use. By virtue of customary law, the princes were the actual administrators of the lands in their places of residence and had a great influence on their distribution among the lands among the simple Tungus, sometimes leaving the best places in their possession. But with the fall of the foundations of patriarchal life, such orders began to cause displeasure among the Tungus, and the regional government ordered in 1881 to demarcate the dacha for the sole use of the princes (34,000 acres) ...
With the upcoming land management, the Gantimurovs, who are the only original local nobles, should apparently also be singled out in terms of providing them with land from the general mass of settled foreigners.
The Gantimurovs themselves have a highly developed consciousness of their exceptional position among foreigners, both in view of the services that their ancestors repeatedly rendered to the Russian government in conquering the region and protecting its borders, and in view of the recognition of these merits by the government, which honored their ancestors at different times as stewards and nobles. according to the Moscow list and other service ranks, with the appointment of monetary and grain salaries (decrees of 1710 and 1765).
All these circumstances lead to the conclusion that in the upcoming land management of the region, the Gantimurovs should have been granted land on the basis of property rights; as for the land fund, from which it would be possible to allocate a special estate to them, then both the lands consisting of the dacha rented in 1881 for their sole use, and those close to their places of residence in the Urulga land administration could serve as such who will be free for the vesting of other foreigners.

Extract from the ruling of the Governing Senate for the Department of Heraldry of June 11, 1890 in the case of the nobility of the Gantimurov family

Ordered: seeing from the case that immigrants from China Gantimur and his son Katanai were baptized in the Orthodox faith, and the first was given the name Peter, and the last Pavel; that, according to the letter of Tsars John and Peter Alekseevich on March 16, 1685, Pavel Gantimurov, for accepting baptism and the services rendered by his ancestors, he was ordered to write according to the Moscow list in the nobility, and then by the letter of the Great Sovereign Tsar and Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich on December 30, 1710 on a petition the nobles Princes Larion and Lazar Gantimurovs to grant them, for the service of their grandfather Gantimurov, after the baptism of Peter, and their father Katan, after the baptism of Paul, of whom, as stated in this letter, after Prince Pavel Gantimurov, the wife of Princess Maria remained, they, the petitioners of the prince Larion and Lazar, and their children: Prince Larion - Princes Andrei and Alexei - ordered Prince Larion to give to the patrimony of the land where he finds, superfluous in front of noble dachas, and write them, Princes Larion and Lazar, stewards, with the addition of local and monetary salaries; that the descent from Prince Andrei Larionov Gantimurov’s son Fedor, from his son Yermolai, from him Vasily, who had the rank of 14th class, from this son Diodor, who was in the service and from the latter and his wife, Alexandra Kapitonova, the sons of Alexander and Svyatoslav, is proved by the genealogy, certificates of officials, sentences of representatives of the Tungus and metrical certificates. Governing Senate guided by St. Law. 1876 ​​vol. IX zak. comp. 39, 54, 60, 61, 62, 263, 273, 275, 1111, determines: recognize Diador Vasiliev Gantimurov with his sons, Alexander and Svyatoslav, in the ancient nobility with the right to be included in the sixth part of the noble genealogy book, give him certificate of which, to announce to the petitioner, with the return of documents on the residence of his Irkutsk province and district, at the Irkutsk salt plant, send a decree to the Irkutsk Provincial Board.

In 1930 he moved to Shanghai where he trained as an electrical engineer. After that, he worked in various companies, even founded his own land and technical office. In 1944, Prince Gantimurov was elected to the Emigrant Committee as a representative of the board of the Russian Sports Federation.

After the change of the political regime in China, V.I. Gantimurov moved to Australia in 1952. Last years During his lifetime, he was engaged in putting in order documents and materials on the genealogy of the princes Gantimurovs, and researching Chinese sources.

A. R. Artemiev in his article “Faithful service to Russia. (The family of the princes Gantimurovs)" also mentions a certain N. I. Gantimurov, a participant in the Russian-Japanese war, who was described as one of the characters in A. N. Stepanov's novel "Port Arthur". Subsequently, he was a member of the White movement in the Far East, then went to Harbin, where he founded the Union of Musketeers. In 1930, this man moved to Shanghai to work for the Union of Young Russians and was an instructor for the Sokol Society, and from 1932 he worked for a Chinese electrical firm (Artemyev, 1994).

In his work, Artemiev provides fairly complete data on the descendants of Gantimur up to the 1930s. 20th century However, the information about Diador Vasilievich Gantimurov from Irkutsk escaped the attention of the researcher, about whom in question in published archival materials and who, apparently, is the great-grandfather of M. F. Khartanovich. His daughter, Praskovya Diadorovna (Fedotovna), married Zolotukhina, had seven children, three of whom lived in Leningrad after the war, including Anna Georgievna, the mother and grandmother of the authors of the article.

At the end of the XIX century. during the census of the population of the Trans-Baikal Territory, representatives of the family of the princes Gantimurovs had to confirm their right to the nobility and relied on them since the 17th century. earth.

The published documents, stored in the Russian State Historical Archive, give a consistent picture of the life of one of the Tungus clans, who once played a significant role in joining the Amur region to the Russian state.

Literature

Artemiev A. R. Faithful service to Russia. (Kin of princes Gantimurovs) // Forgotten names. History Far East Russia in the faces. Vladivostok, 1994. Issue. one.

Dmitrovsky N. In memory of Prince V.I. Gantimurov // Oriental Bazaar, 1999. No. 17, August.

Dolgikh B. O. Settlement of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century. // ¬Soviet ethnography. 1952. No. 3.

Dolgikh B. O. Tribal and tribal composition of the peoples of Siberia in the 17th century. // Tr. Institute of Ethnography. New ser. 1960. T. 55.

Chronicle of the city of Irkutsk XVII-XIX centuries. Irkutsk, 1996.

Lyubimov S. V. Titled families of the Russian Empire: An experience of a detailed listing of all titled Russian noble families, indicating the origin of each family name, as well as the time of obtaining the title and approval in it / State. Pub. East B-ka of Russia. M., 2004.

Russian-Chinese relations in the 17th century. M., 1969. T. 1.

Yakovleva P. T. The first Russian-Chinese treaty of 1689. M., 1958.

Tungus tribe

a special variety of the Mongoloid race, widely spread over a vast territory, from the borders of Central China in the north to the very coast of the Arctic Ocean and from the shores of the Yenisei in the west to the coast of the North Japan and the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk, and comprising a number of separate tribes of different names: the Manchus , Solons, Daurs, Tungus proper, Manegrovs, Birars, Golds, Orochons, Olches, Orochs, Oroks, Negda, Samagirs, Kile, Lamuts, Dalgans, Asi, etc. Sev is considered their homeland. Manchuria, where from time immemorial (the legendary data of the "Bamboo Chronicle" bring them to the historical arena under the name of su-shens, who came with gifts to Shun's court 2225 years before Christ) were in continuous relations and clashes with China, Korea and nomads of Mongolia. Reliable historical data of Chinese writers depict them under the name of Ilau, first as a hunting tribe, and then as having mastered the rudiments of an agricultural and pastoral culture. Eternal struggle with neighbors creates of them in the North. Manchuria is a warlike tribe, united in inter-tribal unions, which for a number of centuries played an enormous historical role in the fate of the middle kingdom (see Manchuria, history). Three times the T. tribe seized power over China, giving it their own dynasties: Liao (907-1125), Jin (1125-1243) and, finally, in the 17th century. dynasty that still reigns in China. Since the 17th century the Manchu branch of the T. tribe adopted its current name of the Manchus. The movement of the Mongols under the command of Genghis Khan, which followed the accession of the Jin dynasty, caused the migration of peoples, which had a huge impact on the fate of the sowing. branches of the T. tribe. The Mongolian tribe of the Buryats, which penetrated to the sources of the Amur and to Lake Baikal, ousted from the shores of the latter the Turkic tribe of the Yakuts, who, retreating into the Lena valley, met in the north with numerous T. tribes; the latter, after a long bloody struggle, were forced to retreat - one part moved west as far as the Yenisei, the other to the extreme north to the very coast of the Arctic Ocean, the third to the east, along the right tributaries of the Lena to the Stanovoi Range, the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bOkhotsk and the Amur Territory, meeting here with related branches of the southern branch of the T. tribe. The dispersal of the tribe over a vast territory and the assimilation processes inevitably associated with it, both of a somatic nature (marriage unions with other nationalities, absorption of alien elements) and of a cultural nature, could not but affect the change in the indigenous type of the tribe and a major differentiation in the language. In this regard, the Manchus suffered the most, having significantly occupied physically and even more culturally, having lost almost native language, which it was with them that at one time rose to the degree of literary. Other peoples of the T. tribe also more or less change their type, assimilating either with the Mongols, or with the Turks, or with the Paleo-Asians. Nevertheless, the heterogeneous ramifications of the T. tribe have fully preserved their kinship unity, mainly due to the common language, which suffered very little from differentiation according to territorial dialects, differentiation, which alone should have formed the basis for the classification of individual ramifications of the T. tribe. Unfortunately, due to the lack of linguistic material, such a classification is still premature. The only attempt belongs to Schrenk, in relation, however, only to the Amur region. He divides the modern Tungus peoples of this region into four groups: 1) Daurs and Solons, Tungus tribes with a more or less strong Mongolian admixture, 2) Manchus, Golds and Orochs, 2) Orochons, Manegri, Birars, Kile (along the river Kur) and 4) olcha (on the Amur), oroks (Sakhalin), negda, samagirs. The first two groups form the southern, or Manchu, branch, the last two are offshoots of the northern Siberian branch, which spread all the way to the Yenisei, to the Arctic Ocean and Kamchatka. This classification cannot be of any serious significance because some nationalities from both branches, namely the Orochs, Oroks and part of the Golds, call themselves by the common name Nani (Sternberg), therefore, they cannot be attributed to different branches. So far, the following classification would be quite satisfactory in relation to the historically established nomenclature: 1) Manchus, characterized by a strictly defined territory and economic culture (agriculture, cattle breeding). to them by geographic location salts and daurs, manegras, birrs, partly golds, who were under Manchu influence for a long time, can be counted; 2) the Tungus proper, or Siberian Tungus, a characteristic feature of which is a nomadic way of life and reindeer herding, and 3) small peoples, mostly marginal, each bearing an independent name: olchi, orochs, oroks, negda, samagirs, lamuts, orochons, etc. ., of which many left their nomadic lifestyle and turned to fishermen-hunters. Representatives of the second group, actually called Tungus, are taken as the main type of tribe. Schrenk characterizes them on the basis of Middendorff's observations, his own and many others as follows. They are generally of medium to slightly below average height, with relatively large heads, broad shoulders, slightly short extremities, and small hands and feet. Like all the peoples of the north, they are of a sinewy, thin, muscular build, obese subjects are not found among them at all. The eyes are dark; the hair on the head is black, straight, coarse. The skin color is more or less yellowish-brown, the facial hair is very sparse and short, the eyebrows are usually sharply defined, sometimes arched. The structure of the head and face, although partly in a softened form, is decidedly Mongolian; the skull is always broad, sometimes very high. The face is usually somewhat elongated, broad at the cheeks, tapering towards the forehead; the cheekbones are prominent, although not as much as in real Mongols. The eye sockets are large, the eyes are set obliquely, narrow. The distance between the eyes is wide; the nose at the root is wide, flat, often flattened, later on slightly raised, small and thin. The lips are thin, the upper lip is rather long, the chin is round, the jaw is somewhat prognathic. The general facial expression reveals good nature, laziness and carelessness. In contrast to the Tungus proper, representatives of another major branch - the Manchus - have sharper and rougher features, a more curved and thicker nose, fleshy lips, a larger mouth, a more quadrangular head, and usually a larger stature. Daurs and Solons are sharply distinguished by their high growth and strong physique. Smaller T. tribes more or less approach one of these two types, falling either into the Mongolian, then into the Russian, then into the Turkic, then into the Paleo-Asiatic, for example. olcha, assimilated with the Gilyaks and partly with the Ainu. The anthropological study of the T. tribe began as early as the 18th century. since the time of Blumenbach. Various measurements skulls were produced by Ber, Welker, Virchow, Huxley, Maliev, Schrenk, Uyfalvi, I. Mainov, and others. Cf. L. Schrenk, "Reisen und Forschungen im Amurlande" (vol. III, issue 1, St. Petersburg, 1881); I. I. Mainov, "Some data on the Tungus of the Yakutsk Territory" ("Proceedings of the East Siberian Department of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society", No. 2, Irk., 1898); Deniker "Les races et peuples de la terre" (P., 1900).

The measurement results turned out to be different and give grounds to conclude about two different types. Recius, R. Wagner, Behr, Huxley recognized the Tungus dolichocephalic, and Ber, according to the head indicator (76: the ratio of width to length), brought them closer to the Germans. According to Welker, on the contrary, they are brachycephalic, most of all approaching the Buryats. Schrenk, Winkler, Gikish, Topinar find them moderately brachycephalic(Schrenk has 5 brachycephals and 2 mesocephals and, in addition, all platycephals; average index: 82.76). On the other hand, I. Mainov brings them closer to the Finns and gives the following table of averages: northern Tungus (Yakutsk region), according to Mainov, - 81.39; southern Tungus (Yakutsk region), according to Mainov, - 82.69; the Manchus of the Shibins (Poyarkov) - 82.32; Manchus (Uyfalvi) - 84.91. The same researcher, who made numerous measurements on the living among the Tungus in the Yakutsk Territory, decisively distinguishes two completely dissimilar racial elements, delimited by the line of the Ayan tract: the northern one, characterized by a very small stature (average 154.8), a high percentage of moderately dolichocephalic (63, 64%), almost complete absence of brachycephaly, moderate high cheekbones; on the contrary, the southern element, immediately adjacent to the Amur region, is distinguished by a good average height (163.1), a strong physique, almost continuous moderate brachycephaly, eyes not particularly narrow, cut straight or almost straight, thick eyebrows, short, almost straight and not particularly thick nose, all over, thus, most likely resembling the Manchus. And it is this last author that he considers to be a characteristic type of T., and attributes the features of the northern type entirely to the influence of the Paleo-Asians. In contrast to Middendorf and Schrenk, I. Mainov considers the fundamental features of the T. tribe to be non-Mongolian. Deniker, on the contrary, takes the T. tribe for the northern subrace of the Mongolian tribe, characterized by mesocephaly or mild subdolichocephaly, an oval or round face, prominent cheekbones - a type common in Manchuria, Korea, North. China, Mongolia, and in general he takes the Tungus for a mixture of Mongols with Paleo-Asians. However, the question of the influence of these latter on the entire T. tribe must be recognized as very problematic. About the T. language - see Manchu language, Ural-Altaic languages.

L. Sh-g.

encyclopedic Dictionary F. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. - St. Petersburg: Brockhaus-Efron. 1890-1907 .

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The Evenks are one of the most numerous northern peoples who have retained their identity and traditional religious beliefs. Evenks were called the aristocrats of Siberia, the French of the tundra and taiga. And they also wore tailcoats, gave life to the word "shaman" and considered ravens to be bewitched people.

Name

Until the 1930s, the Evenks were known as the Tungus. This name comes from the Yakut toҥ uus, later the exonym was adopted by the Russians, reflecting it in the reporting and historical documents.
The self-name of the Evenks is Evenkil, which is translated as "a people living in mountain forests" or "walking across the ridges." It is believed that the name comes from the habitat of the ancient Evenki tribes in the mountainous taiga territories of Transbaikalia. Another well-known self-name of the ethnic groups of the Evenk reindeer herders is Orochen. It comes from the Evenk "oron" - a deer, ororchen - "a person who owns a deer." Separate groups of the ethnic group had their own names: soles, manegri, birars.
Other peoples had their own Evenki names:

• kilin, qilin, o-lunchun (from "orochen") - Chinese;
• orochnun - Manchus;
• hamnegan - Mongols;
• Tongus - Tatars.

Where live

Before the beginning of the development of Transbaikalia by Russians, the Evenki, leading a nomadic lifestyle, occupied vast territories from the border with China to the Arctic Ocean, from the Yenisei to Kamchatka. Such a wide settlement is explained by the tendency to constant long-term migrations: from several hundred to a thousand kilometers per season. Each Evenk accounted for 25 km2 of undeveloped territory. Representatives of the people considered the whole land to be their home and said: "Evenks are nowhere and everywhere."

Since the 17th century, Russians, Buryats, Yakuts have been ousting Evenks from the territories of Barguzin, Angara, and the left bank of the Amur. Part of the Evenks moved to Sakhalin, occupied the free territories of the Ob and Taz. The borders of Russia and China are being established: this leads to the migration of Birars and Manegros to Northern China.
Today, the Evenks do not have national settlements, living in the neighborhood of Russian and northern peoples. The general boundaries of the settlement of most of the representatives of the nationality are outlined by the following boundaries:

1. North - Arctic Ocean.
2. South - the Amur River, the territory of the Baikal region.
3. East - Sea of ​​Okhotsk.
4. West - the Yenisei River.

population

The total number of Evenks in the world is about 80,000 people: half live in Russia, the other part - in China. According to the 2010 census, there are 35,527 Evenks in Russia. Distribution by regions:

• Yakutia - 18,232 people
• Krasnoyarsk Territory - 4,632 people
• Khabarovsk Territory - 4,533 people
• Buryatia - 2,334 people
• Amur region - 1 501 people
• Trans-Baikal Territory - 1492 people.
• Irkutsk region - 1 431 people

The Chinese census of 2000 showed 38,396 representatives of historical Evenks in China. Formally, they are divided into 2 subethnoi, officially recognized among other nations of the PRC:

1. Orochons - 8196 people living in Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang and Liaoning provinces.
2. Evenks - 30,505 people, of which separate groups of Evenki proper, Khamnigans and Solons are singled out. They live in the urban district of Hulun-Buir, about 25,000 people are recorded as solones. About 1000 Evenks live scattered in Mongolia, having undergone significant assimilation, having lost their cultural characteristics.

There is a people related to the Evenks - Evens, living in the eastern part of Russia: in Yakutia, Chukotka, in the Magadan and Kamchatka regions, Koryak Autonomous Okrug. There are two versions of the appearance of the ethnic group:

1. In the first millennium of our era, during the period of the settlement of the Tungus from the Baikal region, a separate group of clans reached the shores of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, where they assimilated the local population: the Yukagirs and Koryaks.
2. In the 14th-16th centuries, foot Tungus, who were engaged in dog breeding and did not have deer, were forced to migrate north under the influence of the aggressive development of territories by the Yakuts.

The 2010 census showed that 21,830 Evens live in Russia. Another common name for the people is Lamuts.

Language

The Evenki language belongs to the Tungus-Manchu family, along with Negidal and Even. It can be characterized as a transitional variant between the Turkic and Mongolian languages. It is distinguished by a complex multi-stage use of vowel sounds, an abundance of compound words: gerunds, case, verb forms.
Writing appeared in the 30s of the last century, first on the basis of Latin, then Russian graphics. Previously, the Evenks used primitive pictograms: a system of signs associated with wandering and hunting. Notches on the trees near the abandoned camp indicated the time of departure: a blunt tooth meant bad weather, a sharp one meant a sunny day. Their number and combination determined the time of departure for a roam. If the departed people did not plan to return back, a spruce branch was laid in the direction of the path of travel. A branch folded around meant the intention to return to the place of the camp again.
Special signs existed on the hunt:

• a stick placed on top of the track - you can’t go any further;
• an arrow pointing downwards, sticking out of a notch - crossbows are placed nearby;
• a slightly beveled arrow, looking up with the end - the hunter who left the arrow far away;
• a branch located in the same position - hunting is going on nearby.

History

The ancient ancestors of the Evenks were the ancient Tungus Mongoloid tribes, who formed the Glazkov culture in the Bronze Age. Scattered tribes occupied the territories of the Angara region, the Baikal region, the lower reaches of the Selenga, and the upper reaches of the Lena. In the 5th-7th centuries of the new era, the nomadic pastoralists of the Uvan tribe, who came from the south, migrated through Transbaikalia, moved east and north, forming the Proto-Evenki people.
At the end of the first millennium, the Yakuts invaded the region, presumably dividing the ethnic group into Eastern Evens and Western Evenks.
By the time the Russians arrived in the region in the 17th century, the Evenks formed an independent people, divided into separate clans. Each was headed by princes - elders, shamans or the most powerful warriors of the clan. The reporting documents noted about 360 births, each numbered 100-400 people.
Tungus stronger than other northern peoples opposed the new government. They left the place of roaming, entered into clashes, one report notes: "The Lena Tunguz in 1640 plucked the beards of yasak collectors." The Baikal groups of the Evenks submitted in 1643, the eastern ones living under Vitim - only in 1657.

One of the most influential princes was Gantimir, under whose authority there were 15 nomadic clans belonging to the branch of the equestrian Tungus. Gantimir was an outstanding personality: he had 9 wives, more than 30 children, who from childhood were trained in military wisdom, handling weapons. The prince was of remarkable strength and powerful physique: his bow of impressive size is kept in the Amur Museum.
Gantimir had a decisive influence on the establishment of partnerships with the Russian state, in the 80s. XVII century, having adopted Christianity and citizenship of Russia. The ruler achieved the right to autonomous control of the people, in return he pledged to protect the borders from Mongol raids and provide, if necessary, trained soldiers. A century later, a five hundred Tunguska Cossack cavalry regiment was created, which in the middle of the 19th century was included in the Transbaikal cavalry.
The Evenks did not accept the arrival of Soviet power, in 1924-1925. having started the Tunguska uprising, which was quickly suppressed. In the 1930s teaching begins in local schools in the Evenki language. At the same time, collective farms and city industrial farms are being created, a settled way of life is being imposed on the people: a way of life that has existed for centuries lifestyle collapsed, assimilation erased national characteristics. Today, traditional activities, including nomadic reindeer herding, are preserved only in hard-to-reach northern regions. Most of the Evenks lead a modern way of life, practicing only hunting from their usual occupations.

Appearance and character

Mixing with a number of aboriginal and neighboring peoples, as well as a significant area of ​​\u200b\u200bsettlement, led to the allocation of three anthropological types of appearance among the Evenks. Among them:

1. Baikal.
2. Katangese.
3. Central Asian.

Despite the differences, the following character traits appearance of the Tungus:

• average height;
• disproportionate physique;
• round face shape;
• wide arched eyebrows;
• narrow dark brown eyes;
• wide flat forehead;
• prominent cheekbones;
• pointed chin;
• wide mouth;
• black coarse hair;
• weak vegetation on the face and body.

Ethnographers, researchers, Cossacks who came to the region noted the mobility of the body, sharpness of mind, good nature bordering on naivety, kindness, hospitality, cheerful disposition, and cleanliness among Evenks. According to the notes of the researchers, “unlike the clumsy Ostyak, the gloomy Samoyed, the unfriendly and sour Yakut, the Evenks made a more pleasant impression, for which they were nicknamed “the French of the tundra and the forest.”

Cloth

Evenks were also called "aristocrats of Siberia" for the rich decoration of national costumes. Everyday clothes were called "in the theme" - a tailcoat, for an unusual cut: a whole deer skin was placed on the back in the central part, tied with braid in front. In the upper side parts, holes were cut out for sleeves sewn on separately, shoulder seams were collected, wedges from deer skins reaching the floor were sewn on the back.
The upper front part remained open: under it, the Evenks put on fur breastplates richly decorated with beads. The lower part was covered with rovduga natazniks: straight for women, angular for men. High fur boots made of rovduga, sealskin, and fur were worn on their feet: many neighboring peoples adopted the functional shoes of the Evenks. In everyday life, they used simple straight-cut parkas, sewn from deer skins turned inside out with fur. Their heads were covered with hoods. The hair of men and women was cut short or braided into two braids. Of the jewelry, there were voluminous women's earrings, pendants, pendants-talismans.
The decoration of the bib and fur coat deserves special attention: dog and deer fur, beads, beads, coins, embroidery, fur applications were used. Ornaments had a sacred meaning: it was forbidden to transfer the exact image of animals, birds and people to things, so allegorical symbols were used. Triangles were associated with the cult of fertility, childbearing, the strength of the tribal community. Great importance had solar signs, a schematic representation of spiders - symbols of well-being, guardians.

Family way

Evenks lived in patriarchal communities, consisting of 2-3 generations, younger son usually stayed with his parents. The elders got married, left their father's house for new tents. The genus played a decisive role, consisted of small families connected by close and distant kinship through the male line. In the summer, when the term for the birth of the women came, related families gathered at a common parking lot: joint holidays, festivities, weddings took place, tribal relations were strengthened. In winter, small families went to roam, uniting in 2-3 chums.
The marriageable age of men came late: in 20-30 years. Women were preferred to take as spouses experienced, over 20 years old, but there were marriages with girls 12-15 years old. Weddings took place by agreement with the payment of a bride price, which included one of three forms:

1. Deer (from 2 to 15).
2. Work in the bride's family.
3. An exchange of sisters between two families.

Women

Premarital relations were not prohibited, however, for brides who led a free lifestyle before marriage, they gave smaller bride price. In the life of the Evenks, a woman had a dependent position: she was forbidden to eat with guests, argue with her husband, step over weapons, participate in public affairs, and inherit property. Elderly women enjoyed respect: in the beliefs of the Evenks, the mistress of the earth and taiga, the spirit of the Universe, was a woman, represented as a hunched old woman.

There were special family rituals that only the wife could perform. The woman was the keeper of the hearth: she made sure that it did not go out, she was engaged in feeding - she threw meat into the fire after hunting, before eating. An important place was occupied by the ritual of ulgani, dedicated to the greeting of spring migratory birds. Elderly women performed the ceremony: the Evenks associated the annual arrival of birds with the cycle of life, and experienced women who gave birth carried the eternal connection of birth and death. The action consisted in tying colored ribbons on sacred trees or family idols, asking for well-being, greeting the messengers of spring.

dwelling

The traditional dwelling of the Evenks is a chum-urus of a conical shape. The base of tightly assembled poles was covered with deer skins in winter. In summer - smoked and soaked birch bark bedspreads: the processing of the material gave softness, strength, and made it waterproof. Leaving the parking lot, the base of the poles was kept, skins, birch bark, and utensils were taken with them.
In the center of the urus there was an open hearth or a fireplace smeared with clay, a pole for a boiler was placed on top. The back part of the plague was intended for honored guests; women were not supposed to enter it. The sedentary Evenks lived in semi-dugouts with a flat roof, the cattle breeders built yurts, like the Mongolian ones.

A life

The Evenks assimilated the aboriginal northern peoples, were influenced by the Buryats and Yakuts, which led to the emergence of branches of different types of management:

1. Hiking dog breeders engaged in fishing.
2. Reindeer hunters.
3. Sedentary herders.

Most of the Evenks led a nomadic lifestyle associated with the development of new hunting grounds. Between camps they moved on horseback: this way of using animals is the “calling card” of the Evenks. Deer were used as pack animals, the herd usually consisted of 3-5 animals.

They hunted singly, for a large animal they went in groups of 3-5 people. They used bows, crossbows, horns, tracked down elks, deer, bears, hares, sables. For disguise, they put on the skin from the head of a deer, sewing up the slits from the eyes and horns with beads.
Fishing played a secondary role for most Evenks. They went out into the rivers on dugout boats, boats made of birch bark, deer skin, sea animals. The fish was rayed, pierced with a spear, less often constipated. Women were engaged in collecting roots, herbs, nuts; agriculture and gardening were not developed.

Religion

The traditional religion of the Evenks is shamanism, based on the deification of the forces of nature, animism, belief in master spirits and patrons. The Bug universe was divided into 3 worlds:

1. Upper - located above the sky, is the home of the deities. The entrance to it is the North Star.
2. Middle - terrestrial, where people and spirits live.
3. The lower one - one of the souls goes there for eternal life. The entrance to the lower world is whirlpools and crevices in the rocks.

Shamans traveled between worlds, were guides between the living and the dead, brought news of the gods and dead ancestors. The shaman's costume personified a wolf or a bear, was decorated with animistic figurines, fringe, bird feathers. For rituals, they used a tambourine, a jew's harp, and fire was an invariable element.

Shamans participated in common tribal holidays, helped with childbirth and illness, predicted the future. Places of prayers were large meadows at general tribal gatherings, sacred trees, mountain passes, large stones.

Traditions

An important role in the life of the Evenks was played by animism, hunting rites and traditions, which could only be carried out by men. The wolf was a sacred animal for the Evenki, they did not hunt it. The raven was revered: it was believed that he conveys earthly news to the gods. Since ravens could talk, the Evenki considered them to be the souls of people dressed in bird form.
The customs of the bear festival are known. The bear was considered the father of the Evenks, who in ancient times married a woman who gave life to the people. The animal was called "amaka" - "grandfather". They did not take the blame for the murder, they schematically carved faces on the trees, pointing at them they said: “It was not I who killed, it was he.”
Superstitions also arose on the basis of ideas that the carcass of a skinned bear is similar to a human one. The killing of an animal was accompanied by a tribal gathering, the call of a shaman, and a common holiday. The bones of the bear were not cut, but divided into joints. In some genera, they were then gathered together, hung up and a rite of "fight" of one of the children with the "resurrected" bear was performed. Others arranged the ceremony of air burial of bear bones: in ancient times, the Evenki used it for their fellow tribesmen.

By the time the Russians arrived in the region, the dead were buried in the ground, in wooden boxes. According to the Evenks, in the lower world the souls continued to live in the same way as on average. However, after death, everything turned upside down, so the deceased was put in the coffin things from his daily life broken: a pipe, a bow, arrows, household items, jewelry.

Video

The second campaign against Tangut and the death of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan still had an enemy - his tributary, the Tangut king, who several years ago refused to send an auxiliary corps against Khorezmshah. Of course, the old khan did not forget this treachery, especially since from that day on, according to the ceremonial established by him, he was reported before lunch and dinner that the Tangut kingdom had not yet ceased to exist, which is the best characterization of his perseverance in pursuing the intended goals.

After a short rest among his people and in the family of his main wife Borte, the indefatigable Mongol khan at the end of 1225 sets out on a new campaign to punish the recalcitrant vassal. Of course, it was not only stubbornness and not a simple thirst for revenge that guided him in this new military enterprise. Chinggis Khan knew how, if necessary, to restrain his personal impulses and was too subtle a politician to base only affairs of state importance on them. He perfectly understood that without the final subjugation of the Tangut, one cannot count on lasting success in conquering the Chinese states of Jin and Song, especially the latter, since the hostile Tangut army could always be a threat to the flank and rear of the Mongol armies operating on the Chinese plain.

While preparing for this campaign, Genghis Khan, hoping to use the rich resources of the conquered Jin regions, especially bread and fabrics, was surprised when he was informed that none of this was in stock. On this occasion, the senior military leaders reported that, in view of the lack of benefit for the state from the settled Chinese population, it should be completely exterminated, and their lands turned into pastures for nomads. Yelü Chucai rebelled against this, explaining all the benefits that can be derived from the industrious settled population by skillfully imposing direct and indirect taxes on them, and immediately presenting a brief draft of such taxation. Genghis Khan agreed with him and instructed to carry out the project.

In February 1226, Genghis Khan entered the Tangut land, betraying it to fire and sword. The campaign was a complete success. The Tangut king was defeated in the field, his capital, Jinxia, ​​was besieged. An opportunity arose, continuing the siege with one part of the army, with the other to invade the lands still under the rule of the Jin emperor from the east and, thus, give an energetic impetus to the Chinese campaign that had dragged on after the death of Mukhali. This was probably one of the reasons why the aged Mongol monarch personally took command of the army assigned to the Tangut expedition and why this latter was brought to an impressive figure of 130,000 people. However, death put a limit to the further undertakings of Genghis Khan.

Even in the winter of 1226/27, while hunting for wild horses, he fell off his horse, which, frightened of something, shied away, and after this incident the old khan felt bad. The convened military council decided to suspend the campaign until the emperor recovered, dissolving the army home. As a motive for this decision, it was given that the Tanguts, as a settled people, cannot migrate anywhere, so it will always be possible to take them up again. But Genghis Khan did not agree with this decision, rightly pointing out that such a withdrawal of the army could be attributed by the enemy to the weakness of the Mongols, and this would give him new strength to continue the fight.

I swear by the Eternal Blue Sky, - he exclaimed, - I would rather die, but I will demand an account from the Tangut king!

Thus the war continued. Meanwhile, the health of Genghis Khan was declining more and more. In the summer of 1227, ambassadors from the Jin emperor came to him with a request for peace. Feeling that he was no longer destined to personally lead his army against this sworn enemy, and foreseeing the inevitable friction that for the first time after his death should have arisen in the supreme administration, he agreed to the conclusion of the requested peace, deciding in his thoughts that it would be only a temporary truce, until the restoration of normal order in the state.

At the same time, his indefatigable mind was working towards finding the best ways to deliver a mortal blow in the future to the enemy to whom he had just granted peace. Being already on his deathbed, he gives the following instruction to his sons and commanders:

"The best Jin troops are located near Tongkuan (a fortress on the Yellow River, covered on all sides by hard-to-reach terrain). It will be difficult to destroy them there through a surprise attack. If we ask the Song state for free passage of our troops (through its territory), then in view of the constantly hostile relations between the states of Song and Jin, this will probably be agreed.In this case, we should send an army through Tang and Teng (in South Henan), and from there rush straight to Ta-lian (otherwise Bian-lian, the southern capital of the Jin Empire) "The sovereign of Jin will then be forced to hastily pull up troops from Tongkuan. When they, among several tens of thousands, arrive to the rescue, people and horses after a march of 1000 li (li - 1/2 verst) will be so exhausted that they will not be combat-ready. Then you can will destroy them for sure."

Immediately, the dying man, in anticipation of even more distant events, gave those around him clear directives on how to wage war with the next enemy - the Sung power. "Never forget," he added on this occasion, "that the soul of every undertaking is that it should be carried through to the end."

At this time, the besieged Tangut capital was pushed to its extreme; the head of state, who was hiding in it, suggested that Genghis Khan surrender the city, promising after a month to come in person to express his obedience. Genghis Khan pretended to accept the conditions, and to lull the enemy's vigilance, he called him his son. However, at the same time, sensing the approach of the end, he forbade the news of his death to be made public until the final reprisal against the Tangut king. When the latter appears, then seize him and kill him with all his retinue.

Shortly after these last orders, the formidable ruler expired at the age of 72. Just before his death, which followed in 1227 on the full moon of the month of the Pig, the year of the Pig, he last time called to his lodge the sons of Ogedei and Tului, as well as the grandson of Yesunke-Aka, the son of the recently deceased Jochi, and expressed his last will to them in the following words:

"O children! Contrary to expectation, know that the time of the last campaign and my transition has approached by the power of the Lord and the help of Heaven. I conquered and finished (strengthened) for you, children, a kingdom of such a spacious width that from its center in each direction there will be one year of travel "Now my testament is this: to defeat enemies and exalt friends, be of one mind and one person, in order to live pleasantly and easily and enjoy the kingdom. Appoint Ogedei Khan as heir. You must not change my Yasa after my death, so that there will be no confusion in kingdom."

The choice of the khan as the heir to his third son, Ogedei, is explained by a family decision that was before setting off on this campaign, at the suggestion of the khan's concubine Yesui, who told the khan: "King, are you going beyond the mountains and rivers, to distant lands to fight? If you happen to leave unpronounceable name by itself, which of your four sons will you command to be master?

Then the eldest son, Jochi, was taken away from the right to the throne by the second son, Chagatai, hinting at his dubious origin (their mother Borte gave birth to him after being captured by the Merkits); Chagatai took away from the right to be the heir to the throne of Jochi, saying that he had no talents except for a strong temper.

Then Chagatai offered to appoint Ogedei as heir, saying that he was calm, reasonable and respected by all of them; Genghis Khan and the entire family council approved his candidacy, however, so that after Ogedei the worthy from the house of Genghis would be re-elected as the heir, since Ogedei himself said at the council that he doubted the merits of his sons to the throne. By this decision of the family council, the election of the khan was sanctioned with all the consequences that led to the collapse of the empire. This decision was before the campaign against Khorezm, and Genghis Khan confirmed it, saying: "My words are unchanged, I will not allow them to be violated."

We see how this decision was fulfilled by the heirs of Genghis Khan. In Khubilai's letter on the confirmation of his son as the heir to the throne, it is said: "Genghis Khan left instructions to select and approve the heir in advance from the legitimate heirs of the one who is worthy of inheriting and to whom management can be entrusted." These instructions of Genghis Khan were kept in the Golden Box in the iron room (palace archive).

His body, at his request, was taken to his homeland under weeping and lamentations and interred on the mountain Burkhan-Khaldun, which repeatedly saved his life in his youth. "He came from a perishable world and left the throne of the kingdom to a glorious family," Rashid ad-Din tells us.

Regarding the causes of Genghis Khan's death, in addition to the official version of falling from a horse while hunting wild horses, there are several others, but they all agree on the date of his death, in 1227, and that he did not die of natural causes. So, in Marco Polo, Genghis Khan dies from a wound in the knee with an arrow. Plano Carpini - from a lightning strike.

According to a widespread Mongol legend, which the author also had to hear, Genghis Khan allegedly died from a wound inflicted by the Tangut khansha, the beautiful Kurbeldishin Khatun, who spent her only wedding night with Genghis Khan, who took her as his wife by right of conqueror after taking the capital of the Tangut kingdom. The Tangut king Shidurkho-Khan, who was distinguished by cunning and deceit, left his capital and harem, as if persuaded his wife, who remained there, to inflict a mortal wound with the teeth of Genghis Khan during the wedding night, and his deceit was so great that he sent advice to Genghis Khan, so that she would first be searched "to the nails" in order to avoid an attempt on the life of the khan. After being bitten, Kyurbeldishin-Khatun rushed as if into the Yellow River, on the banks of which Genghis Khan stood at his headquarters. After that, the Mongols began to call this river Khatun-muren, which means "river of the queen." This incident is also hinted at in the following funeral lament of Prince Kiluken.

There is a Mongolian legend that when the body of Genghis Khan was brought to Mongolia on a cart, it once got very stuck in a swamp. Then Prince Kiluken from the Sunid tribe began to lament like this: “O wonderful lion, who appeared among the people from the blue Sky of Tengri, my Bogdo Khan! Or do you want to leave your people and stay here? O my Bogdo! Your wife is there at the beautiful place of her birth , your durable public administration, the power of your laws, your subjects are all there! Your beloved wives, your golden tent, your faithful people are all there! Your homeland, the river in which you were washed, the prolific Mongol people, the bearers of your glory, princes and nobles: Delyun-Boldokh on the Onon River, your birthplace - everything is there! There are your bunchuks, drums, goblets, trumpets and flutes, your golden palace, which contains everything that has a name - the meadows on Onon, where you ascended the throne of the Arulades - everything is there! Your excellent faithful wife Borte, happy country, great people; Boorchu and Muhali, two true friends - everyone is there! Your unearthly wife Hutan-khatun, her harp, flutes and other musical instruments, your two other wives - Jisu and Jisu-gen - are all there! Or because this country is warm, or because there are many defeated Tanguts, or because Kyurbeldishin Khatun is beautiful, do you want to leave your Mongols? And if we were no longer destined to save your precious life, then we can bring your remains sitting like jasper to your homeland, show them to your wife Borte and satisfy the desire of all the people!

After these persuasions, the body of Genghis Khan with the cart was freed from the sucked-in swamp and moved to his homeland. It rests on Mount Burkhan-Khaldun to this day, the attempts of European travelers to find the place of the last resting place of the greatest conqueror of all ages and peoples were not crowned with success, since no tombstones were placed so that the cemetery would not be plundered. The place is overgrown with dense forest. Of the children of Genghis Khan, there, on Mount Burkhan-Khaldun, are buried: his youngest son, a favorite of his father, Tului, with his children Munke Khan, Kublai Khan, Arig-Buga and their other children. Other grandchildren of Genghis Khan from Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei, their children and family have cemeteries in other places. The guardians of this great forbidden place are the beks of the Uryankhai tribes.

He died in a field situation, as simply as he had lived all his life. The head of the largest of the states of the world, which occupied 4/5 of the Old World, the ruler of about 500 million souls, and therefore, according to the concepts of his age, the owner of untold wealth, he shunned luxury and excess until the end of his days. After the conquest Central Asia the officers of his army acquired excellent Turkish chain mail and began to wear valuable Damascus blades. But Genghis Khan, despite the fact that he was a passionate lover of weapons, fundamentally did not follow their example and generally remained alien to the influence of Muslim luxury. He continued to wear nomadic clothes and adhere to steppe customs, bequeathing to his heirs and the entire Mongolian people not to change these customs in order to avoid a corrupting influence on the mores of Chinese and Muslim cultures.

He did not have such personal needs, in the sacrifice of which he, like other crowned crowns spoiled by happiness, would sacrifice higher goals its policy. His whole life was devoted to the realization of his highest ideal - the creation of a One World Kingdom, which would at the same time be the ideal of the military culture of the Mongols of the XIII and XIV centuries.

Lieutenant Colonel Rank gives the following reviews, summarizing the fair judgments about Genghis Khan of some of his contemporaries, in contrast to the misleading views of him as a bloodthirsty monster that prevailed then and have survived to our times.

"He died, unfortunately, because he was an honest and wise man," says Marco Polo about him.

"He brought peace," says Joinville, a 13th-century French historian.

“The last judgment,” notes the author who brought these reviews, “seems paradoxical when you think about the incessant wars waged by the Steadfast Emperor, but, in essence, it is exactly and deeply true ... In this sense, he really established peace in the universe; peace , which lasted about two centuries, at the cost of wars, which in total did not last even two decades. Genghis Khan sought an alliance with Christianity. If this alliance were realized, then there is no doubt that Islam, taken in pincers (by the Crusaders and Mongols). ... would be crushed... Economic, social and political ties between the Western world and the Far East would not tolerate constant breaks from a worldview hostile to Europe. All civilizations of the Old World would achieve mutual understanding and penetration. Christianity failed to understand this...

This Conqueror of the World was, above all, its adamant revivalist. With iron and fire, he opened the ancient world paths for the march of a future civilization. In this sense, the Damned has a right to a place in Humanity."

"The Destroyer" also destroyed the barriers of the Dark Ages, - says another European writer about Genghis Khan. He has opened new paths for mankind. Europe came into contact with Chinese culture. At the court of his son, Armenian princes and Persian nobles communicated with the Russian grand dukes. The opening of the paths was accompanied by an exchange of ideas. The Europeans had a strong curiosity about distant Asia. Marco Polo goes there after Rubruk. Two centuries later, Vasco da Gama sailed to discover the sea route to India. In essence, Columbus set off on a journey in search of not America, but the land of the "Great Mogul".

However, according to the same writer, Europe, ie. the same "Christianity", did not understand Genghis Khan. Since he waged his wars not for religion, like Mohammed, and not in the form of personal or state elevation, like Alexander the Great and Napoleon, the Europeans were put to a standstill by this. The explanation of this mystery lies in the simplicity of the Mongol character. In contrast to Napoleon, he was by no means a fatalist; nor did it occur to him to appropriate to himself, like Alexander the Great, the attributes of a god.

The ideal of Genghis Khan was the creation of the United Kingdom of Humanity, since only then - as he rightly thought - mutual wars would stop and conditions would be created for the peaceful prosperity of mankind both in the field of spiritual and material culture. The life of one person turned out to be too short to accomplish this grandiose task, but Genghis Khan and his heirs almost reached this task when they had 4/5 of the world in their state - the Mongolosphere.

hamnigan) - the indigenous people of Eastern Siberia. They also live in Mongolia and northeast China. Separate groups of Evenks were known as Orochens, Birars, Manegrs, Solons.

Ethnonym

The name "Tungus" has been known to Russians since the 16th century, and the self-name "Orochen" in the Amur region ("Orochel" - on the coast of Okhotsk) and "Even" - in the Angara region has been known since the 17th century. The ethnonym "Evenki" began to be officially used as a generally accepted one only from the beginning of the 1930s.

Toponyms

The historical name of the Evenki - Tungus - is enshrined in a number of toponyms: Lower Tunguska and Podkamennaya Tunguska. The famous Tunguska meteorite is also named after the latter. Tunguska Plateau (Krasnoyarsk Territory)

From the Evenks, Russian explorers borrowed geographical names: Aldan ( Aldun: "stony shores"), Yenisei ( Ionessi: "big water"), Lena ( Yelu-ene: "big river"), Mogocha (gold mine or hill), Olekma ( Olohunai: "squirrel"), Sakhalin ( Sakhalyan-ulla: "Black River" (Amur)), Chita (clay).

Geography

Evenks inhabit a vast territory from the Yenisei in the west to the Sea of ​​Okhotsk in the east. The southern border of settlement runs along the left bank of the Amur and the Angara. Administratively, the Evenks are settled within the borders of the Irkutsk, Amur, Sakhalin regions, the republics of Yakutia and Buryatia, Krasnoyarsk, Trans-Baikal and Khabarovsk territories. Evenks are also present in the Tomsk and Tyumen regions. In this vast territory, they nowhere constitute the majority of the population and live in the same settlements along with Russians, Yakuts, Buryats and other peoples.

History

Forest Tungus, 1862

Evenki formed on the basis of a mixture of aborigines Eastern Siberia with the Tungus tribes who came from the Baikal and Transbaikalia. The Glazkov culture belongs to the proto-Tungus community. There are reasons to consider the Trans-Baikal people Uvan as the immediate ancestors of the Evenks, who, according to Chinese chronicles (V-VII centuries AD), lived in the mountain taiga northeast of Barguzin and Selenga. The Uvans were not natives of Transbaikalia, but were a group of nomadic cattle breeders who came here from a more southern area. In the process of settling across the expanses of Siberia, the Tungus encountered local tribes and, ultimately, assimilated them. The peculiarities of the ethnic formation of the Tungus led to the fact that they are characterized by three anthropological types, as well as three different economic and cultural groups: reindeer herders, cattle breeders and fishermen.

In the 18th century, the Tungus of Dauria were influenced by Russian missionaries. In 1761, a five hundred Tungus Cossack regiment was formed in Transbaikalia, headed by a foreman.

In 1924-1925, the anti-Soviet Tunguska uprising took place in the Far East.

In the 1990s, special boarding schools were created for the Evenks, as for some other indigenous peoples of Siberia.

population

The share of Evenks by regions of Russia (2002 census)

The number of Evenks at the time of their entry into Russia (XVII century) was estimated at approximately 36,135 people. The most accurate data on their numbers was given by the 1897 census - 64,500, while 34,471 people considered Tungus as their native language, the rest - Russian (31.8%), Yakut, Buryat and other languages.

Evenks in the world

Evenks of Russia

The resettlement of Evenks in the Russian Federation in 2010 as a percentage of the total number of this people in the Russian Federation

A. N. Radishchev wrote the following lines about the Tungus in the description of the Tobolsk governorship:

... Below in the eastern part, along the banks of the Kenai and the Tim, there is another, equally wild, people, but they look slimmer and neater, known as the Tungus. [Among] this people there is a strange custom to treat a visitor or rather a friend with what is best in the house, made<ляя>at the same time, a bow and arrows to kill the one who will respond badly to the greeting of the one who treats ...

In modern Russia, the Evenks live mainly in Yakutia (18 thousand) and the Krasnoyarsk Territory (4.6 thousand, including 3.8 thousand in the Evenk region), as well as in Buryatia (2.6 thousand), the Amur Region ( 1.5 thousand), Transbaikalia (1.5 thousand), Angara (Pre-Baikal) (1.4 thousand). Municipal districts (according to the results of the 2010 census), where Evenki form the absolute majority - Oleneksky (75.5%) and Zhigansky (55%) in Yakutia. In 1930-2006, there was the Evenk Autonomous Okrug, in 1931-1938 - the Vitimo-Olyokma National Okrug, created in areas densely populated by Evenks.

The Evenks are characterized by a traditional natural resource type of management. The period of contact between Evenks and Russians dates back several centuries, and Evenks have long-standing contacts with a number of other groups of people, as well as Yakuts, Buryats and other Tungus.

The number of Evenks in Russia

According to the results of the 2010 census, 38,396 Evenks live in Russia, including:

• Far Eastern Federal District - 24,761 (69.7%)
  • Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) - 18,232
  • Khabarovsk Territory - 4533
  • Republic of Buryatia - 2334
  • Amur region - 1501
  • Trans-Baikal Territory - 1492
  • Sakhalin region - 243
  • Primorsky Krai - 103
  • Jewish Autonomous Region - 72
• Siberian Federal District - 10,089 (28.4%)
  • Krasnoyarsk Territory - 4632
  • Irkutsk region - 1431
  • Tomsk region - 103
• other districts - 675 (1.9%)
  • Northwestern Federal District - 218 (including St. Petersburg - 140)
  • Central Federal District - 165 (including Moscow - 74)
  • Ural Federal District - 139 (including Tyumen Region - 109)

Evenki of China

Although it is generally believed in Russia that the Evenks live in Russian Siberia, on adjacent territory In China, they are represented by four ethnolinguistic groups, the total number of which exceeds the number of Evenks in Russia: 39,534 versus 38,396. These groups are united into two official nationalities, living in the Evenki Autonomous Khoshun of the Autonomous Region of Inner Mongolia and in the neighboring province of Heilongjiang (Nehe County):

• Orochons (literally "reindeer herders", Chinese ex. 鄂伦春族, pinyin: Èlúnchūn Zú) - 8196 people according to the 2000 census, 44.54% live in Inner Mongolia, and 51.52% - in Heilongjiang province, 1.2% - in Liaoning province. About half speak the Orochon dialect of the Evenk language, sometimes treated as a separate language; the rest are only in Chinese. At present, Evenk reindeer herders in China are a very small ethnic group, numbering only about two hundred people. They speak a dialect of the North Tungus language. The existence of their traditional culture is under great threat.
• Evenki (Chinese exercise 鄂温克族, pinyin: Èwēnkè Zú) - 30,505 for 2000, 88.8% in Hulun Buir, including:
  • small group Evenki proper- about 400 people in Aoluguya Village (Genhe County), who are now [ ] are moved to the suburbs of the county center; they call themselves "yeke", the Chinese - yakute(Chinese ex. 雅库特, pinyin: Yǎkùte or whale. ex. 雅库特鄂温克 , pinyin : Yǎkùtè Èwēnkè), since they erected themselves to the Yakuts; according to Finnish Altaist Juhe Yanhunen, this is the only ethnic group in China that practices reindeer herding;
  • khamnigans - a strongly mongolized group that speaks the Mongolian languages ​​- khamnigan proper and hamnigan (old-Barag) dialect of the Evenki language; these so-called Manchurian Hamnigans emigrated from Russia to China within a few years after the October Revolution; about 2500 people live in the Starobargut khoshun;
  • salts - together with the Daurs, they moved from the Zeya river basin in 1656 to the Nunjiang river basin, and then in 1732 partly went further west, to the Hailar river basin, where the Evenk autonomous khoshun was later formed with 9733 Evenks; they speak the Solonian dialect, sometimes treated as a separate language.

Since both the Hamningans and the “Yakut-Evenks” are very small in number (about 2000 of the first and probably about 200 of the second), the vast majority of persons assigned in China to the Evenk nationality are Solons. Salons were estimated at 7,200 in 1957, 18,000 in 1982, and 25,000 in 1990.

Dynamics of the number of Evenks in the PRC (according to the data of the all-China population censuses)

Evenks of Mongolia

DNA

The study of SNP markers of the Y-chromosome of the Trans-Baikal and Amur Evenks revealed that in both populations, the Y-chromosomal haplogroup C2-M48 occupies the first place, and the Y-chromosomal haplogroup N-M2118 ranks second. Also, haplogroups R1a-M198 and I2-P37.2 were identified in both populations. In addition, the haplogroup N-B479 was found among the Evenks of the Amur region, and the haplogroup I1-M253 was found among the Evenks of Transbaikalia. In the Western Evenks from the Krasnoyarsk Territory (Podkamennaya Tunguska River), the haplogroup C3c (M48 or M86) reaches 70%, the haplogroup N1b-P43 - 27.5%.

Traditional activities

Hunting was carried out mostly alone. A group of two or three people hunted a large animal when it was necessary to drive it to a shooter, as well as small artiodactyls when crossing rivers when they moved to new places. The main hunt was for a meat animal, a fur-bearing animal was beaten along the way. When hunting, the Tungus used bows, horns, and set crossbows and nooses. The beast was chased or beaten on watering paths from an ambush in trees and boats. To track down the beast, they disguised themselves by throwing a skin from the head of a deer over themselves, and sometimes a whole one.

Reindeer husbandry played an important role for the Evenks. It mainly had a transport direction; the so-called Evenk type, with the use of pack deer, and the Orochen type, with the use of riding deer, differed.

Wandering hunters fished with bows and spears. In winter, the old men speared fish through the holes, and in the summer the fishermen were engaged in beaming from a boat. On small rivers, constipation was arranged and troughs and “muzzles” were installed in them. Many men took part in the fishing.

Men's occupations included the manufacture of products from wood, bone and metal, as well as the manufacture of birch bark boats (women sewed birch bark), dugout boats and sleds. Women dressed skins, sewed clothes, shoes, tires for the plague, household items from them. They processed birch bark and sewed dishes from it, as well as "vises" - birch bark panels for plagues and for birch bark boats. Men knew how to decorate wooden, bone and metal things with patterns, women - rovduga, birch bark and furs. Women were responsible for childcare and cooking.

In 1907-1908, with the support of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, ethnographer Alexei Alekseevich Makarenko undertook expeditions along the Podkamennaya Tunguska (Katanga) River in order to collect materials on settlement, lifestyle, shamanism, Evenki customs and to acquire collections for the Ethnographic Department of the Russian Museum of Emperor Alexander III in St. Petersburg. The most valuable of his collection are: a complete set of shamanic plague, ritual hunting clothes of the Sym Evenks, hunting tools, blacksmithing accessories, children's toys of the Evenk-Orochons of Transbaikalia.

customs

According to ethnographic studies, in ancient times, the Evenks practiced the rite of air burial, which is often found among the peoples included by Starostin S. A. in the hypothesis of the Sino-Caucasian macrofamily of languages.

Evenk administrative-territorial formations

Evenki administrative-territorial formations are currently (2009) in Russia and China. In Russia, these include the Evenki District of the Krasnoyarsk Territory (formerly the Evenki Autonomous Okrug), Anabarsky, Zhigansky, and Olenyoksky Uluses of Yakutia, the Baunt Evenki District of Buryatia, and a number of rural settlements in the Irkutsk region, Buryatia and Yakutia. In the past, there were other Evenk administrative-territorial formations.

In China, the Evenki administrative-territorial formations include the Orochon and Evenk autonomous khoshuns in Inner Mongolia and several national volosts and soums in Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang.

Evenks in fiction

Ulukitkan (Semyon Grigoryevich Trifonov, 1871-1963) - a hunter, tracker, guide of many expeditions to create a map of remote areas of the Far East, the hero of the works of the writer-surveyor Grigory Anisimovich Fedoseev. He was born in Algoma - the camp of the ancient Buta family (the valley of the Algoma River, the territory of Yakutia).

Evenks in philately

In 1933, the ethnographic series of postage stamps "Peoples of the USSR" was issued in the USSR. Among them was a stamp dedicated to the Tungus (as the Evenks were called in those days).

see also

Notes

1. Of the 39,534 Evenks (2010 census), the Evenki proper (30,875 people) and the Orochons (8,659 people) are singled out separately in the PRC.
2. Including 26,139 Evenki proper and 3,632 Orochons
3. Including 2648 Evenks proper and 3943 Orochons
4. All-Russian population censuses of 2002-2010 (indefinite) . Retrieved 8 August 2015. (unavailable link)
5. Evenki's Ethnologue. Languages ​​of the World.
6. Ewenki, Solon - Asia Harvest
7. Ewenki, Tungus - Asia Harvest
8. Shubin A. Ts. Brief essay ethnic history of the Evenks of Transbaikalia (XVIII-XX centuries). Ulan-Ude: Buryat. book. publishing house, 1973. S. 64, 65
9. Ethnographic collection. - Ulan-Ude: Buryat book publishing house, 1961. - T. 2. - S. 29.
10. // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
11. Evenki (indefinite) (unavailable link). Retrieved June 30, 2012. Archived from the original on June 3, 2012.
12. TRANSBAIKALIA: HISTORY AND MODERNITY (unavailable link)
13. Areas of compact residence (unavailable link)
14. Zuev A. On the power status of the Tungus prince Gantimur (indefinite) . Catalog of articles - Cities and fortresses of the Siberian land. ostrog.ucoz.ru. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
15. Guide to Russian Church History - read, download - Professor Peter Vasilyevich Znamensky (Russian). azbyka.ru. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
16. Encyclopedia of Transbaikalia (indefinite) . ez.chita.ru. Retrieved 2 May 2019.
17. Bloch A. Longing for the Kollektiv: Gender, Power, and Residential Schools in Central Siberia // Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 20, no. 4 (Nov., 2005), pp. 534-535.