Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Teutonicae (lat.),
Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation (German)

The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation is a remarkable political institution that has preserved for ten centuries (800-1806) the same form, the same claims. The external history of the empire is essentially the history of Germany from the ninth to the nineteenth century, and of Italy in the Middle Ages. In its origin, the S. Roman Empire was ecclesiastical and Germanic; it was given form by the unfading tradition of the universal dominion of eternal Rome; Germanic and Roman elements, merging, determined the all-embracing and abstract character of the empire as the center and head of Western Christendom. The beginning of the Holy Roman Empire dates back to 800, when he was crowned Roman Emperor. This event was prepared in advance, but Charles did not think about the separation of Rome from Constantinople: until the year 800, Byzantium was the legitimate heir of the Roman Empire, the empire renewed by Charles was a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and Charles was considered the 68th emperor, the successor of the eastern line immediately after deposed in 797, and not by a successor. The event of 800 was the result of an agreement between the pope, ecclesiastical and secular dignitaries, and the king. Charles actually owned the empire; he ruled in Rome - the capital of the empire (matrona imperii), was the protector of the church. But the Roman Empire was considered one, indivisible; the coronation of Charles, without proclaiming the separation of the West from the East, declared Rome the capital of both political and ecclesiastical. The power of Charles was consecrated by the coronation, but not increased. The imperial title changed the position of Charles, surrounded him with a special brilliance; all of Karl's activity since then revolved around theocratic ideas.

The secondary restoration of the empire was accomplished by Otto the Great. Despite the previous troubles, Rome seemed to be a "golden city" (aurea Roma), its fate - the fate of the whole world. “As long as the Colosseum is intact, Rome will live; when the Colosseum falls, Rome will fall, and when Rome falls, the whole world will fall” - such was the idea of ​​contemporaries about the greatness of the ancient empire. On February 2, 962, Otto aroused general enthusiasm with his coronation as "Emperor Augustus." In the mind of the medieval man, to whom antiquity had bequeathed the idea of ​​a world monarchy, there was a deep conviction in the necessary connection between the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church. The position of the emperor and his functions were determined by comparing the power of the emperor with the power of the papacy. He is the imperator terrenus, that is, the vicar of God on earth in secular affairs, and the "patronus", that is, the protector of the church; his power in everything corresponds to the power of the pope, the relationship between them is analogous to the relationship between soul and body. "As in heaven," said Emperor Frederick I, "there is only one God, so on earth there is only one pope and one emperor." The coronation ceremonial and official titles of the emperor indicate the desire to give the imperial power a divine character. The emperor was considered the representative of all Christians. He is the "head of the Christian World", the "secular head of the faithful", the "patron of Palestine and the Catholic faith", superior in dignity to all kings. Before their coronation in Rome, emperors from the 11th to the 16th centuries. bore the title "Romanorum rex semper Augustus", and after the coronation - "Romanorum Imperator semper Augustus". Since 962, the beginning of the combination in one person of two titles - the emperor of Rome and the king of Germany. At first, this connection was purely personal, then official and real. 10th century empire was, however, in essence a feudal monarchy. Having learned the idea of ​​his power from ancient world, the emperors thought to implement it in a feudal way; imperial power was gradually feudalized.

In Rome, Otto was only an emperor, not a king; he disposed of the apostolic see (the deposition of John XII), led the debate of the synod, looked at the pope as his creature, but could not firmly establish himself in the capital, in fact, had no power here, like his successors. Byzantium did not recognize the rude "Frank" as emperor. In France, the claims of emperors were also not recognized. As part of the empire X - XI centuries. included Germany proper, most (2/3) of Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, Denmark, and partly Hungary. The successors of Otto I, pursuing chimerical goals, met with a rebuff from the side of the papacy, feudalism and national isolation in everything. Otto III (983 - 1002) completely immersed himself in the idea of ​​the world Roman Empire, turned away from fellow tribesmen, considered himself a Roman, dreamed of establishing Rome at the head of Germany, Lombardy and Greece. The empire reached considerable strength under Henry III (1039 - 1056) of Franconia, who took advantage of the moment when papal power had not yet been strengthened. He was the complete master of Italy, freely disposed of the fate of the papal throne, but caused a terrible reaction that ruined his successor. The struggle of Henry IV and Gregory VII dealt the first and most severe blow to the empire, significantly lowering its charm and instilling in Italy, together with the German princes, confidence in their forces. The Concordat of Worms in 1122 left the field of battle to the Pope. After the death of Henry V (1124), the jurisdiction of the crown became much less: the independence of princes and barons was recognized.

Brilliant representatives of the idea of ​​imperial power were in the second half of the 12th and first half of the 13th centuries. Hohenstaufen. Among them, the first place belongs to Frederick I (1152 - 1189), in whose person the imperial power opposed the pope with theoretical arguments. Frederick considered his power dependent directly on God and as sacred as the papal one. The Bologna jurists argued that the right to legislate belongs to the emperor, whose will is the law, for it is written: "quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem, quum populus ei et in eum omne suum imperi um et polestatem concesserit." The true ruler, however, Frederick I was only in Germany. The empire at that time included sowing. part of Italy and the kingdom of Burgundy, that is, Provence, Dauphine, Franche-Comté, Switzerland, Lorraine, Alsace and part of Flanders. Bohemia and the Slavic lands in Mecklenburg and Pomerania depended on the empire. Byzantium, as before, harbored enmity towards the emperors, considering them usurpers and barbarians, insultingly distorting the titles of emperors: for example, Isaac Angel called Frederick I "the chief prince of Alemannia."

Emperors were crowned with four crowns: the crown in Aachen made the monarch "king of the Franks", and from the time of Henry II - "king of the Romans", coronation in Milan - king of Italy, in Rome he received a double crown "lirbis et orbis", and Frederick I, under end of life, and took the fourth crown - Burgundy (regnum Burgundiae or regnum Arelatcase). When crowned in Milan and Aachen, the emperors did not call themselves kings of the Lombards and Franks, since these titles were lost in comparison with the title of emperor. The imperial title was accepted only after the coronation in Rome, and this created an extremely important basis for the claims of the pope, from whose hands the crown was transferred. To the name "Roman Empire" Frederick I added the epithet "Holy", which did not add anything new to the actual power of the emperor, but indicated its divine origin. Together with the Hohenstaufens, the idea of ​​imperial power went to the grave. In Germany, imperial power collapsed as a result of the foundation of the territorial independence of the princes (the era of the great interregnum).

A new period in the history of the S. empire begins with the time of Rudolf of Habsburg (1273). By the XIV century. The Holy Empire is, in essence, the German Empire. The power of the emperor was recognized only in Germany, and even then only theoretically, since in reality it passed into the hands of the feudal lords. Emperors of the 14th century they are not shy about anything in pursuing their dynastic interests and multiplying their ancestral possessions. From the magnificent title of the Holy Roman Empire, only one name remained: the princes plundered all the lands and divided among themselves the attributes of imperial power, leaving the emperor honorary rights and considering him his fief master. The emperors of this era lay crowns, cities, live at the expense of others, endure every humiliation before the pope, but continue to call themselves the heirs of the Caesars, the heads of Christianity and the rulers of the world, sacrificing everything for form and appearance.

Charles IV makes a promise to the pope not to stay in Rome for more than one day and receives the crown from the pope as a gift. Sigismund (1410 - 1437) loved to live at the expense of the imperial cities and willingly went where he was treated. Imperial power reached a special humiliation under Frederick III (1440 - 1493), who kept repeating A. E. I. O. U. (Austriae est imperare orbi universo) - and fed on monasteries and imperial cities. His role in relation to the pope made him pathetic in the eyes of everyone. Since Frederick III, no emperor has been crowned in Rome.

During the interregnum, the empire lost part of its territory: Poland overthrew the yoke of Germany, the Hungarians brutally devastated the eastern border of the empire. After Henry VII (1308 - 13), the power of emperors over Italy ended; in 1350 and 1457 the Dauphine passed to France, and in 1486 - Provence. Switzerland also ceased to be dependent on the empire (tract of 1499). This was joined by the internal weakness of the empire, as an aggregate of constantly warring small states. The Habsburg dynasty seeks to merge the empire with the Austrian monarchy. During the reign of Charles V (1519 - 1555), imperial power increased significantly, but an attempt to restore it to its former significance met with opposition both from the German princes and from other states. The Reformation destroyed the theory on which the empire was based.

The last period of the existence of the Holy Empire is the saddest (1648 - 1806). The Peace of Westphalia deprived the emperor of any possibility of direct intervention in the administration. The Holy Empire becomes exclusively the German Empire, an unstable confederation, the existence of which is gradually losing all meaning. The "hereditary enemy of the Holy Empire" was Louis XIV. In the XVIII century. the existence of the empire was almost forgotten: only high-profile titles remained. The whole spirit of the XVIII century. opposed to the idea of ​​the Holy Empire. The revolution, having destroyed feudalism, shook the old medieval building to its foundations. The Rashtat Congress (1797-98) fully revealed the internal disintegration of the Holy Empire, which had always suffered from a lack of national unity and political freedom. Francis II (1792 - 1806) was the last emperor of the Holy Empire. At that time, the fate of Europe was controlled by Napoleon, who considered himself the true successor of Charlemagne and was fond of the idea of ​​"world monarchy"; in March 1805 he was crowned in Milan with an iron crown. After the Peace of Pressburg (December 26, 1805), Franz II renounced the rank of emperor: since 1804 he began to call himself "hereditary emperor of Austria." This was the end of the Holy Roman Empire.

Under the Saxon and Franconian emperors, the imperial throne was elective. Every Christian (i.e., Catholic) could be emperor, although a member of one of the most powerful princely families in Germany was usually elected emperor. So reigned, after Conrad of Franconia, the Saxon dynasty (919 - 1024), the Franconian (1024 - 1125), after Lothar of Supplemburg (1125 - 1138) - the Hohenstaufens (1138 - 1250), the Habsburgs (1273 - 1291 and 1298 - 1308), the Luxembourg house (1308 - 1313 and 1346 - 1437), since 1438 - Habsburgs again. Electors elected the emperor. Their independence was legalized by a golden bull. This order lasted until the 30-year war.

Emperors

Carolingians
Ludolphing
	962-973
	973-983
	996-1002
	1014-1024
Franconian dynasty
	1027-1039
	1046-1056
	1084-1105
	1111-1125
(from the Saxon House)	1133-1137
Hohenstaufen
	1155-1190
	1191-1197
(from the House of Welf)	1209-1215
	1220-1250
	1303-1308
Luxembourg
	1312-1313
(Wittelsbach)	1328-1347
	1355-1378
	1410-1437
Habsburgs

Roman king(lat. Rex Romanorum, German Romischer Konig, less often king of the romans) - the title of the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, elected, but not yet approved by the pope.

After the transformation of the East Frankish Kingdom into the Holy Roman Empire, at least a double procedure became traditional for each new monarch: election in Germany and coronation in Rome (sometimes between them there was a coronation in Milan as king of Lombardy). The organization of a trip from Germany to Rome in the Middle Ages required a lot of time. In addition, it was necessary to enlist the support of the pope or wait for the death or overthrow of the hostile pope. From their election to their coronation in Rome, future emperors called themselves kings of Rome.

This title had another function. In order to ensure the transfer of power to his son, almost every emperor organized the election of a Roman king during his lifetime. Thus, the title of a Roman king often meant crown prince.

In 1508, Maximilian I was unable to travel to Rome for his coronation. Pope Julius allowed him to use the title of "elect emperor." Subsequently, the successors of Maximilian I (except Charles V) no longer sought to be crowned. The title of "Roman king" now meant only the heir to the throne, elected by the electors during the life of his father.

AT contemporary literature to eliminate confusion with ancient Roman kings and Italian kings, Roman kings are often called king of germany(German Römisch-deutscher Konig). Beginning with Maximilian I, the title "king in Germany" (lat. Rex Germaniae, German Konig in Germanien) really existed, but was included in the title of emperors, as a secondary one.

In 1811, the French Emperor Napoleon I declared his newborn son Napoleon II his heir and gave him the title "King of Rome".

List of Roman kings and anti-kings

The names of anti-kings are in italics (de: Gegenkönig).

Otto II the Red, 961-967 (son of Otto I)

Otto III, 983-996 (son of Otto II)

Henry II the Saint, 1002-1014 (second cousin of Otto III)

Conrad II, 1024-1027

Henry III, 1028-1046 (son of Conrad II)

Henry IV, 1054-1084 (son of Henry III)

· Rudolf of Swabia, 1077-1080 (brother-in-law of Henry IV)

· Hermann von Salm, 1081-1088 (German, English)

Conrad, 1087-1098 (son of Henry IV) (German, English)

Henry V, 1099-1111 (son of Henry IV)

Lothair II, 1125-1133

· Conrad III, 1127-1135

Conrad III, 1138-1152 (aka)

Heinrich Berengar, 1146-1150 (son of Conrad III) (German, English)

Frederick I Barbarossa, 1152-1155 (nephew of Conrad III)

Henry VI, 1169-1191 (son of Frederick I)

Philip of Swabia, 1198-1208 (son of Frederick I)

· Otto IV, 1198-1209

Frederick II, 1196-1220 (son of Henry VI)

Henry (VII), 1220-1235 (son of Frederick II)

· Heinrich Raspe, 1246-1247

· William of Holland, 1247-1256

Conrad IV, 1237-1250 (son of Frederick II)

Richard of Cornwall, 1257-1272

· Alphonse of Castile, 1257-1273

· Rudolf I, 1273-1291

Adolf of Nassau, 1292-1298 (German, English)

Albrecht I, 1298-1308 (son of Rudolf I)

Henry VII, 1308-1312

· Louis IV, 1314-1328

· Friedrich of Austria, 1314-22, 1325-30

· Charles IV, 1346-47

Charles IV, 1349-55 (aka)

· Günther von Schwarzburg, 1349

Wenzel I, 1376-1378 (son of Charles IV)

Ruprecht of the Palatinate, 1400-1410 (German, English)

· Sigismund, 1410-1433

· Yost, 1410-1411

Albrecht II, 1438-1439

Frederick III, 1440-1452

Maximilian I, 1486-1508 (son of Frederick III)

Charles V, 1519-1530

Ferdinand I, 1531-1558 (brother of Charles V)

Maximilian II, 1562-1564 (son of Ferdinand I)

· Rudolf II, 1575-1576 (son of Maximilian II)

Ferdinand III, 1636-1637 (son of Ferdinand II)

Ferdinand IV, 1653-1654 (son of Ferdinand III)

Joseph I, 1690-1705 (son of Leopold I)

Joseph II, 1764-1765 (son of Franz I)

Napoleon II, 1811-1832 (son of Napoleon I)

Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation(lat.Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicæ , German. Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation ), also known as The "First Reich" is a large state formation in the center of Europe that existed from 962 to 1806. This state positioned itself as a direct successor to the Frankish empire of Charlemagne (768-814), which, along with Byzantium, considered itself the heir to the ancient Roman Empire. Despite the nominal imperial status, this empire throughout its history remained decentralized, having a complex feudal hierarchical structure that united many state units. Although the emperor was at the head of the empire, his power was not hereditary, since the title was assigned by the college of electors. In addition, this power was not absolute either, being limited first to the aristocracy, and later, from the end of the 15th century, to the Reichstag.

Formation of the Holy Roman Empire

The prerequisites for the formation of a large imperial state in the center of Europe should be sought in the difficult situation that developed in the region in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire was painfully perceived by contemporaries, to whom it seemed ideologically that the empire had always existed and would live forever - its very idea was so universal, ancient and sacred. This legacy of antiquity was supplemented by a new world religion - Christianity. For some time, by the 7th century, the idea of ​​common Roman Christian unity, which had been present in the Roman Empire since its Christianization, was largely forgotten. However, the church, which was under the strongest influence of Roman laws and institutions, and performed a unifying function for the population mixed after the Great Migration, remembered it. The church system, demanding uniformity in doctrine and organization, maintained a sense of unity among the peoples. Many members of the clergy were themselves Romans, living according to Roman law and using Latin as their mother tongue. They kept the antique cultural heritage and the idea of ​​a single world secular state. So St. Augustine, in his treatise On the City of God (De Civitate Dei), undertook a critical analysis of pagan ideas about a universal and eternal monarchy, but medieval thinkers interpreted his teaching in a political aspect, more positively than the author himself meant.

At the same time, until the middle of the VIII century. in the West, the supremacy of the Byzantine emperor was formally recognized, but after the iconoclastic movement that hit the church began in Byzantium, the popes began to focus more and more on the Frankish kingdom, whose rulers themselves pursued a unifying policy. The real power of the King of the Franks Charlemagne (768-814) by the time when Pope Leo III (795-816) crowned him with the imperial crown at Christmas 800 in the Church of St. Peter in Rome, was comparable in the eyes of his contemporaries only with the power of the ruler Roman Empire, who acted as the patron of the church and the holy throne. The coronation was the consecration and legalization of his power, although in fact it was the result of an agreement between the pope, the king, church and secular dignitaries. Karl himself gave great importance the title of emperor, who exalted him in the eyes of those around him. At the same time, neither he nor the pope who crowned him had in mind the restoration of only the Western Roman Empire: the Roman Empire as a whole was being revived. Because of this, Charles was considered the 68th emperor, the successor of the eastern line immediately after Constantine VI, who was deposed in 797, and not the successor of Romulus Augustulus, who was deposed in 476. The Roman Empire was considered one, indivisible. Although the capital of Charlemagne's empire was Aachen, the imperial idea was associated with Rome, the center of Western Christianity, which was declared both the political and ecclesiastical center of the empire. The imperial title changed the position of Charles, surrounded him with a special brilliance; all of Karl's activities since then have been connected with theocratic ideas.

However, the empire of Charlemagne proved to be short-lived. As a result of the Verdun partition in 843, the empire again died out as a single state, again transforming into a traditional idea. The title of emperor was preserved, but the real power of its bearer was limited only to the territory of Italy. And after the death of the last Roman emperor Berengar of Friul in 924, power over Italy was contested for several decades by representatives of a number of aristocratic families in Northern Italy and Burgundy. In Rome itself, the papacy was under the complete control of the local patriciate. The source of the revival of the imperial idea was Germany, where the revival began in the first half of the 10th century, during the reign of Henry I the Fowler (919-936), the founder of the first German (Saxon) dynasty, in the eastern part of the former Carolingian Empire. He laid the foundations not only of the German kingdom, but also of the future Holy Roman Empire. His work was continued by Otto I the Great (936-973), under which Lorraine with the former imperial capital of the Carolingians, Aachen, became part of the state, Hungarian raids were repelled, active expansion towards the Slavic lands began, accompanied by vigorous missionary activity. Under Otto I, the church became the main pillar of royal power in Germany, and the tribal duchies, which formed the basis of the territorial structure of the East Frankish kingdom, were subordinated to the power of the center. As a result, by the beginning of the 960s, Otto I became the most powerful ruler among all the heir states of the empire of Charlemagne, gaining a reputation as a protector of the church and laying the foundation for Italian politics, since at that time the imperial idea was associated with Italy and receiving imperial dignity from the pope in Rome. Being a religious man, he wanted to be a Christian emperor. Ultimately, at the end of difficult negotiations, on January 31, 962, Otto I took an oath to Pope John XII with a promise to protect the security and interests of the pope and the Roman Church, which served as a legal basis for the formation and development of the medieval Roman Empire. On February 2, 962, the ceremony of anointing and crowning Otto I with the imperial crown took place in the church of St. Peter in Rome, after which he, in his new capacity, forced John XII and the Roman nobility to swear allegiance to him. Although Otto I did not intend to found a new empire, considering himself solely as the successor of Charlemagne, in fact, the transfer of the imperial crown to the German monarchs meant the final isolation of the East Frankish kingdom (Germany) from the West Frankish (France) and the formation of a new state entity based on the German and northern Italian territories, which acted heir to the Roman Empire and claiming to be the patron saint of the Christian church. Thus the new Roman Empire was born. Byzantium did not recognize the rude franc as emperor, as did France, which initially limited the universality of the empire.

Foundations and history of the titulary of the Holy Roman Empire

The traditional term "Holy Roman Empire" came rather late. After his coronation, Charlemagne (768-814) used the long and soon discarded title of "Charles, Most Serene Augustus, Divinely Crowned, Great and Peaceful Emperor, Ruler of the Roman Empire." After him, up to Otto I (962-973), the emperors called themselves simply “Emperor Augustus” (lat. imperator augustus) without territorial specification (implying that in the future the entire former ancient Roman Empire, and in the future the whole world, would submit to them). The first monarch of the Holy Roman Empire, Otto I, used the title "Emperor of the Romans and Franks" (lat. imperator Romanorum et Francorum). In the future, Otto II (967-983) was sometimes called the "Emperor August of the Romans" (lat. Romanorum imperator augustus), and starting with Otto III (), this title becomes mandatory. At the same time, between accession to the throne and his coronation, the candidate used the title of the kings of the Romans (lat. rex Romanorum), and starting from his coronation, he bore the title German Emperor (lat. Imperator Germanicæ ). The phrase "Roman Empire" (lat. Imperium Romanum) as the name of the state began to be used from the middle of the 10th century, finally gaining a foothold by the middle of the 11th century. The reasons for the delay lie in diplomatic complications due to the fact that the Byzantine emperors considered themselves successors of the Roman Empire. Under Frederick I Barbarossa () from 1157, the definition of “Holy” (Latin Sacrum) was added to the phrase “Roman Empire” for the first time as a sign of its Christian Catholic character. The new version of the name emphasized the belief in the sanctity of the worldly state and the claims of the emperors to the church in the context of the recent struggle for investiture. This concept was further substantiated during the revival of Roman law and the revival of contacts with the Byzantine Empire. Since 1254, the full designation “Holy Roman Empire” (lat. Sacrum Romanum Imperium) has taken root in the sources, in German (German: Heiliges Römisches Reich) it began to occur under Emperor Charles IV (). The addition of the phrase "German nation" to the name of the empire appeared after the Austrian Habsburg dynasty in the 15th century. turned out to be all the lands (except Swiss), inhabited mainly by Germans (German Deutscher Nation, Latin Nationis Germanicae), initially to distinguish the German lands proper from the "Roman Empire" as a whole. So in the decree of Emperor Frederick III () of 1486 on “universal peace” it refers to the “Roman Empire of the German nation”, and in the decree of the Cologne Reichstag in 1512, Emperor Maximilian I () for the first time officially used the final form “Holy Roman Empire of the German nation”, which survived until 1806, although in its last documents this state entity was designated as simply “ German Empire"(German: Deutsches Reich).

From the point of view of state building in 962, the beginning was laid of combining two titles in one person - the emperor of Rome and the king of Germany. At first this connection was of a personal nature, but then it was quite official and real. However, founded in the tenth century. the empire was, in essence, an ordinary feudal monarchy. Having assimilated the idea of ​​the continuity of their power from the ancient world, the emperors carried it out by feudal methods, managing tribal duchies (the main political units in Germany) and marks (border administrative-territorial formations). At first, the Holy Roman Empire had the character of a feudal-theocratic empire, claiming supreme power in the Christian world. The position of the emperor and his functions were determined by comparing the power of the emperor with the power of the papacy. It was believed that he was "imperator terrenus", the vicar of God on earth in secular affairs, as well as "patronus", the protector of the church. Therefore, the power of the emperor in everything corresponded to the power of the pope, and the relationship between them was considered analogous to the relationship of soul and body. The coronation ceremonial and the official titles of the emperor indicated the desire to give the imperial power a divine character. The emperor was considered the representative of all Christians, the "head of the Christian world", the "secular head of the faithful", the "patron of Palestine and the Catholic faith", superior in dignity to all kings. But these circumstances became one of the prerequisites for the centuries-old struggle German emperors for the possession of Italy with the papacy. The struggle with the Vatican and the strengthening of the territorial fragmentation of Germany constantly weakened the imperial power. Theoretically, being above all the royal houses of Europe, the title of emperor did not give the kings of Germany additional powers, since the real control was carried out using already existing administrative mechanisms. In Italy, the emperors interfered little in the affairs of their vassals: there their main support was the bishops of the Lombard cities.

Traditionally, emperors were crowned with four crowns. The coronation in Aachen made the monarch "King of the Franks", and from the time of Henry II () - "King of the Romans"; coronation in Milan as king of Italy; in Rome, the monarch received a double crown “urbis et orbis”, and Frederick I (), at the end of his life, also accepted the fourth crown - Burgundian (regnum Burgundiae or regnum Arelatense). When crowned in Milan and Aachen, the emperors did not call themselves kings of the Lombards and Franks, less significant titles in comparison with the title of emperor. The latter was accepted only after the coronation in Rome, and this created an extremely important basis for the claims of the pope, from whose hands the crown was transferred. Before Ludwig IV (), the coat of arms of the empire was a single-headed eagle, and starting from Sigismund (), a double-headed eagle becomes such, while the coat of arms of the king of the Romans was preserved in the form of a single-headed eagle. Under the Saxon and Franconian rulers, the imperial throne was elective. Every Catholic Christian could become emperor, although a member of one of the most powerful princely families in Germany was usually chosen. The emperor was elected by the electors, whose independence was legalized by the golden bull of 1356. This order lasted until the Thirty Years' War.

Socio-economic development of the Holy Roman Empire

The socio-economic development of the Holy Roman Empire throughout the existence of this state entity correlated with the trends of pan-European development, but also had its own characteristics. In particular, the territories that were part of the empire differed significantly from each other in terms of population, language, level of development, so the political fragmentation of the empire was accompanied by economic disintegration. Starting from the early Middle Ages in the German lands, the basis of farming was arable farming, accompanied by active development of wastelands and forests, as well as a powerful colonization movement to the east (it was also expressed in the resettlement of peasants to empty or reclaimed lands, as well as in the forceful expansion of German knightly orders). The processes of feudalization developed slowly, the enslavement of the peasantry also occurred at a slower pace in comparison with its neighbors, therefore, at an early stage, the main economic unit was a free or semi-dependent peasant. Later, with the growth of agricultural productivity, there was an increase in the exploitation of the peasants by feudal lords of various levels. From the XI-XII centuries. As a result of the active development of seigneurial and free imperial cities, the estate of the burghers began to form. In the estate hierarchy, a layer of small and medium-sized knights and ministerials, supported by emperors, began to play a special role, little dependent on local princes. The last two groups of the population became the backbone of the central imperial power.

In the Italian possessions of the empire, the processes of economic development were more intense. Agriculture developed much faster than in the German metropolis and was characterized by a variety of forms of peasant land ownership, while cities became the main engine of the economy, quickly turning into large trade and craft centers. By the XII-XIII centuries. they also achieved virtually complete political independence from the feudal lords, and their wealth led to the ongoing struggle of the emperors to strengthen their power in the Italian region.

In the era of the late Middle Ages, in connection with the transformation of the empire into a purely German entity, socio-economic development depended on the processes taking place in Germany. During this period, the increase in demand for bread led to an increase in the marketability of the agricultural sector in Northern Germany, with the consolidation of peasant holdings in the west and the growth of patrimonial farming in the east. The South German lands, distinguished by small peasant farms, experienced an active offensive by the feudal lords, expressed in an increase in corvée, an increase in duties and other forms of infringement on the peasants, which led (along with unresolved church problems) to a series of peasant uprisings ( Hussite wars, the Shoe movement, etc.). Erupted in the middle of the XIV century. The plague epidemic, having seriously reduced the population of the country, put an end to German agrarian colonization and led to the outflow of productive forces to the cities. In the non-agricultural sector of the economy, the Hanseatic cities of the North of Germany came to the fore, concentrating trade in the North and Baltic Seas, as well as the textile centers of South Germany (Swabia) and the Historical Netherlands (while they adjoined the empire). The traditional centers of mining and metallurgy (Tyrol, Czech Republic, Saxony, Nuremberg) also received a new impetus, while large merchant capitals (the empire of the Fuggers, Welsers, etc.), whose financial center was located in Augsburg, began to play a huge role in the development of the industry. Despite the significant growth in the economic indicators of the subjects of the empire (primarily trade), it should be noted that it was observed in the absence of a single German market. In particular, the largest and most successful cities preferred to develop ties with foreign partners, rather than with German ones, despite the fact that a significant part of the city centers turned out to be isolated from contacts even with their closest neighbors. This situation contributed to the preservation of both economic and political fragmentation in the empire, from which the princes primarily benefited.

The intensified exploitation of the peasantry of South Germany, the aggravation of inter-class contradictions at the early stage of the Reformation led to a large-scale popular uprising, called the Great Peasant War (). The defeat of the German peasantry in this war for the coming centuries determined its socio-economic position, leading to the strengthening of feudal dependence in the South of Germany and the spread of serfdom to other regions, although free peasantry and communal institutions remained in a number of regions of the country. At the same time, in general, the social confrontation between the peasantry and the nobility in the XVI-XVII centuries. lost its sharpness, largely due to the development different forms patronage, religious solidarity and the availability of judicial opportunities for the protection of peasants' interests. Local and peasant economy in the 17th century. tended to preserve the existing order. The development of the imperial cities in the early modern period was characterized by the stagnation of former economic leaders and the transfer of primacy into the hands of the Central German cities, led by Frankfurt and Nuremberg. There was also a redistribution of financial capital. The process of strengthening the burgher estate in the era of the Reformation was gradually replaced by the opposite phenomenon, when the nobility came to the fore. Even within the framework of urban self-government, there was a process of growth of oligarchic institutions and the strengthening of the power of the urban patriciate. The Thirty Years' War finally finished off the Hansa and ruined many German cities, confirming the economic leadership of Frankfurt and Cologne.

In the XVIII century. in a number of regions of the country, a significant revival of the cloth and metallurgical industries was observed, large centralized manufactories appeared, however, in terms of the pace of its industrial development, the empire remained a backward state in comparison with its neighbors. In most cities, the guild system continued to dominate, and production largely depended on the state and the nobility. In most regions of the country, the old forms of feudal exploitation were preserved in agriculture, and the large landowner business enterprises that appeared were based on the corvée labor of serfs. The presence of powerful military machines in a number of principalities and kingdoms of the empire made it possible not to be afraid of the possibility of large-scale peasant uprisings. The processes of economic isolation of the territories continued.

The reign of the Ottons and Hohenstaufen

As Emperor Otto I (962-973), he had power in the most powerful state in Europe, but his possessions turned out to be significantly smaller than those that belonged to Charlemagne. They were limited mainly to the German lands, northern and central Italy; uncivilized frontier areas. At the same time, the main concern for the emperors was the retention of power both north and south of the Alps. So Otto II (967-983), Otto III () and Conrad II () were forced to stay in Italy for a long time, protecting their possessions from the advancing Arabs and Byzantines, and also periodically suppressing the unrest of the Italian patriciate. However, the German kings failed to finally establish imperial power on the Apennine Peninsula: with the exception of the short reign of Otto III, who moved his residence to Rome, Germany remained the core of the empire. The reign of Conrad II, the first monarch of the Salian dynasty, includes the formation of a class of petty knights (including ministerials), whose rights were guaranteed by the emperor in the decree "Constitutio de feudis" of 1036, which formed the basis of imperial fief law. Small and medium chivalry later became one of the main bearers of integration trends in the empire.

An important role in the early dynasties of the Holy Roman Empire was played by relations with the church, especially regarding appointments in the church hierarchy. So the election of bishops and abbots was carried out at the direction of the emperor, and even before ordination, the clergy took an oath of allegiance and a fealty oath to him. The church was included in the secular structure of the empire and became one of the main pillars of the throne and the unity of the country, which was clearly manifested in the reign of Otto II (967-983) and during the minority of Otto III (). Then the papal throne was under the dominant influence of the emperors, who often single-handedly decided the issues of appointment and dismissal of the popes. Imperial power reached its peak under Emperor Henry III (), who, starting from 1046, received the right to appoint popes like bishops in the German church. However, already during the minority of Henry IV (), the emperor’s influence began to decline, which took place against the backdrop of the rise of the Cluniac movement in the church and the ideas of the Gregorian reform that developed from it, asserting the supremacy of the Pope and the complete independence of church authority from the secular. The papacy turned the principle of freedom of the "divine state" against the power of the emperor in matters of church government, in which Pope Gregory VII () became especially famous. He asserted the principle of the superiority of spiritual authority over secular and within the framework of the so-called "struggle for investiture", the confrontation between the pope and the emperor over personnel appointments in the church in the period from 1075 to 1122. The struggle of Henry IV and Gregory VII dealt the first and most severe blow to the empire, significantly reducing its influence both in Italy and among the German princes (the most memorable episode of this confrontation was the visit to Canossa in 1077 by the then German king Henry IV). The struggle for investiture ended in 1122 with the signing of the Concordat of Worms, which secured a compromise between secular and spiritual authorities: from now on, the election of bishops was to take place freely and without simony, but secular investiture on land holdings, and thus the possibility of imperial influence on the appointment of bishops and abbots , was preserved. In general, the result of the struggle for investiture can be considered a significant weakening of the emperor's control over the church, which contributed to the rise in the influence of territorial secular and spiritual princes. After the death of Henry V (), the jurisdiction of the crown became much less: the independence of princes and barons was recognized.

Distinctive features of the political life of the empire in the second quarter of the XII century. there was a rivalry between two large princely families of Germany - Hohenstaufen and Welf. The compromise reached in 1122 did not mean final clarity on the question of the supremacy of the state or the church, and under Frederick I Barbarossa (), the struggle between the papacy and the empire flared up again. The plane of confrontation this time has shifted to the sphere of disagreement about the ownership of Italian lands. The main direction of the policy of Frederick I was the restoration of imperial power in Italy. At the same time, his reign is considered the period of the highest prestige and power of the empire, since Frederick and his successors centralized the control system of the controlled territories, conquered Italian cities, established suzerainty over states outside the empire, and extended their influence even to the east. It is no coincidence that Frederick considered his power in the empire dependent directly on God, as sacred as the papal one. In Germany itself, the position of the emperor was significantly strengthened due to the division of the Welf possessions in 1181 with the formation of a rather large Hohenstaufen domain, to which in 1194 the Kingdom of Sicily passed as a result of a dynastic combination. It was in this state that the Hohenstaufen were able to create a strong centralized hereditary monarchy with a developed bureaucratic system, while in the German proper lands the strengthening of regional princes did not allow such a system of government to be consolidated.

Frederick II of Hohenstaufen () resumed the traditional policy of establishing imperial domination in Italy, going into a tough conflict with the pope. Then in Italy a struggle unfolded between the Guelphs, supporters of the Pope, and the Ghibellines, who supported the emperor, which developed with varying success. The concentration on Italian politics forced Frederick II to make great concessions to the German princes: according to the agreements of 1220 and 1232. sovereign rights were recognized for the bishops and secular princes of Germany within the framework of their territorial possessions. These documents became the legal basis for the formation of semi-independent hereditary principalities within the empire and the expansion of the influence of regional rulers to the detriment of the emperor's prerogatives.

Holy Roman Empire in the Late Middle Ages

After the termination of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in 1250, a long period of interregnum () began in the Holy Roman Empire, ending in 1273 with the accession to the German throne of Rudolf I of Habsburg (). Although the new monarchs made attempts to restore the former power of the empire, dynastic interests came to the fore: the importance of central power continued to decline, and the role of the rulers of regional principalities increased. The monarchs elected to the imperial throne, first of all, tried to maximize the possessions of their families and rule on the basis of their support. So the Habsburgs entrenched themselves in the Austrian lands, the Luxemburgs in the Czech Republic, Moravia and Silesia, the Wittelsbachs in Brandenburg, Holland and Gennegau. In this regard, the reign of Charles IV (), in which the center of the empire moved to Prague, is indicative. He also managed to carry out an important reform of the constitutional structure of the empire: the Golden Bull (1356) established a seven-member college of electors, which included the archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, Trier, the King of the Czech Republic, the Elector of the Palatinate, the Duke of Saxony and the Margrave of Brandenburg. They received the exclusive right to elect the emperor and actually determine the direction of the policy of the empire, while retaining the right of internal sovereignty for the electors, which consolidated the fragmentation of the German states. Thus, in the late Middle Ages, the principle of the election of the emperor acquired a real embodiment, when in the second half of the 13th century. - the end of the XV century. the emperor was chosen from several candidates, and attempts to establish hereditary power were unsuccessful. This could not but lead to a sharp increase in the influence of large territorial princes on imperial politics, with the seven most powerful princes arrogating to themselves the exclusive right to elect and dismiss the emperor (electors). These processes were accompanied by the strengthening of the middle and petty nobility and the growth of feudal strife. During the periods of interregnums, the empire lost its territories. After Henry VII () the power of emperors over Italy ended; in 1350 and 1457 the Dauphiné came to France, and in 1486 Provence. According to the treatise of 1499, Switzerland also ceased to be dependent on the empire. The Holy Roman Empire was more and more limited exclusively to the German lands, turning into a national state formation of the German people.

In parallel, there was a process of liberation of imperial institutions from the power of the papacy, which happened due to a sharp drop in the authority of the popes during the period of the Avignon captivity. This allowed Emperor Ludwig IV (), and after him the major regional German princes, to withdraw from submission to the Roman throne. Any influence of the pope on the election of the emperor by the electors was also eliminated. But when at the beginning of the XV century. Church and political problems sharply aggravated in the conditions of the split of the Catholic Church, the emperor Sigismund (), who managed to restore the unity of the Roman Church and the prestige of the emperor in Europe, took over the function of its defender. But in the empire itself he had to wage a long struggle against the Hussite heresy. At the same time, the emperor’s attempt to find support in the cities and the imperial knights (the so-called “Third Germany” program) failed due to sharp disagreements between these estates. The imperial power also failed in an attempt to put an end to armed conflicts between the subjects of the empire.

After the death of Sigismund in 1437, the Habsburg dynasty finally established itself on the throne of the Holy Roman Empire, whose representatives, with one exception, continued to rule in it until its dissolution. By the end of the XV century. the empire found itself in a deep crisis caused by the inconsistency of its institutions with the requirements of the time, the collapse of the military and financial organization, and decentralization. In the principalities, the formation of their own administrative apparatus, military, judicial and tax systems began, and class representative bodies of power (landtags) arose. By this time, the Holy Roman Empire already represented, in essence, only the German Empire, where the power of the emperor was recognized only in Germany. Only one name remained from the magnificent title of the Holy Roman Empire: the princes plundered all the lands and divided the attributes of imperial power among themselves, leaving the emperor only honorary rights and considering him his fief master. The imperial power under Frederick III () reached a special humiliation. After him, no emperor was crowned in Rome. In European politics, the influence of the emperor tended to zero. At the same time, the decline of imperial power contributed to a more active involvement of the imperial estates in governance processes and the formation of an all-imperial representative body- Reichstag.

Holy Roman Empire in early modern times

Growing because of the constantly warring small states, the internal weakness of the empire required its reorganization. The Habsburg dynasty, which was entrenched on the throne, sought to merge the empire with the Austrian monarchy and began reforms. According to the Decree of the Nuremberg Reichstag in 1489, three colleges were established: electors, spiritual and secular imperial princes, imperial free cities. The discussion of the issues raised by the emperor at the opening of the Reichstag was now carried out separately by the colleges, and the decision was made at the general meeting of the colleges by secret ballot, with the college of electors and the college of princes having a decisive vote. If the decisions of the Reichstag were approved by the emperor, they assumed the force of imperial law. To adopt a resolution, the unanimity of all three colleges and the emperor was required. The Reichstag had broad political and legislative competences: it considered issues of war and peace, concluded treaties, and was the highest court of the empire. His decrees covered a wide range of issues - from the violation of prescriptions against luxury and cheating to the streamlining of the monetary system and the establishment of uniformity in criminal proceedings. However, the implementation of the legislative initiative of the Reichstag was hindered by the absence of all-imperial executive authorities. The Reichstag was convened by the emperor in agreement with the electors, who determined the place of its holding. Since 1485, the Reichstags were convened annually, from 1648 exclusively in Regensburg, and from 1663 to 1806 the Reichstag can be considered a permanent body of power with an established structure. In fact, it was transformed into a permanent congress of envoys of the German princes, headed by the emperor.

By the time of the death of Emperor Frederick III (1493), the system of administration of the empire was in deep crisis due to the existence of several hundred state entities of various levels of independence, income and military potential. In 1495, Maximilian I () convened a general Reichstag in Worms, for approval by which he proposed a draft reform of the state administration of the empire. As a result of the discussion, the so-called “Imperial Reform” (German: Reichsreform) was adopted, according to which Germany was divided into six imperial districts (in 1512, four more were added to them in Cologne). This reform also provided for the creation of a supreme imperial court, the annual convening of the Reichstag and the law on Zemsky peace - a ban on the use of military methods to resolve conflicts between the subjects of the empire. The governing body of the district was the district assembly, in which all state formations on its territory received the right to participate. The approved boundaries of the imperial districts remained virtually unchanged until the destruction of the district system in the early 1790s. because of the wars with revolutionary France, although some of them lasted until the very end of the empire (1806). There were also exceptions: they were not part of the county system of the lands of the Czech Crown; Switzerland; most states of Northern Italy; some German principalities.

However, Maximilian's further attempts to deepen the reformation of the empire by creating unified executive authorities, as well as a unified imperial army, failed. Because of this, realizing the weakness of imperial power in Germany, Maximilian I continued the policy of his predecessors to isolate the Austrian monarchy from the empire, which resulted in the tax independence of Austria, its non-participation in the affairs of the Reichstag and other general imperial bodies. Austria was actually placed outside the empire, and its independence was expanded. In addition, the successors of Maximilian I (except Charles V) no longer aspired to the traditional coronation, and the provision entered into imperial law that the very fact that the German king was elected by the electors makes him emperor.

Maximilian's reforms were continued by Charles V (), under which the Reichstag turned into a periodically convened legislative body, which became the center for the implementation of imperial policy. The Reichstag also ensured the established stable balance of power between different social groups in the country. A system for financing general imperial expenses was also developed, which, although it remained imperfect due to the unwillingness of the electors to contribute their share to the general budget, but allowed for an active external and military policy. Under Charles V, a single criminal code was approved for the entire empire - the "Constitutio Criminalis Carolina". As a result of the transformations of the late XV - early XVI centuries. the empire acquired an organized state-legal system that allowed it to coexist and even successfully compete with the nation-states of modern times. However, the reforms were not completed, which is why the empire continued to be a combination of old and new institutions until the end of its existence, without acquiring attributes united state. The formation of a new model of the organization of the Holy Roman Empire was accompanied by a weakening of the elective principle of electing the emperor: since 1439, the Habsburg dynasty, the most powerful German family in the region, was firmly established on the throne of the empire.

Of great importance for increasing the efficiency of the imperial districts were the Reichstag resolutions of 1681, which transferred questions of military development and organization of the empire's army to the level of districts. Only the appointment of the highest commanders and determining the strategy of military operations. The financing of the army was carried out by districts at the expense of contributions from the district member states in accordance with the proportion approved in 1521. This system proved effective if the vast majority of the members of the district took a real part in providing troops. However, many large principalities (for example, Brandenburg or Hanover) pursued mainly their own goals, therefore they often refused to participate in district events, which practically paralyzed the activities of the districts. Districts, where there were no large states, were often an example of effective interaction and even created inter-district unions.

The Reformation, which began in 1517, quickly led to the confessional split of the empire into the Lutheran north and the Catholic south. The Reformation destroyed the religious theory on which the empire was based. Under the conditions of the revival of claims for hegemony in Europe by Emperor Charles V, as well as his policy of centralizing imperial institutions, this led to an aggravation of the internal situation in Germany and an increase in conflict between the emperor and the estates of the state. The unresolved church issue and the failure of the Augsburg Reichstag in 1530 to reach a compromise led to the formation of two political unions in Germany - the Protestant Schmalkalden and the Catholic Nuremberg, whose opposition resulted in the Schmalkalden War, which shook the constitutional foundations of the empire. Despite the victory of Charles V, all the main political forces of the empire soon rallied against him. They were not satisfied with the universalism of the policy of Karl, who sought to create " world empire"on the basis of their vast possessions, as well as inconsistency in solving church problems. In 1555, the Augsburg Religious Peace appeared at the Reichstag in Augsburg, recognizing Lutheranism as a legitimate denomination and guaranteeing freedom of religion to the imperial estates in accordance with the principle of "cujus regio, ejus religio". This agreement made it possible to overcome the crisis caused by the Reformation and restore the efficiency of imperial institutions. Although the confessional split was not overcome, politically the empire restored unity. At the same time, Charles V refused to sign this peace and soon resigned as emperor. As a result, over the next half century, the Catholic and Protestant subjects of the empire interacted very effectively in government, which made it possible to maintain peace and social tranquility in Germany.

The main trends in the development of the empire in the second half of the XVI - early XVII centuries became the dogmatic and organizational design and isolation of Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism, and the impact of this process on the social and political aspects of the life of the German states. AT modern historiography this period is defined as the “Confessional era” (German: Konfessionelles Zeitalter), during which the weakening of the emperor’s power and the collapse of government institutions led to the formation of alternative power structures: in 1608, the Protestant princes organized the Evangelical Union, for which the Catholics in 1609 responded by establishing the Catholic League. Interfaith confrontation steadily deepened and led in 1618 to the Prague uprising against the new emperor and king of the Czech Republic Ferdinand II (). The rebellion supported by the Evangelical Union turned into the beginning of a difficult and bloody Thirty Years' War (), which included representatives of both confessional camps in Germany, and then foreign states. The Treaty of Westphalia concluded in October 1648 ended the war and radically transformed the empire.

The final period of the Holy Roman Empire

The conditions of the Peace of Westphalia turned out to be difficult, which were of fundamental importance for the future of the empire. The territorial articles of the treaty secured the loss by the empire of Switzerland and the Netherlands, recognized as independent states. In the empire itself, significant lands fell under the rule of foreign powers (Sweden was especially strong). The world confirmed the secularization of the church lands in Northern Germany. In confessional terms, the Catholic, Lutheran and Calvinist churches were equalized in rights on the territory of the empire. For the imperial estates, the right of free transition from one religion to another was secured, for religious minorities, freedom of religion and the right to emigrate were guaranteed. At the same time, confessional boundaries were strictly fixed, and the transition of the ruler of the principality to another religion should not have led to a change in the confession of his subjects. Organizationally, the Peace of Westphalia led to a radical reform in the functioning of the empire's authorities: from now on, religious problems were separated from administrative and legal issues. To solve them in the Reichstag and the imperial court, the principle of confessional parity was introduced, according to which each denomination was given an equal number of votes. In administrative terms, the Peace of Westphalia redistributed powers between the imperial institutions. Now current issues (including legislation, the judiciary, taxation, ratification of peace treaties) were transferred to the competence of the Reichstag, which became a permanent body. This significantly changed the balance of power between the emperor and the estates in favor of the latter. At the same time, the imperial ranks did not become the bearers of state sovereignty: the subjects of the empire remained deprived of a number of attributes of an independent state. So they could not conclude international treaties that were in conflict with the interests of the emperor or empire.

Thus, according to the terms of the Peace of Westphalia, the emperor was actually deprived of any opportunity to directly intervene in the administration, and the Holy Roman Empire itself becomes a purely German entity, an unstable confederation, the existence of which is gradually losing all meaning. This was expressed in the existence in post-Westphalian Germany of about 299 principalities, a number of independent imperial cities, as well as an incalculable multitude of small and smallest political units, often representing a small estate endowed with the rights of the state (as an example, one can cite about a thousand persons with the titles of barons or imperial knights who did not retain any significant possessions).

The defeat in the Thirty Years' War also deprived the empire of the leading role in Europe, which passed to France. By the beginning of the XVIII century. The Holy Roman Empire lost its ability to expand and maintain offensive wars. Even within the empire, the West German principalities were closely blockaded with France, while the northern principalities were oriented towards Sweden. In addition, the large formations of the empire continued to follow the path of consolidation, strengthening their own statehood. However, the wars with France and Turkey turn of the XVII– 18th century caused a revival of imperial patriotism and returned to the imperial throne the significance of a symbol of the national community of the German people. The strengthening of imperial power under the successors of Leopold I () led to a revival of absolutist tendencies, but through the strengthening of Austria. Already under Joseph I (), imperial affairs were actually transferred to the jurisdiction of the Austrian court office, and the archchancellor and his department were removed from the decision-making process. In the XVIII century. the empire existed as an archaic formation, retaining only high-profile titles. Under Charles VI (), the problems of the empire were on the periphery of the emperor's attention: his policy was determined mainly by his claims to the Spanish throne and the problem of the inheritance of the Habsburg lands (Pragmatic Sanction of 1713).

In general, by the middle of the XVIII century. the large German principalities de facto got out of the control of the emperor, and the tendencies of disintegration clearly prevailed over the emperor's timid attempts to maintain a balance of power in the empire. Attempts to transfer to the imperial space the successes of the centralization policy in the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs met with sharp opposition from the imperial estates. A number of principalities led by Prussia, which took on the role of defender of German freedoms from the "absolutist" claims of the Habsburgs, strongly opposed the "Austrianization" of the imperial system. So Francis I () failed in an attempt to restore the prerogatives of the emperor in the field of fief law and create an effective imperial army. And by the end Seven Years' War the German principalities generally ceased to obey the emperor, which was expressed in the independent conclusion of a separate truce with Prussia. During the War of the Bavarian Succession, the imperial estates, led by Prussia, openly opposed the emperor, who was trying to secure Bavaria for the Habsburgs by force.

For the emperor himself, the crown of the Holy Roman Empire was steadily losing its appeal, becoming mainly a means to strengthen the Austrian monarchy and the position of the Habsburgs in Europe. At the same time, the frozen imperial structure was in conflict with Austrian interests, limiting the possibilities of the Habsburgs. This was especially pronounced during the reign of Joseph II (), who was forced to practically abandon imperial problems, focusing on the interests of Austria. This was successfully used by Prussia, which acted as the defender of imperial order and quietly strengthened its position. In 1785, the Union of German Princes was created by Frederick II as an alternative to the imperial institutions controlled by the Habsburgs. The Austro-Prussian rivalry deprived the rest of the German state formations of the opportunity to exert at least some influence on intra-imperial affairs and reform the imperial system in their own interests. All this led to the so-called "empire fatigue" of almost all its constituent entities, even those that historically were the main pillar of the structure of the Holy Roman Empire. The stability of the empire was finally lost.

Liquidation of the Holy Roman Empire

The Great French Revolution initially led to the consolidation of the empire. In 1790, the Reichenbach Alliance was concluded between the emperor and Prussia, which temporarily ended the Austro-Prussian confrontation, and in 1792 the Pillnitz Convention was signed with mutual obligations to provide military assistance to the French king. However, the goals of the new emperor Franz II () were not to strengthen the empire, but to implement the foreign policy plans of the Habsburgs, which included the expansion of the Austrian monarchy itself (including at the expense of the German principalities) and the expulsion of the French from Germany. On March 23, 1793, the Reichstag declared an all-imperial war on France, but the imperial army turned out to be extremely weak due to the restriction by the subjects of the empire of the participation of their military contingents in hostilities outside their own lands. They also refused to pay military contributions, seeking to achieve a separate peace with France as soon as possible. Since 1794, the imperial coalition began to disintegrate, and in 1797 the army of Napoleon Bonaparte invaded from Italy into the territory of the hereditary possessions of Austria. When the Habsburg emperor, due to defeats from the revolutionary French army ceased to support small state formations, the entire system of organization of the empire collapsed.

However, under these conditions, another attempt was made to reorganize the system. Under pressure from France and Russia, after lengthy negotiations and with virtual disregard for the position of the emperor, a project for the reorganization of the empire was adopted, approved on March 24, 1803. The empire carried out a general secularization of church possessions, and free cities and small counties were absorbed by large principalities. This effectively meant the end of the system of imperial districts, although legally they lasted until the official dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. In total, not counting the lands annexed by France, over 100 state entities were abolished as part of the empire, with a population of about three million people in the secularized lands. As a result of the reform, Prussia, as well as the French satellites of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, received the largest increments. After the completion of the territorial delimitation by 1804, about 130 states remained in the empire (not counting the possessions of the imperial knights). The territorial changes that took place affected the position of the Reichstag and the College of Electors. The titles of the three church electors were abolished, whose rights were granted to the rulers of Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Kassel and the archchancellor of the empire. As a result, in the college of electors and the chamber of princes of the imperial Reichstag, the majority passed to the Protestants and a strong pro-French party was formed. At the same time, the elimination of the traditional support of the empire - free cities and church principalities - led to the loss of stability by the empire and the complete fall of the influence of the imperial throne. The Holy Roman Empire finally turned into a real conglomerate independent states, having lost the prospect of political survival, which became obvious even to Emperor Franz II. In an effort to remain equal in rank to Napoleon, in 1804 he took the title of Emperor of Austria. Although this act did not directly violate the imperial constitution, it indicated the Habsburgs' awareness of the possibility of losing the throne of the Holy Roman Empire. Then there was also the threat that Napoleon would be elected emperor of the Romans. Even the Archchancellor of the Empire was sympathetic to this idea. However, the last, mortal blow to the Holy Roman Empire was inflicted by Napoleon's victorious war with the Third Coalition in 1805. From now on, the empire faced two prospects: either dissolution or reorganization under French rule. Given Napoleon's power appetites, the preservation of the imperial throne by Franz II threatened to lead to a new war with Napoleon (as evidenced by the corresponding ultimatum), for which Austria was not ready. Having received guarantees from the French envoy that Napoleon would not seek the crown of the Roman emperor, Francis II decided to abdicate. On August 6, 1806, he announced the resignation of the title and powers of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, explaining this by the impossibility of fulfilling the duties of emperor after the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine. At the same time, he freed the imperial principalities, estates, ranks and officials of imperial institutions from the duties imposed on them by the imperial constitution. Although from a legal point of view, the act of renunciation is not considered irreproachable, the absence in Germany political will to maintain the existence of the imperial organization led to the fact that the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation ceased to exist.

Literature:

Balakin of the Holy Roman Empire. M., 2004; Bryce J. Holy Roman Empire. M., 1891; Bulst-, Holy Roman Empire: the era of formation / Per. with him. , ed. St. Petersburg, 2008; History of Austria: culture, society, politics. M., 2007; "Holy Roman Empire": claims and reality. M., 1977; Medvedev Habsburgs and estates in the beginning. 17th century M., 2004; Prokopiev in the era of religious schism: . St. Petersburg, 2002; Nizovsky of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. M., 2008; Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation / Per. from fr. . St. Petersburg, 2009; Social relations and political struggle in medieval Germany of the 13th-16th centuries. Vologda, 1985; Austro-Hungarian Empire. M., 2003; Angermeier H. Reichsreform 1410–1555. Munich, 1984; Aretin von K.O.F. Das Alte Reich. 4 vols. Stuttgart, ; Brauneder W., Höbelt L. (Hrsg.) Sacrum Imperium. Das Reich und Österreich 996–1806. Vienna, 1996; Bryce James. The Holy Roman Empire. New York, 1911; Gotthard A. Das Alte Reich 1495-1806. Darmstadt, 2003; Hartmann P. C. Das Heilige Römische Reich deutscher Nation in der Neuzeit . Stuttgart, 2005; Hartmann P. C. Kulturgeschichte des Heiligen Römischen Reiches 1648 bis 1806. Wien, 2001; Herbers K., Neuhaus H. Das Heilige Römische Reich-Schauplätze einer tausendjährigen Geschichte (843–1806). Koln-Weimar, 2005; Moraw P. Von offener Verfassung zu gestalteter Verdichtung. Das Reich im späten Mittelalter 1250 bis 1490. Berlin, 1985; Prietzel M. Das Heilige Römische Reich im Spätmittelalter. Darmstadt, 2004; Schmidt G. Geschichte des Alten Reiches. Munich, 1999; Schindling A., Ziegler W. (Hrsg.) Die Kaiser der Neuzeit 1519–1806. Heiliges Römisches Reich, Osterreich, Deutschland. Munich, 1990; Weinfurter S. Das Reich im Mittelalter. Kleine deutsche Geschichte von 500 bis 1500. München, 2008; Wilson P. H. The Holy Roman Empire, . London, 1999.

100 great politicians Sokolov Boris Vadimovich

Charles I the Great, King of the Franks, Emperor of the West (Holy Roman Empire) (742 (or 743) -814)

Charles I the Great, King of the Franks, Emperor of the West (Holy Roman Empire)

(742 (or 743) -814)

The creator of the largest after the Roman Empire in Western Europe, the King of the Franks and Emperor of the West, Charlemagne was the son of the King of the Franks Pepin the Short, the founder of the Carolingian dynasty and the grandson of King Charles Metellus and Queen Bertha. He was born on April 2, 742 or 743 in Aachen. In 745, Charles, along with his brother Carloman, were anointed kings of the Franks by Pope Stephen III. As a child, Karl was taught only military science and the basics of public education, but he did not receive a systematic education. In 768, after the death of his father, Charles got the western part of the Frankish kingdom with its center in Noyon, and Carloman - the eastern. In 771 Carloman died and Charles united all the Franks under his rule. In 772, he set off on the first of his 40 conquest campaigns: Charles defeated the Saxons, who were plundering the Frankish border regions. Then, in the years 773-775, at the call of the Pope, he went to Italy, where he defeated the Lombards, led by King Desiderius. In 774, at the Battle of Pavia, the Lombards were defeated, and Desiderius was captured and imprisoned in a monastery. Charles proclaimed himself king of the Lombards, annexing northern Italy to the Frankish kingdom. After the capture of Lombardy, Charles moved to Rome, where he forced the pope to crown him king of the Franks and Lombards. By the end of 776, Charles had completed the conquest of Northern and Central Italy. The next object of conquest was the Arab Emirates in Spain. However, here Charles failed in the siege of the fortress of Zaragoza and in 778 was forced to retreat behind the Pyrenees. Only in 796 did Charles manage to undertake a new campaign in Spain, in 801 he captured Barcelona, ​​and by 810 he conquered the north of the country.

Charles sought to convert the Saxons to Christianity. By 779, the territory of Saxony was occupied by Frankish troops. However, in 782 an uprising broke out, led by the leader of the Angrarian tribe, Vidukind, who had previously fled to Denmark to his brother-in-law King Sigurd. The Frankish garrisons were defeated, and the Franks taken prisoner at the Battle of Zuntel were destroyed. In response, Charles executed 4.5 thousand Saxons in the city of Verden on the Adler River and defeated the Saxon leader Widukind in 785 at the Battle of Minden, after which Widukind swore allegiance to Charles and was baptized. In 793, a new uprising broke out in conquered Saxony, which Charles brutally suppressed, according to legend, ordering the beheading of 4,000 Saxons in one day. The main part of Saxony was pacified by 799, and the north of the country, due to the active opposition of the Danes, only in 804. Part of the Slavic tribes, under the onslaught of the Franks and Saxons, went east, laying the foundation for the Eastern Slavs.

In 787, Byzantium began a war against Charles, in alliance with which some of the Lombards, Bavarians and Avars nomads came out. Charles managed to quickly advance into southern Italy and force the Byzantine troops to retreat from there. In 787-788, Charles captured Bavaria, expelling Duke Tosilla III from there, who was later imprisoned in a monastery. Then he had to endure a long war with the Avars, which lasted from 791 to 803. In this war, the allies of the Franks were the Slavic princes of Slavonia and Carinthia. As a result, the state of the Franks was expanded to Lake Balaton and Northern Croatia.

In 799, the Roman nobility expelled Pope Leo III from the Papal States. He called on Charles for help. The Frankish troops restored the throne to the pope. At the head of the Frankish army, Charles entered Rome and forced the assembly of bishops to approve the thesis that no one has the right to judge the pope. Leo III was recognized as the head of the entire Catholic Church.

In gratitude for his help, on Christmas Day 800, Leo III crowned Charles Emperor of the revived Western Roman Empire. Later it was called the Holy Roman Empire. But the actual capital of the empire was not Rome, where Karl was only four times, but Karl's native Aachen. In order to recognize his title, Charles fought again with Byzantium in 802-812 and achieved his goal, although he did not receive any significant territorial acquisitions. In 786–799, the Franks under Charles conquered Brittany.

After 800, large campaigns ceased. Charles, with the strongest army on the continent, was now preoccupied with defending what he had conquered. This no longer required much effort, and more attention could now be paid to the internal structure of the empire. On the ground, the functions of administration were performed by the vassals of the emperor - counts and margraves (the latter controlled the border districts - marks and commanded border military detachments). The count led the militia, collected taxes and, together with the assessors - sheffens, ruled the court. The counts and margraves were observed by special representatives appointed by Charles - "the sovereign's envoys", a kind of auditors who also had the right to administer the court on behalf of Charles. Twice a year Charles convened the state diets. At the first of them - the spring, called the "May Fields", - all free Franks could be present, but in fact only some of their representatives were present - secular and spiritual feudal lords. At the second Diet - in autumn - only large landowners were present. At these meetings, Karl issued decrees, which were then collected in collections - capitularies. These collections were distributed throughout the empire so that the subjects had the opportunity to get acquainted with the adopted laws.

Charles also took a number of measures to educate the population. In his possessions, the study of Latin was organized, schools were established at the monasteries, and all the children of free people were ordered to receive an education. Charles also organized the teaching of theology and the correspondence of books, especially church ones.

Charles reformed the Frankish army. Previously, its strength was in the infantry, which consisted of free peasants. Karl also focused on the feudal cavalry militia. Karl ordered all beneficiaries (holders of large land grants) to appear on demand in the army with a horse, weapons, equipment. All equipment then cost an average of 45 cows. Royal vassals came to war with their servants, who were heavily armed infantry and light cavalry. Free peasants and the poorest of the servants of the beneficiaries became foot archers. All free Franks were obliged to arm themselves for the war at their own expense. Out of every five francs who had one plot of land, one warrior was equipped. During the war, the soldiers had the right to appropriate part of the spoils of war, giving the other part to the emperor.

Within his empire, Charles perfected the judicial system. The court was administered by governors (counts) together with bishops or monks. Also, the military leaders authorized by the emperor, together with the clergy, made trips to the provinces to conduct visiting courts in criminal and civil cases. The flowering of art, known as the Carolingian Renaissance, is associated with the name of Charles. The empire of Charles became the strongest power in the West.

Charles died in Aachen on January 28, 814 from a fever. He was succeeded by his son Louis, two others legitimate son, Karl and Pipin, predeceased their father. In addition, Karl, who had three legal wives (one of them was considered the eldest) and five mistresses, had four illegitimate sons and eight daughters. In 843, according to the Treaty of Verdun, the empire was divided between the grandsons of Charles into three states, roughly corresponding to modern France, Germany and Italy, which were further fragmented into more countries. Charlemagne is often considered the founder of modern Western civilization. Interestingly, the name of Charles in the Latinized form, Carolus, "king", was later used to title the monarchs of Eastern Europe.

This text is an introductory piece.

DESIRE CLARY AND JEAN-BAPTISTE BERNADOTE Emperor and king to choose from Please tell me what you think: does the personal position of a loved one at court - or at the ministry, or at the director - matter? Or does love conquer all? Whom to marry - the director or

CHARLES THE GREAT (or CHARLEMAGN) 742-814 King of the Franks since 768. Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire since 800. Frankish commander. He came from the Frankish royal dynasty of the Carolingians, was the grandson of Charles Martel. Born in the family of Pepin the Short in the city of Aachen, in

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500-1558) Charles V, who united under his scepter the Holy Roman Empire and Spain (where he was considered King Charles I) with its Spanish colonies, so that the sun never set on his empire, was the son of a king Philip I

Peter I the Great, Emperor of Russia (1672–1725) First Russian emperor, who introduced Russia to contemporary European culture and took a decisive step towards turning the country into a truly great power, Peter I from the Romanov dynasty was born in Moscow on June 9, 1672. He

Frederick II the Great, King of Prussia (1712-1786) Frederick the Great, who went down in history as one of the greatest commanders, is also famous for turning Prussia into a great power thanks to his military and diplomatic genius. He was born on January 24, 1712 in Berlin, in

Chapter 4 The influence of the Hun invasion on the position of the Roman Empire, or the barbarians and Rome How did events unfold further in Europe?

The formation of the Holy Roman Empire, the largest European state of the Middle Ages, lies in difficult situation that developed in the region between antiquity and the early Middle Ages and were associated with the following factors.

• Painful perception by contemporaries of the process of the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, which was considered an unshakable state entity.
• Popularization by the clergy of the idea of ​​the existence of a world secular state, which is based on Roman law, Latin language and ancient culture.

Until the middle of the $8th century, Western Europe formally recognized the supremacy of the Byzantine emperors, but after the start of iconoclasm, Rome turned its eyes to the formed Frankish kingdom.

Remark 1

The real power of Charlemagne, crowned with the imperial crown, was comparable only to the power of the ruler of Rome. The act of coronation was formally considered the legalization of the power of Charles, but, in fact, was the result of an agreement between the pope and the king.

Charles himself attached great importance to the imperial title, which exalted him in the eyes of the world community and strengthened the foreign policy position of the empire. At the same time, the act of coronation meant the revival not of the Western Roman Empire, but of the Roman state as a whole. That is why Charles was considered the successor of the Byzantine emperor Constantine $VI$, who was deposed in $797$, and not the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustus. Rome was declared the ecclesiastical and political center of the empire, despite the fact that Aachen was the official capital of the state. However, the restored empire turned out to be a short-lived state formation, and already in $843$ it gradually faded away due to the results of the Verdun partition.

The source of the next revival of the empire in the first half of the 10th century was Germany. The foundation of the future Holy Roman Empire was laid by the founder of the Saxon dynasty, Henry I the Fowler ($919-936$). Otto $I$ ($936 - $973) became the successor of his undertakings, under which, Lorraine with the former capital of the empire, Aachen, became part of the state, the Hungarian invasion was repelled, and active expansion into Slavic lands began. At this time, the church became the main ally of the ruling house, and large tribal duchies were subordinated to the power of a single strong center.

By $960$-th years, Otto $I$ becomes the most powerful ruler among the states of the former Frankish Empire.

He declared himself the protector of the church, seeking to obtain the imperial crown from the hands of the pope. As a result, on January 31, $962$, Otto $I$ swore an oath to Pope John $XII$, which served as a legal basis for the formation of the Holy Roman Empire. On February 2, $962$, the coronation of $I$ Otto with the imperial crown took place, and on the same day the new ruler forced the pope and the Roman nobility to swear allegiance to him. Byzantium, like France, did not recognize the new emperor, which limited the universality of the empire.

Formation of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation

The Holy Roman Empire, founded in $962$, lasted until $1806$. It included the regions of Northern and Central Italy (including Rome), as well as the Czech Republic, Burgundy, and the Netherlands.

The formation of German statehood took place against the background of the dependence of royal power on the tribal duchies. As a result, the king, in the construction of a new state, relied on the church as the bearer of the state principle. So, the only organs of state administration were church institutions: monasteries, abbeys, bishoprics, interested in creating a single state.

The monarchs began to distribute vast land holdings to the clergy, including political rights to the granted territory in relation to the population from peasants to feudal lords. At the beginning of the $11th century, large counties were transferred into the hands of the church, in which counts were appointed bishops and received, along with abbots, the right of a royal bann.

Definition 1

Bann - The right of the state to exercise supreme judicial, legislative, executive and military power. In the early Middle Ages, it belonged to the king and government officials. In the period of the developed Middle Ages, Bann passes to the seigneurs. Also, the order of the judicial and administrative power of the feudal lord to a certain territory was also called a bann.

The king carried out the appointment of the higher clergy. This fact speaks of the actual transformation of church power into state power, since the clergy were involved in diplomatic and military service. Vassals of bishops and abbots formed the main backbone of the army, often the bishops themselves led the regiments.

This fusion of church and state had its own political consequences.

• Bishoprics are turning into isolated, politically closed territories.
• Germany is included in the foreign policy struggle for dominance over Italy, Rome and the papacy.
• The struggle between royal and ecclesiastical power for investiture.

Definition 2

Ecclesiastical Investiture - the appointment and ceremony of the inauguration of the bishop and abbot. It was accompanied by two acts: the presentation of a staff and a ring, symbolizing spiritual power and the transfer of land ownership, and a scepter, a symbol of secular power.

The struggle between the empire and the papacy ended in $1122 with the signing of the Concordat of Worms, according to which the election of bishops in Germany was held under the supervision of the emperors, and in other parts of the empire under the control of the papal administration.

History of the term "Holy Roman Empire"

The term Holy Roman Empire appeared only by the $12th century thanks to the emperor Frederick Barbarossa, who, as a symbol of the designation of the Christian Catholic state, made the prefix Sacred to the name Roman Empire, already established in the $11th century, which emphasized the belief in the sanctity of the state formation and claims emperors to the church due to the intensified struggle for investiture. The first emperors - Charlemagne and Otto $I$ did not use this name, implying, however, that they would soon become the rulers of the entire Christian world. Otto $I$ bore the modest title of "Emperor of the Romans and Franks". The reasons for this delay in the designation of the state have a diplomatic background, since Byzantium was considered the successor of the Roman Empire. However, in the process of the revival of Roman law and the revival of relations with Byzantium, the name takes root in the mind, and under Charles $IV$ the prefix "German nation" appears. This happened after the hands of the Austrian Habsburg dynasty were lands inhabited mainly by Germans. It was originally introduced to separate the German lands from the Roman Empire as a whole.

The empire founded was essentially a regular feudal monarchy, with the emperor ruling over tribal duchies and marches.

Definition 3

1. Neighboring rural or territorial community of the Germans, formed in the $V-VI$ centuries, which is characterized by the presence of individual ownership of allotment arable land, communal ownership of pastures, forests and meadows.
2. In Frankish state and the Holy Roman Empire - a fortified administrative-border district ruled by margraves. Created for military purposes.

Initially, the empire had the features of a feudal-theocratic monarchy, where the emperor was considered the vicar of God on earth in secular affairs and acted as the protector of the church. Consequently, the power of the emperor corresponded to the power of the pope, and the relationship between them was analogous to the coexistence of soul and body. The emperor was also declared "the patron of Palestine and the Catholic faith", "the protector of the faithful". However, this status was the cause of the centuries-old struggle between the emperors and the papacy, which, along with increased fragmentation, constantly weakened the empire.