from his horse ... "Which of the first Kyiv princes
according to legend, this is how he ended his life?

A)
Igor

c)
Vladimir

D)
Rurik

2. “Our land is great
space and rich in bread, but there is no state structure in it. Go to
us to reign and govern" - so he wrote ...

A)
Metropolitan Hilarion

b)
Nestor the chronicler

3. The first stone temple
called in Russia...

A)
Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv

b)
Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod

c)
Tithe Church in Kyiv

D)
Church of the Intercession on the Nerl

4. Are the following correct?
statements?

BUT.
A fresco is a water-based painting on wet plaster.

B.
The construction of the first Christian churches in Russia was led by Varangian masters

A)
only A is true;

b)
only B is true;

c)
both judgments are correct;

D)
both judgments are wrong.

5. Are the following correct?
statements?

BUT.
Vladimir was the son of Svyatoslav from his concubine housekeeper Olga Malusha, meanwhile
how Yaropolk and Oleg descended from the legitimate wives of Svyatoslav.

B.
The last wife of Saint Vladimir was Rogneda, who bore him Boris and Gleb.

A)
only A is true;

b)
only B is true;

c)
both judgments are correct;

D)
both judgments are wrong.

6. Are the following correct?
statements?

B.
Boris and Gleb were the first saints of the Russian Orthodox Church.

A)
only A is true;

b)
only B is true;

c)
both judgments are correct;

D)
both judgments are wrong.

7. What event
happened before the others?

A)
the murder of Igor by the Drevlyans;

b)
campaigns of Svyatoslav Igorevich;

c)
Oleg the Prophet's campaigns against Tsargrad;

D)
Olga's reform.

8. What term is

A)
lessons;

b)
polyudie;

D)
churchyards.

9. What term is
generalizing for everyone else?

A)
nogata;

b)
cut;

D)
hryvnia.

10. Which one
literary works appeared earlier than others?

A)
"The Tale of Bygone Years" by Nestor the chronicler;

b)
"Sermon on Law and Grace" by Metropolitan Hilarion;

c)
"Teaching Children" by Vladimir Monomakh;

D)
"The Journey of Hegumen Daniel".

11. Who from
Vladimir-Suzdal princes took Kyiv from the battle and subjected the city to a terrible
ruin?

A)
Andrei Bogolyubsky;

b)
Yury Dolgoruky;

c)
Alexander Nevskiy;

D)
Vsevolod Big Nest.

12. Are the following correct?
judgments about the Novgorod Republic?

BUT.
In the intervals between the convocation of the veche, the council of gentlemen was the supreme governing body,
consisting of the posadnik, the thousandth, the archbishop, chosen at the veche,
archimandrite.

B.
The prince not only did not manage state affairs, but also did not have the right to own
property in Novgorod.

A)
only A is true;

b)
only B is true;

c)
both judgments are correct;

D)
both judgments are wrong.

13. Are the following statements about Tatar correct?
invasion?

A. After the fall of Ryazan, the struggle
against the enemy headed the voivode Yevpaty Kolovrat.

B. none
from Russian cities could not hold out against the Mongols for more than 10 days.

A) right
only A;

B) right
only B;

C) are true
both judgments;

D) both
judgments are wrong.

14. Which of the Tatar khans led their army
during a campaign against Russia?

A)
Genghis Khan;

c)
Subedey;

15. Metropolitan Cyril said: “My children,
know that the sun of the land of Suzdal has already set! About the death of which prince it was so
said?

A) Andrew
Bogolyubsky;

B) Yuri Dolgoruky;

c)
Alexander Nevskiy;

D) Vsevolod Bolshoi
Nest.

Fill in the gaps in the table "Batu campaigns against Russia" Date Event 1235. The Council of Mongol Khans decided

start a campaign against Russia. The army was led by the grandson _____________ Batu

The Mongols defeated ________________________.

The Mongols subjugated the Polovtsy and began preparations for a campaign against Russia.

December 1237

The siege and capture of the Mongols - Tatars __________________________________________________

January 1238

The capture of Kolomna by the Mongol-Tatars and ______________________

The siege and capture of Vladimir by the Mongol Tatars

The battle on the river ____________________ of Russian troops led by the Grand Duke of Vladimir ________________ and Mongol - Tatar troops. The defeat of the Russian army and the death of the Grand Duke.

March 1238

The siege and capture of the shopping center _____________________. The return of the Mongolian army, which did not reach 100 miles to ________________________________, to the southern steppes.

The beginning of the 50-day siege by the Mongol-Tatars of a small Russian city __________________________________

Summer 1238

The exhausted detachments of Batu rested in the steppes near the Don.

Autumn 1238

Batu's invasion of Ryazan land. Destruction of cities

______________________________________________________

Batu's invasion of the lands of Southern Russia. Burning cities ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The siege and capture of the monogolo - Tatars ______________________

___________________________________________________

Imagine that in the 12th century, during a brief truce between the Crusaders and the Muslims, a Knight Templar invited a nobleman to a joint lion hunt.

Muslim warrior from the troops of Salah ad-Din (Saladin). Describe their conversation during the hunt and the feast in which each would explain the justice of his cause and predict the future outcome of the confrontation!

Task: FIND THE ERRORS IN THE GIVEN TEXT AND POST THEM. Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov led a popular uprising. He was formerly a merchant, possessed

outstanding mind and military talent. Bolotnikov promised the peasants and serfs freedom. And people went to him and went. the rebels, led by their leader, headed for the capital. Near Moscow, their army united with the noble rebel army. At the decisive hour, the rebels were dealt a strong blow: the nobles, led by Lyapunov and Pashkov, went over to the side of Shuisky. The situation changed dramatically, and the rebels in December 1605 The city retreated to Kaluga. But this was not the end. Bolotnikov won a number of more victories, but they did not turn the tide of events. the scales tipped in favor of government troops. During one of the battles, Bolotnikov was captured and executed, and the rebels went home.

Where did the term "Tatars" originally come from - the first answers were not bad. But here it would be necessary to recall the further development of the Golden Horde. It was also a huge empire, stretching in the west from the Crimea, and the southeastern territories of Ukraine to the Caucasus and Central Asia in the south, and Western Siberia in the East. The question is: how could it exist at all, and not fall apart immediately? But because there were unifying factors that were specific to the Ulus of Jochi (the rest of the former territories of the Mongol Empire also had their own):

Turkic peoples lived throughout the entire territory of the Golden Horde. Nomadic, or recently former. Differences in language among the majority were not critical; so they were basically mutually intelligible. As a language of communication and official used, in different versions, the Old Turkic language, or Turks. Which at the very least could be understood by the Polovtsy (the main ancestors of the Crimean Tatars); and the ancestors of the Uzbeks; and Bulgars from the Volga region; and those Turks who settled in the Caucasus, etc.

Yes, like nomads, a huge part of the population had no fundamental contradictions, as such, with the Mongols. They fit perfectly into the Mongolian war machine. The Mongols were originally a minority. Quite quickly they assimilated among the surrounding Turkic population.

Islam was soon adopted as the official religion. This strengthened the sympathy for the country of those who ended up on the territory of Z.O. Muslim Turks from the Volga region and from Central Asia. Their culture and socio-economic structure were a kind of cementing factor. And they allowed many non-settled peoples to develop simultaneously.

Both non-Turkic and non-Muslim peoples lived in the Ulus of Jochi. Say, numerous Finno-Ugric, or those who lived in the North Caucasus. But it was the Turks who professed Islam (both nomadic and settled) in such an empire, almost everything suited; they eventually began to perceive it as "their" state, and support and protect it. It was possible to create a certain community of them within the framework of such an empire.

For the Russians of the XIII-XV centuries, meanwhile, there was no particular difference between the Mongols and the Turks. There were just those villains of oriental appearance, speaking an incomprehensible language, who came on horseback to collect tribute, and periodically staged raids. He continued to call them the word under which the information about the Mongols was initially horrified in all the surrounding countries.

After Golden Horde nevertheless, it fell apart, for a Russian person, the Turks on horseback, professing Islam, with whom they had to fight as they overcame the next khanate, all the same were "Tatars". Moreover, horsemen who believed in Allah, speaking in dialects indistinguishable to the Slavic ear, did indeed appear from the Crimea and Western Siberia. And then, as the country expanded, and the creation of the Russian Empire, the rule spread to almost all Turkic peoples. Roman wrote: “In general, “Tatars” in Russian is something like “Germans” (those who do not speak an understandable language, that is, “dumb”, incapable of speaking humanly), this is not the name of any particular people, but a general term for "foreign", nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes from somewhere in the East." - but after all, Tatars were called, for example, not at all nomadic Azerbaijanis - "Transcaucasian Tatars." (This is what takes out the brain while reading fiction literature XIX century, associated with the Caucasus). Karachays - "Mountain Tatars", Nogais - "Nogai Tatars", Khakasses - "Abakan Tatars", etc. In the story "The Enchanted Wanderer" by N. Leskov, the Tatars mean the Kazakhs. Even though few of them called themselves that, and the differences between, say, Karachays and Chulyms are huge.

Historically, several nations nevertheless took the word as the official name of the ethnic group: Volga Tatars, Crimean Tatars, and Siberian Tatars. And then, it finally happened only in the XX century.

So initially, we can say that when the Mongols just invaded the territory of the Russian principalities, the Tatars were not among them either in the original (exterminated Mongol tribe) or in the subsequent sense. But when the state of Ulus Jochi appeared - the Golden Horde, through which, first of all, the so-called yoke was carried out, the majority of the population very quickly became Tatars there.

I will supplement the previous excellent answer by Roman Khmelevsky with a remark to the second part of your question. The fact is that the term "yoke" is traditional name the system of relationships that developed between the ulus of Jochi and the Russian principalities in the 13th-15th centuries. At the same time, the term itself has a relatively late origin and was first used by the Polish chronicler Jan Dlugosz in the 15th century. In Russia, the term "yoke" appears no earlier than the middle of the 17th century, and the expression "Mongol-Tatar yoke" itself was first used in 1817 by the German author Christian Kruse in the Atlas of European History. Thus, the term "yoke" is inapplicable to refer to the medieval state of the nomadic Mongols, it is used only to refer to the relations that have developed between them and the ancient Russian lands (and at present, the correctness of its use is not a phenomenon in itself, but the term "yoke" is put under doubt).

As for the term "Golden Horde", it's a bit more complicated. Traditionally, this name is used in historiography to refer to the state formation of the nomadic Mongols, which existed from the 30s. XIII approximately to the end of the XV century. The word "horde" is of Turkic origin (from ordu - a fortified military camp) and at that time it meant the khan's headquarters, the place of residence of the commander in chief. It was first used by Ibn Battuta, an Arab traveler of the XIV century - this is how he called the golden tent of Khan Uzbek. It quickly took root, especially since it was quite appropriate in the context of the Mongolian tradition to designate the main and secondary rates of the khans. So, after the conquest of the territories included in the Juchi ulus (the inheritance of the eldest son of Genghis Khan, who was supposed to conquer it for himself), it was divided into several inheritances, which were headed by the grandchildren of Genghis - Batu’s part was called the White Horde, and part of his older brother was the Blue Horde (in the Mongolian tradition, white denoted the west, blue - the east). But they themselves did not call their state, which had separated from the great khan by the middle of the 13th century, the Golden Horde - they simply called it "ulus", the state, adding various epithets to it (the word "ulug", great, or the name of an acting or famous in the past khan). Nevertheless, the name "Golden Horde" seems to be correct, because. long accepted in historical science. One can draw a parallel with Byzantium - this state itself was never called that (although this name was sometimes used by the Romans for the sublime naming of Constantinople), but in modern historiography it is this designation that is most common for the Eastern Roman Empire, and even the very science of it is called Byzantine studies.

I agree with the author above. With the Tatars among the Mongols, the topic is very muddy. But in short, it goes like this:
There were Mongols, there were Tatars. There was a man named Yesigei, who at first simply fought with his brave horsemen, then decided to unite all the territories north of China, inhabited by nomads, whom the Chinese themselves called "black Mongols", while the "whites" assimilated in the northern provinces. And inside the black Mongols there was a distribution directly to the Mongols and those who are commonly called Tatars. And so the brave Yesigei Baatur with his allies killed all the enemies, including the Tatars, and united Mongolia for the first time in history. But the then Mongolian savages did not know the word "honor", and very soon Yesigei, who spent the night with the Tatars on the way home, was poisoned. Then the hunt for his family began, but now the main thing for us is that a boy named Temujin survived, who saw how the Tatars cut everything he loved. Then he grew up, found those who remained faithful to his father and declared war on the Tatars, whom he considered guilty (rightly) of the death of his father. Everything was decided in one big battle, at night, when Temujin managed to defeat the united Tatar army and took many soldiers prisoner. You yourself understand that it is better not to give exact figures here, because everything will be a lie. So Temujin became Genghis Khan, and the Tatars were forcibly poured into the Mongol army.
What did I lead all this to? I led this to the fact that, according to Mongolian military traditions, prisoners always marched as infantry in the forefront and died very quickly, because death awaited them on both sides: both in front and behind the Mongols, if they decided to retreat. So we can safely say that by the campaign of the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu to Russia and Europe, there were few original Tatars in the army, and those that remained, with long service and loyalty, achieved commanding ranks among the Mongols and finally assimilated among their conquerors.

It's a complex and confusing story. Firstly, the "Tatars" in the "Tatar-Mongol yoke" are, in general, not at all the same "Tatars" that are in present-day Kazan and Tatarstan, and this creates the first confusion. The Tatars in Tatarstan are more likely the descendants of the population of the Volga Bulgaria, partly the Polovtsy, they have always lived there on the Volga, and have nothing to do with the Mongol tribes (although, of course, there have been a lot, since then, a lot, like everywhere). During the period of the Golden Horde (Ulus Jushi), these Tatars, like many other peoples, were part of it.

Those "Tatars" who are "Mongol-Tatars" - it was a Mongol tribe, subjugated at one time by Genghis Khan (Temuchin), and, in the process of subjugation, practically destroyed and assimilated (there is a long story why so, they killed Temuchin's father and he took revenge ).

In general, "Tatars" in Russian is something like "Germans" (those who do not speak an understandable language, that is, "dumb", incapable of speaking humanly), this is not the name of a particular people, but a general term for "foreign", nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes from somewhere in the East.2. Tatars even before Genghis Khan were numerous and made up tribal associations otuz Tatars (thirty Tatar tribes) Tokuz Tatars (nine Tatar tribes). This is written on the monument to Kul-Tegin, the Turkic commander. There is no evidence that Genghis Khan destroyed all 39 Tatar tribes.
3. The Tatars were Türkic-speaking - on the monument to Kul-Tegin they are described as Türks. Later, mingling with the Mongol-speaking peoples, they adopted their language.
4. The Mongols of the Middle Ages are mostly Turks and they have nothing to do with modern Mongols (Khalkha). The fact that Genghis Khan was a Khalkha Mongol can be successfully refuted on the grounds that he did not speak Mongolian, but Tatar. This is evidenced by the story of the Flemish monk - the Franciscan Guillaume de Rubruk, who at one time visited the headquarters of Batu Khan. Rubruk retells a widespread parable of the time. An Arab who came to the headquarters of Mengu Khan (one of the grandsons of the Shaker of the Universe) began to describe his dream to him, saying that he dreamed of Genghis Khan, who demanded that Muslims in his possessions be executed everywhere.
And then Mengu Khan asked the Arab: “What language did my illustrious ancestor speak to you?” "In Arabic," was the answer. “So you’re all lying,” Mengu Khan was angry. “My ancestor didn’t know any other language except Tatar.”
And the same story almost one to one leads in his "Collection of Chronicles" and Rashid-ad-Din.

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History of naval art

Battle of Kulikovo

Supreme ruler of the Golden Horde Mamai was struck by the defeat of his troops on the Vozha River: the army was defeated, the rich "Russian ulus" was lost.

Mamai decided to restore the "right" of the Golden Horde to this "ulus" and raise the shaken authority of the Tatar "invincibility", undermined Russian victory on the Vozha River. Preparing for a new campaign against Moscow, he united all Tatar army under his own leadership, and executed those who opposed this order. Then he called on mercenaries to help the Tatar army - Turkic-Mongolian tribes from beyond the Caspian Sea, Circassians from the Caucasus and Genoese from the Crimea. Thus, Mamai gathered a huge army, reaching 300 thousand people. Finally, he won over to his side Lithuanian prince Jagiello who feared the rise of Moscow. Ryazan Prince Oleg also expressed his obedience to Mamai and promised, together with the Lithuanian prince, to act on the side of the Tatars against Moscow.

Summer 1380 Mamai at the head of an army of many thousands, he undertook a campaign against Moscow with the aim of finally defeating it and subordinating it to the Golden Horde. The robber motto of the Tatar hordes read: “Execute the obstinate slaves! May their cities, villages and Christian churches be ashes! Let's get rich with Russian gold."

Having transported his troops across the Volga, Mamai led them to the upper reaches of the Don, where he was supposed to join the troops of Jagiello and Oleg.

When Moscow prince Dimitri Ivanovich received news of the movement of Mamai to Russia, he energetically set about preparing the defeat of the Tatars. He sent messengers to all the principalities with the order that all the princes should immediately go to Moscow with their troops. The Russian people, having a burning hatred for the enslaving Tatars, warmly responded to the patriotic appeal of the Moscow prince. Not only princes with their retinues went to Moscow, but also peasants and townspeople, who made up the bulk of the Russian army. Thus, in an exceptionally short time, the Moscow prince managed to gather an army of 150 thousand people.

Dimitri Ivanovich convened in Moscow military council of princes and governor to whom he offered his plan to defeat the Tatars . According to this plan, the Russian troops were to advance towards the enemy, seize the initiative in their own hands and, preventing the enemy from joining forces, smash him piece by piece. The council approved the plan of Prince Dimitri and outlined the collection of troops in Kolomna.

By the end of July, most of the Russian troops were already concentrated in Kolomna. Here Dimitri Ivanovich reviewed his troops. Then he singled out a strong reconnaissance detachment led by experienced warriors Rodion Rzhevsky, Andrei Volosaty and Vasily Tupik and sent him to the upper reaches of the Don. The task of the reconnaissance detachment was to determine the forces of the enemy and the direction of his movement. Without receiving any information from this detachment for a long time, Dimitri Ivanovich sent a second reconnaissance detachment with the same purpose.

On the way to the Don, the second detachment met Vasily Tupik, who was returning to Kolomna with a captured "language". The prisoner showed that Mamai was slowly moving towards the Don, waiting for the Lithuanian and Ryazan princes to join him. The joining of opponents was to take place on September 1 near the mouth of the Nepryadva River, a tributary of the Don.

Having received this information, Dimitri Ivanovich convened a military council, which decided to immediately begin the movement of Russian troops to the Don in order to defeat the main forces of Mamai before the rest of the opponents approached him.

On August 26, Russian troops left Kolomna and moved on the left bank of the Oka River to the southwest. Two days later they reached the mouth of the Lopasni (a tributary of the Oka), where on the 28th they crossed over to the right bank of the Oka and went straight south. Such a route fully corresponded to the political and strategic considerations of the Moscow prince, who did not want to make the transition to the Don through the lands of the Ryazan prince Oleg.

Dimitri Ivanovich knew that Oleg had betrayed the interests of his freedom-loving people to the enslaving Tatars, so he sought to make his transition to the Don secretive and unexpected for the traitor prince. Oleg, on the other hand, was convinced that the Moscow prince would not dare to oppose Mamai and, during the Tatars’ campaign against Moscow, would “run away to distant places.” He then wrote about this to Mamai, hoping to receive from him the possessions of the Moscow prince.

On September 5, the advanced cavalry detachments of the Russians reached the mouth of the Nepryadva, where all the other troops approached two days later. According to intelligence reports, Mamai was standing three steps from Nepryadva, at Kuzmina Gati, where he was waiting for the Lithuanian and Ryazan squads. As soon as Mamai found out about the arrival of the Russians on the Don, he decided to prevent them from crossing to the left bank. But it was already too late.

On September 7, Dimitri Ivanovich convened a military council to discuss the issue of crossing the Don. The raising of this issue at the military council was not accidental, because some of the princes and governor spoke out against crossing the Don. They were not sure of victory over the enemy, who was numerically superior to the Russian army, which, in the event of a forced retreat, would not be able to get away from the Tatars, having behind them a water barrier - the Don. In order to persuade his vacillating commanders to cross the Don, Dimitri Ivanovich said at the council: “Dear friends and brothers! Know that I did not come here to look at Oleg and Jagiello or to guard the Don River, but to save the Russian land from captivity and ruin or lay my head for Russia. An honest death is better than a shameful life. It was better not to oppose the Tatars than, having acted and done nothing, to return back. Today we will go beyond the Don and there we will either win and save the entire Russian people from death, or we will lay down our lives for our homeland.

The speech of Dimitri Ivanovich at the military council in defense of offensive actions with the aim of destroying the manpower of the enemy corresponded to the desire of the Russian people and their armed forces to put an end to the enslaving Tatars. The decision of the council to cross the Don had also something extremely important. strategic importance that it made it possible for the Russians to keep the initiative in their hands and beat the opponents piece by piece.

On the night of September 8, the Russian army crossed the Don, and in the morning, under the cover of fog, lined up in battle formation. The latter corresponded to the prevailing situation and the tactical features of the fighting of the Tatars. Dimitri Ivanovich knew that the main force of Mamai's huge army - the cavalry - was strong with crushing flank attacks. Therefore, in order to defeat the enemy, it was necessary to deprive him of this maneuver and force him to switch to a frontal attack. A decisive role in achieving this goal was played by the choice of the battle position and the skillful construction of the battle order.

The position occupied by the Russian troops for a decisive battle with the Tatars was on the Kulikovo field. It was bounded on three sides by the Nepryadva and Don rivers, which in many places have steep and steep banks. The eastern and western parts of the field were crossed by ravines, along which the tributaries of the Don - Kurtsa and Smolka, and the tributaries of the Nepryadva - the Middle and Lower Dubyak flowed. Across the Smolka River was a large and dense Green Oak forest. Thus, the flanks of the Russian troops were reliably protected by natural barriers, which largely limited the actions of the Tatar cavalry. Five regiments and a general reserve of Russian troops were built in order of battle on the Kulikovo field. stood in front guard regiment , and behind it at some distance advanced regiment under the command of the governor Dimitry and Vladimir Vsevolodovich, which included foot army Velyaminov. Behind him was big regiment consisting mainly of infantry. This regiment was the basis of the entire battle order. At the head of a large regiment were Dimitri Ivanovich himself and the Moscow governors. To the right of the large shelf was located regiment of the right hand under the command of Mikula Vasiliev and princes Andrei Olgerdovich and Semyon Ivanovich. Left Hand Regiment led by the princes Belozersky, stood to the left of a large regiment near the Smolka River. These two regiments consisted of cavalry and foot squads. Behind the large regiment was located private reserve , consisting of cavalry. A strong ambush regiment (general reserve) , which consisted of selected cavalry under the command of Prince Serpukhov and boyar Bobrok Volynets. To monitor the Lithuanian prince was sent reconnaissance squad.

Such the location of Russian troops on the Kulikovo field fully consistent with the plan of Dmitry Donskoy - a decisive battle to destroy the enemy.

Based on the current situation on the Kulikovo field, Mamai was forced to abandon his favorite method of attacking the flanks and accept a frontal battle, which was extremely disadvantageous for him. In the center of the battle order of his troops, Mamai placed infantry, consisting of mercenaries, on the flanks - cavalry.

From 12 noon, the Tatar army moved closer. According to the custom of that time, the heroes began the battle. Russian hero Alexander Peresvet entered into combat with Tatar hero Temir-Murza. The warriors let the horses gallop towards each other. The blow of the heroes who collided in a duel was so strong that both opponents fell dead.

The clash of the heroes was the signal for the start of the battle. The bulk of the Tatars with a wild cry rushed to the advanced regiment, which boldly entered into battle with them. In the advanced regiment was also Dimigri Ivanovich, who moved here even before the start of the battle. His presence inspired the warriors; with them he fought to the death.

The Russians courageously repulsed the onslaught of the brutal hordes of Mamai, and almost all the soldiers of the guard and advanced regiments died the death of the brave. Only a small group of Russian soldiers, together with Dimitri Ivanovich, retreated to a large regiment. A terrible battle began between the main forces of the opponents. Counting on their numerical superiority. Mamai tried to break through the center of the Russian battle order in order to destroy them piece by piece. Straining all their strength, a large regiment held its positions. The enemy attack was repulsed. Then the Tatars attacked with their cavalry the regiment of the right hand, which successfully repelled this onslaught. Then the Tatar cavalry rushed to the left flank, and the regiment of the left hand was defeated; retreating to the Nepryadva River, he exposed the flank of a large regiment. Covering the left flank of the Russian troops, the Tatars began to enter the rear of a large regiment, at the same time intensifying the attack from the front. But with this approach, the enemy put the flank and rear of his cavalry under attack by an ambush regiment hidden in the Green Oakwood and patiently waiting for the right moment to deliver a crushing blow.

“... Our hour has come. Dare, brothers and friends!” - addressed Bobrok to the troops of the ambush regiment and gave the order to decisively attack the enemy.

The selected squads of the ambush regiment, all the time rushing into battle, swiftly flew into the Tatar cavalry and inflicted a terrible defeat on it. From such an unexpected and stunning blow, confusion occurred in the ranks of the enemy, and he began to retreat in a panic, pursued by all Russian troops. The panic was so strong that Mamai was no longer able to restore the order of battle of his troops. He also, mad with fear, fled from the battlefield.

The Russians pursued the Tatars for 50 km and stopped only on the banks Red Mecha river . The entire huge convoy of Mamai was taken by the Russians.

The enemy in the Battle of Kulikovo lost over 150 thousand people, the Russians - about 40 thousand.

The Lithuanian prince Jagiello, who was going to connect with Mamai, during the battle was in one transition from the Kulikovo field. Upon learning of the defeat of the Tatars, he hastily withdrew his troops to Lithuania. Following Jagiello, Prince Oleg of Ryazan also fled to Lithuania. His treacherous plan did not find support among the people. The population of the Ryazan principality, suffering from the devastating Tatar raids, was on the side of the Moscow prince Dimitri Ivanovich and warmly sympathized with his victory over the hordes of Mamai.

In honor of this victory, the Moscow prince Dimitri Ivanovich was named Donskoy.

findings

The historical significance of the Battle of Kulikovo lies in the fact that it marked the beginning of the liberation of Russia from the Tatar yoke and contributed to the unification, centralization and strengthening of the Russian state.

The Battle of Kulikovo showed the indisputable superiority of Russian military art over the military art of the Tatars.

Dimitri Ivanovich Donskoy was an outstanding political and military leader of the Russian people.

As a statesman, he successfully solved the most important political task of uniting the Russian lands around Moscow. He understood that the struggle against the Tatars, as the most powerful and dangerous enemy, required the unification of the entire Russian people.

As a commander, Dimitry Donskoy showed high standards of military art. His strategy, like that of Alexander Nevsky, was active. The liberation goals of the war attracted the people to the side of Prince Dimitri, who supported his decisive actions against the Tatars. The troops of Demetrius Donskoy were inspired by the great goal of the liberation struggle against the foreign yoke, which determined the high level and progressive nature of military art in the fight against the Tatars.

Dimitry Donskoy's strategy was characterized by concentration of the main forces and means in a decisive direction . So, on the Kulikovo field against Mamai, he concentrated all his forces, and against the Lithuanian prince Jagiello - a small reconnaissance detachment.

The tactics of Dimitry Donskoy were of an active, offensive nature. An offensive with the aim of destroying the enemy's manpower was a characteristic feature of the military art of Dimitry Donskoy.

Dimitry Donskoy attached great importance to reconnaissance, reserves, as well as the interaction of all parts of the battle formation, the pursuit and destruction of the defeated enemy.

The Battle of Kulikovo is a major one historic victory Russian military art over the military art of the Tatars, who were considered "invincible".

The Soviet people honors the names of their great ancestors, carefully preserves and develops their military heritage rich in exploits. Their courageous image serves as a symbol of justice in the struggle against foreign enslavers and inspires the people to heroic deeds in the name of the freedom and independence of the socialist Motherland.

Of great importance for the development of military and naval art was the invention of gunpowder and the introduction of firearms. For the first time firearms were used by the Chinese. There is evidence that in China, cannons that fired stone cannonballs were used in 610 BC. e. There is also a known case of the use of cannons by the Chinese in 1232 during the defense of Kangfeng-fu from the Mongols.

From the Chinese, gunpowder passed to the Arabs, and from the Arabs to the European peoples.

In Russia, the beginning of the use of firearms was laid by the Moscow prince Dimitri Ivanovich Donskoy. In 1382, for the first time in the history of wars in Russia, Muscovites used cannons mounted on the walls of the Kremlin against the Tatars.

The appearance of firearms in Russia was of great importance for the development of Russian military art; it also contributed to the centralization and strengthening of the Muscovite state.

Engels noted: “In order to obtain firearms, industry and money were needed, and both were owned by the townspeople. Firearms were therefore from the very beginning the weapons of the cities and of the rising monarchy, which, in its struggle against the feudal nobility, relied on the cities.

Russia under the Mongol-Tatar yoke existed in an extremely humiliating way. She was completely subjugated both politically and economically. Therefore, the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia, the date of standing on the Ugra River - 1480, is perceived as the most important event in our history. Although Russia became politically independent, the payment of tribute in a smaller amount continued until the time of Peter the Great. The complete end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke is the year 1700, when Peter the Great canceled payments to the Crimean khans.

Mongolian army

In the XII century, the Mongol nomads united under the rule of the cruel and cunning ruler Temujin. He mercilessly suppressed all obstacles to unlimited power and created a unique army that won victory after victory. He, creating a great empire, was called by his nobility Genghis Khan.

Having conquered East Asia, the Mongol troops reached the Caucasus and Crimea. They destroyed the Alans and Polovtsians. The remnants of the Polovtsians turned to Russia for help.

First meeting

There were 20 or 30 thousand soldiers in the Mongol army, it has not been precisely established. They were led by Jebe and Subedei. They stopped at the Dnieper. Meanwhile, Khotyan was persuading the Galich prince Mstislav Udaly to oppose the invasion of the terrible cavalry. He was joined by Mstislav of Kyiv and Mstislav of Chernigov. According to various sources, the total Russian army numbered from 10 to 100 thousand people. The military council took place on the banks of the Kalka River. A unified plan was not developed. performed alone. He was supported only by the remnants of the Polovtsy, but during the battle they fled. The princes of Galicia who did not support the princes still had to fight the Mongols who attacked their fortified camp.

The battle lasted for three days. Only by cunning and a promise not to take anyone prisoner did the Mongols enter the camp. But they did not keep their word. The Mongols tied the Russian governor and the prince alive and covered them with boards and sat on them and began to feast on the victory, enjoying the groans of the dying. So the Kyiv prince and his entourage perished in agony. The year was 1223. The Mongols, without going into details, went back to Asia. They will return in thirteen years. And all these years in Russia there was a fierce squabble between the princes. It completely undermined the forces of the Southwestern Principalities.

Invasion

The grandson of Genghis Khan, Batu, with a huge army of half a million, having conquered the Polovtsian lands in the south in the east, approached the Russian principalities in December 1237. His tactic was not to give a big battle, but to attack individual units, breaking them all one by one. Approaching the southern borders of the Ryazan principality, the Tatars demanded tribute from him in an ultimatum: a tenth of the horses, people and princes. In Ryazan, three thousand soldiers were barely recruited. They sent for help to Vladimir, but no help came. After six days of siege, Ryazan was taken.

The inhabitants were destroyed, the city was destroyed. It was the beginning. The end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke will take place in two hundred and forty difficult years. Kolomna was next. There, the Russian army was almost all killed. Moscow lies in ashes. But before that, someone who dreamed of returning to his native places buried it in a treasure trove of silver jewelry. It was found by chance when construction was underway in the Kremlin in the 90s of the XX century. Vladimir was next. The Mongols spared neither women nor children and destroyed the city. Then Torzhok fell. But spring came, and, fearing a mudslide, the Mongols moved south. Northern swampy Russia did not interest them. But the defending tiny Kozelsk stood in the way. For nearly two months, the city resisted fiercely. But reinforcements came to the Mongols with wall-beating machines, and the city was taken. All the defenders were cut out and left no stone unturned from the town. So, the whole North-Eastern Russia by 1238 lay in ruins. And who can doubt whether there was a Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia? From the brief description it follows that there were wonderful good neighborly relations, right?

Southwestern Russia

Her turn came in 1239. Pereyaslavl, the Principality of Chernigov, Kyiv, Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich - everything was destroyed, not to mention smaller cities and villages and villages. And how far is the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke! How much horror and destruction brought its beginning. The Mongols went to Dalmatia and Croatia. Western Europe trembled.

However, news from distant Mongolia forced the invaders to turn back. And they didn’t have enough strength to go back. Europe was saved. But our Motherland, lying in ruins, bleeding, did not know when the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke would come.

Russia under the yoke

Who suffered the most from the Mongol invasion? Peasants? Yes, the Mongols did not spare them. But they could hide in the woods. Townspeople? Certainly. There were 74 cities in Russia, and 49 of them were destroyed by Batu, and 14 were never restored. Artisans were turned into slaves and exported. There was no continuity of skills in crafts, and the craft fell into decay. They forgot how to pour dishes from glass, cook glass for making windows, there were no multi-colored ceramics and decorations with cloisonne enamel. Stonemasons and carvers disappeared, and stone construction was suspended for 50 years. But it was hardest of all for those who repelled the attack with weapons in their hands - the feudal lords and combatants. Of the 12 princes of Ryazan, three survived, of the 3 of Rostov - one, of the 9 of Suzdal - 4. And no one counted the losses in the squads. And there were no less of them. Professionals in military service have been replaced by other people who are used to being pushed around. So the princes began to have full power. This process later, when the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke comes, will deepen and lead to the unlimited power of the monarch.

Russian princes and the Golden Horde

After 1242, Russia fell under the complete political and economic oppression of the Horde. So that the prince could legally inherit his throne, he had to go with gifts to the "free king", as our princes of khans called it, in the capital of the Horde. It took quite a long time to be there. Khan slowly considered the lowest requests. The whole procedure turned into a chain of humiliations, and after much deliberation, sometimes many months, the khan gave a "label", that is, permission to reign. So, one of our princes, having come to Batu, called himself a serf in order to keep his possessions.

It was necessary to stipulate the tribute that the principality would pay. At any moment, the khan could summon the prince to the Horde and even execute the objectionable in it. The Horde pursued a special policy with the princes, diligently inflating their strife. The disunity of the princes and their principalities played into the hands of the Mongols. The Horde itself gradually became a colossus with feet of clay. Centrifugal moods intensified in her. But that will be much later. And in the beginning its unity is strong. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, his sons fiercely hate each other and fiercely fight for the throne of Vladimir. Conditionally reigning in Vladimir gave the prince seniority over all the others. In addition, a decent allotment of land was attached to those who bring money to the treasury. And for the great reign of Vladimir in the Horde, a struggle flared up between the princes, it happened to the death. This is how Russia lived under the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The troops of the Horde practically did not stand in it. But in case of disobedience, punitive troops could always come and start cutting and burning everything.

Rise of Moscow

The bloody strife of the Russian princes among themselves led to the fact that the period from 1275 to 1300 Mongol troops came to Russia 15 times. Many principalities emerged from the strife weakened, people fled from them to more peaceful places. Such a quiet principality turned out to be a small Moscow. It went to the inheritance of the younger Daniel. He reigned from the age of 15 and led a cautious policy, trying not to quarrel with his neighbors, because he was too weak. And the Horde didn't pay close attention to him. Thus, an impetus was given to the development of trade and enrichment in this lot.

Immigrants from troubled places poured into it. Daniel eventually managed to annex Kolomna and Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, increasing his principality. His sons, after his death, continued the relatively quiet policy of their father. Only the princes of Tver saw them as potential rivals and tried, fighting for the Great reign in Vladimir, to spoil Moscow's relations with the Horde. This hatred reached the point that when the Moscow prince and the prince of Tver were simultaneously summoned to the Horde, Dmitry of Tver stabbed Yuri of Moscow to death. For such arbitrariness, he was executed by the Horde.

Ivan Kalita and "great silence"

The fourth son of Prince Daniel, it seemed, had no chance of the Moscow throne. But his older brothers died, and he began to reign in Moscow. By the will of fate, he also became the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Under him and his sons, the Mongol raids on Russian lands stopped. Moscow and the people in it grew rich. Cities grew, their population increased. In North-Eastern Russia, a whole generation has grown up that has ceased to tremble at the mention of the Mongols. This brought the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia closer.

Dmitry Donskoy

By the time of the birth of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich in 1350, Moscow was already turning into the center of the political, cultural and religious life of the northeast. The grandson of Ivan Kalita lived a short, 39 years old, but bright life. He spent it in battles, but now it is important to dwell on the great battle with Mamai, which took place in 1380 on the Nepryadva River. By this time, Prince Dmitry had defeated the punitive Mongol detachment between Ryazan and Kolomna. Mamai began to prepare a new campaign against Russia. Dmitry, having learned about this, in turn began to gather strength to fight back. Not all princes responded to his call. The prince had to turn to Sergius of Radonezh for help in order to collect civil uprising. And having received the blessing of the holy elder and two monks, at the end of the summer he gathered a militia and moved towards the huge army of Mamai.

On September 8, at dawn, a great battle took place. Dmitry fought in the forefront, was wounded, he was found with difficulty. But the Mongols were defeated and fled. Dmitry returned with a victory. But the time has not yet come when the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia will come. History says that another hundred years will pass under the yoke.

Strengthening Russia

Moscow became the center of the unification of Russian lands, but not all princes agreed to accept this fact. Dmitry's son, Vasily I, ruled for a long time, 36 years, and relatively calmly. He defended the Russian lands from the encroachments of the Lithuanians, annexed Suzdal and the Horde weakened, and it was considered less and less. Vasily visited the Horde only twice in his life. But even within Russia there was no unity. Riots broke out without end. Even at the wedding of Prince Vasily II, a scandal erupted. One of the guests was wearing Dmitry Donskoy's golden belt. When the bride found out about this, she publicly tore it off, causing an insult. But the belt was not just a jewel. He was a symbol of the great princely power. During the reign of Vasily II (1425-1453) there were feudal wars. The prince of Moscow was captured, blinded, his whole face was wounded, and for the rest of his life he wore a bandage on his face and received the nickname "Dark". However, this strong-willed prince was released, and the young Ivan became his co-ruler, who, after the death of his father, would become the liberator of the country and receive the nickname Great.

The end of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in Russia

In 1462, the legitimate ruler Ivan III took the throne of Moscow, who would become a reformer and reformer. He carefully and prudently united the Russian lands. He annexed Tver, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Perm, and even the obstinate Novgorod recognized him as sovereign. He made the emblem of the double-headed Byzantine eagle, began to build the Kremlin. That is how we know him. From 1476, Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Horde. A beautiful but untruthful legend tells how it happened. Having received the Horde embassy, ​​the Grand Duke trampled on the Basma and sent a warning to the Horde that the same would happen to them if they did not leave his country alone. Furious Khan Ahmed, having collected large army, moved to Moscow, wanting to punish her for disobedience. Approximately 150 km from Moscow, near the Ugra River on the Kaluga lands, two troops stood opposite in autumn. Russian was headed by the son of Vasily, Ivan Molodoy.

Ivan III returned to Moscow and began to carry out deliveries for the army - food, fodder. So the troops stood opposite each other until the early winter approached with starvation and buried all the plans of Ahmed. The Mongols turned around and left for the Horde, admitting defeat. So the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke happened bloodlessly. Its date - 1480 - is a great event in our history.

The meaning of the fall of the yoke

Having suspended the political, economic and cultural development of Russia for a long time, the yoke pushed the country to the back European history. When the Renaissance began and flourished in Western Europe in all areas, when national self-consciousness of peoples took shape, when countries grew rich and flourished in trade, sent a fleet in search of new lands, there was darkness in Russia. Columbus discovered America in 1492. For Europeans, the Earth grew rapidly. For us, the end of the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia marked the opportunity to get out of the narrow medieval framework, change laws, reform the army, build cities and develop new lands. And in short, Russia gained independence and began to be called Russia.

1243 - After the defeat of Northern Russia by the Mongol-Tatars and the death of the great Vladimir prince Yuri Vsevolodovich (1188-1238x), Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1190-1246+) remained the eldest in the family, who became the Grand Duke.
Returning from the western campaign, Batu summons the Grand Duke Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich of Vladimir-Suzdal to the Horde and hands him a label (sign-permission) at the khan's headquarters in Saray for a great reign in Russia: "Would you be older than all the princes in the Russian language."
Thus, a unilateral act of vassalage of Russia to the Golden Horde was carried out and legally formalized.
Russia, according to the label, lost the right to fight and had to regularly pay tribute to the khans twice a year (in spring and autumn). Baskaks (deputies) were sent to the Russian principalities - their capitals - to oversee the strict collection of tribute and compliance with its size.
1243-1252 - This decade was a time when the Horde troops and officials did not disturb Russia, receiving timely tribute and expressions of external obedience. The Russian princes during this period assessed the current situation and developed their own line of conduct in relation to the Horde.
Two lines of Russian politics:
1. The line of systematic partisan resistance and continuous "point" uprisings: ("run, not serve the king") - led. book. Andrei I Yaroslavich, Yaroslav III Yaroslavich and others.
2. The line of complete, unquestioning submission to the Horde (Alexander Nevsky and most other princes). Many specific princes (Uglitsky, Yaroslavl, and especially Rostov) established relations with the Mongol khans, who left them to "govern and rule." The princes preferred to recognize supreme power Khan of the Horde and donate to the conquerors part of the feudal rent collected from the dependent population, rather than risk losing their principalities (See "On the visits of Russian princes to the Horde"). The same policy was pursued by the Orthodox Church.
1252 Invasion of the "Nevryuev rati" The first after 1239 in North-Eastern Russia - Reasons for the invasion: Punish Grand Duke Andrei I Yaroslavich for disobedience and speed up the full payment of tribute.
Horde forces: The Nevruy army had a significant number - at least 10 thousand people. and a maximum of 20-25 thousand, this indirectly follows from the title of Nevryuy (tsarevich) and the presence in his army of two wings led by temniks - Yelabuga (Olabuga) and Kotiy, and also from the fact that Nevryuy’s army was able to disperse throughout the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and "comb" it!
Russian forces: Consisted of regiments of Prince. Andrei (i.e. regular troops) and squads (volunteer and security detachments) of the Tver governor Zhiroslav, sent by the Tver prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich to help his brother. These forces were an order of magnitude smaller than the Horde ones in terms of their numbers, i.e. 1.5-2 thousand people
The course of the invasion: Having crossed the Klyazma River near Vladimir, the punitive army of Nevryuy hastily headed for Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, where Prince took refuge. Andrew, and, having overtaken the army of the prince, they utterly defeated him. The Horde plundered and devastated the city, and then occupied the entire Vladimir land and, returning to the Horde, "combed" it.
The results of the invasion: The Horde army rounded up and captured tens of thousands of captive peasants (for sale in the eastern markets) and hundreds of thousands of cattle and took them to the Horde. Book. Andrei, with the remnants of his squad, fled to the Novgorod Republic, which refused to give him asylum, fearing reprisals from the Horde. Fearing that one of his "friends" would betray him to the Horde, Andrei fled to Sweden. Thus, the very first attempt to resist the Horde failed. The Russian princes abandoned the line of resistance and leaned towards the line of obedience.
The label for the great reign was received by Alexander Nevsky.
1255 The first complete census of the population of North-Eastern Russia, conducted by the Horde - Accompanied by spontaneous unrest of the local population, scattered, unorganized, but united general requirement masses: "do not give numbers to the Tatars", i.e. not to give them any data that could become the basis for a fixed payment of tribute.
Other authors indicate different dates for the census (1257-1259)
1257 Attempt to conduct a census in Novgorod - In 1255, the census was not conducted in Novgorod. In 1257, this measure was accompanied by an uprising of the Novgorodians, the expulsion of the Horde "counters" from the city, which led to the complete failure of the attempt to collect tribute.
1259 The embassy of Murz Berke and Kasachik to Novgorod - the punitive and control army of the Horde ambassadors - Murz Berke and Kasachik - was sent to Novgorod to collect tribute and prevent anti-Horde actions of the population. Novgorod, as always in case of military danger, succumbed to force and traditionally paid off, and also gave an obligation itself, without reminders and pressure, to pay tribute regularly every year, "voluntarily" determining its size, without compiling census documents, in exchange for a guarantee of absence from the city Horde collectors.
1262 Meeting of representatives of Russian cities with a discussion of measures to resist the Horde - A decision was made to simultaneously expel the tribute collectors - representatives of the Horde administration in the cities of Rostov Veliky, Vladimir, Suzdal, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Yaroslavl, where anti-Horde popular uprisings take place. These riots were suppressed by the Horde military detachments, which were at the disposal of the Baskaks. But nevertheless, the khan's authorities took into account the 20-year experience of repeating such spontaneous rebellious outbreaks and abandoned Basqueism, transferring the collection of tribute into the hands of the Russian, princely administration.

Since 1263, the Russian princes themselves began to bring tribute to the Horde.
Thus, the formal moment, as in the case of Novgorod, turned out to be decisive. The Russians did not so much resist the fact of paying tribute and its size, but were offended by the foreign composition of the collectors. They were ready to pay more, but to "their" princes and their administration. The Khan authorities quickly realized the full benefit of such a decision for the Horde:
firstly, the absence of their own troubles,
secondly, the guarantee of an end to the uprisings and the complete obedience of the Russians.
thirdly, the presence of specific responsible persons (princes), who could always be easily, conveniently and even “legally” held accountable, punished for non-payment of tribute, and not have to deal with insurmountable spontaneous popular uprisings of thousands of people.
This is a very early manifestation of a specifically Russian social and individual psychology, for which the visible is important, not the essential, and which is always ready to make factually important, serious, significant concessions in exchange for visible, superficial, external, "toy" and allegedly prestigious, will be repeatedly repeated throughout Russian history up to the present time.
It is easy to persuade the Russian people, to appease them with a petty sop, a trifle, but they must not be annoyed. Then he becomes stubborn, intractable and reckless, and sometimes even angry.
But you can literally take it with your bare hands, circle it around your finger, if you immediately give in to some trifle. The Mongols understood this well, what were the first Horde khans - Batu and Berke.

I cannot agree with V. Pokhlebkin's unfair and humiliating generalization. You should not consider your ancestors stupid, gullible savages and judge them from the "height" of 700 past years. There were numerous anti-Horde uprisings - they were suppressed, presumably, cruelly, not only by the Horde troops, but also by their own princes. But the transfer of tribute collection (from which it was simply impossible to get rid of in those conditions) to the Russian princes was not a "petty concession", but an important, fundamental moment. Unlike a number of other countries conquered by the Horde, North-Eastern Russia retained its political and social system. There has never been a permanent Mongol administration on Russian soil; under the oppressive yoke, Russia managed to maintain the conditions for its independent development, although not without the influence of the Horde. An example of the opposite kind is the Volga Bulgaria, which, under the Horde, ultimately failed to preserve not only its own ruling dynasty and name, but also the ethnic continuity of the population.

Later, the khan's power itself was crushed, lost state wisdom and gradually, by its mistakes, "brought up" from Russia its equally insidious and prudent enemy as it was itself. But in the 60s of the XIII century. before this finale was still far away - as much as two centuries. In the meantime, the Horde spun the Russian princes and through them all of Russia, as it wanted. (The one who laughs last laughs well - isn't it?)

1272 The second Horde census in Russia - Under the guidance and supervision of the Russian princes, the Russian local administration, it passed peacefully, calmly, without a hitch, without a hitch. After all, it was carried out by "Russian people", and the population was calm.
It is a pity that the results of the census have not been preserved, or maybe I just don't know?

And the fact that it was carried out according to the khan's orders, that the Russian princes delivered its data to the Horde and this data directly served the Horde's economic and political interests - all this was for the people "behind the scenes", all this "did not concern" him and was not interested . The appearance that the census was taking place “without the Tatars” was more important than the essence, i.e. strengthening the tax oppression that came on its basis, the impoverishment of the population, its suffering. All this "was not visible", and therefore, according to Russian ideas, it means that this ... was not.
Moreover, in just three decades that have elapsed since the moment of enslavement, Russian society, in essence, got used to the fact of the Horde yoke, and the fact that it was isolated from direct contact with representatives of the Horde and entrusted these contacts exclusively to the princes completely satisfied him, as ordinary people, and famous.
The proverb "out of sight - out of mind" very accurately and correctly explains this situation. As it is clear from the chronicles of that time, the lives of the saints, and patristic and other religious literature, which was a reflection of the dominant ideas, Russians of all classes and states had no desire to get to know their enslavers better, to get acquainted with "what they breathe", what they think, how they think how they understand themselves and Russia. They saw in them "God's punishment" sent down to the Russian land for sins. If they had not sinned, had not angered God, there would have been no such disasters - this is the starting point for all explanations on the part of the authorities and the church of the then "international situation". It is not difficult to see that this position is not only very, very passive, but that, in addition, it actually removes the blame for the enslavement of Russia from both the Mongol-Tatars and the Russian princes, who allowed such a yoke, and shifts it entirely to the people who found themselves enslaved and suffering from it more than anyone else.
Proceeding from the thesis of sinfulness, the churchmen called on the Russian people not to resist the invaders, but, on the contrary, to their own repentance and submission to the "Tatars", not only did not condemn the Horde authorities, but also ... set it as an example to their flock. This was a direct payment on the part of the Orthodox Church for the huge privileges granted to it by the khans - exemption from taxes and requisitions, solemn receptions of metropolitans in the Horde, the establishment in 1261 of a special Sarai diocese and permission to erect an Orthodox church directly opposite the Khan's Headquarters *.

*) After the collapse of the Horde, at the end of the XV century. the entire staff of the Sarai diocese was retained and transferred to Moscow, to the Krutitsky monastery, and the Sarai bishops received the title of metropolitans of Sarai and Podonsk, and then Krutitsky and Kolomna, i.e. they were formally equated in rank with the metropolitans of Moscow and All Russia, although they were no longer engaged in any real church-political activity. This historical and decorative post was liquidated only at the end of the 18th century. (1788) [Note. V. Pokhlebkin]

It should be noted that on the threshold of the XXI century. we are experiencing a similar situation. Modern "princes", like the princes of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, are trying to exploit the ignorance and slavish psychology of the people and even cultivate it with the help of the same church.

At the end of the 70s of the XIII century. the period of temporary calm from the Horde unrest in Russia ends, explained by the ten-year emphasized humility of the Russian princes and the church. The internal needs of the economy of the Horde, which derived a constant profit from the trade in slaves (prisoners during the war) in the eastern (Iranian, Turkish and Arab) markets, require a new influx of funds, and therefore in 1277-1278. The Horde twice makes local raids into the Russian border limits solely to withdraw the Polonians.
It is significant that it is not the central khan’s administration and its military forces that take part in this, but the regional, ulus authorities in the peripheral areas of the Horde’s territory, solving their local, local economic problems with these raids, and therefore strictly limiting both the place and time (very short, calculated in weeks) of these military actions.

1277 - A raid on the lands of the Galicia-Volyn principality is carried out by detachments from the western Dniester-Dnieper regions of the Horde, under the rule of the temnik Nogai.
1278 - A similar local raid follows from the Volga region to Ryazan, and it is limited only to this principality.

During the next decade - in the 80s and early 90s of the XIII century. - new processes are taking place in Russian-Horde relations.
The Russian princes, having become accustomed to the new situation over the previous 25-30 years and essentially deprived of any control from the side of domestic authorities, begin to settle their petty feudal scores with each other with the help of the Horde military force.
Just like in the XII century. Chernihiv and Kyiv princes fought with each other, calling the Polovtsy to Russia, and the princes of North-Eastern Russia are fighting in the 80s of the XIII century. with each other for power, relying on the Horde detachments, which they invite to plunder the principalities of their political opponents, i.e., in fact, cold-bloodedly call on foreign troops to devastate the areas inhabited by their Russian compatriots.

1281 - The son of Alexander Nevsky Andrei II Alexandrovich, Prince Gorodetsky, invites the Horde army against his brother led. Dmitry I Alexandrovich and his allies. This army is organized by Khan Tuda-Meng, who at the same time gives Andrei II the label for a great reign, even before the outcome of the military clash.
Dmitry I, fleeing from the Khan's troops, first flees to Tver, then to Novgorod, and from there to his possession on Novgorod land - Koporye. But the Novgorodians, declaring themselves loyal to the Horde, do not let Dmitry into his fiefdom and, taking advantage of its location inside the Novgorod lands, force the prince to tear down all its fortifications and, in the end, force Dmitry I to flee from Russia to Sweden, threatening to hand him over to the Tatars.
The Horde army (Kavgadai and Alchegey), under the pretext of persecuting Dmitry I, relying on the permission of Andrei II, passes and devastates several Russian principalities - Vladimir, Tver, Suzdal, Rostov, Murom, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky and their capitals. The Horde reach Torzhok, practically occupying the entire North-Eastern Russia to the borders of the Novgorod Republic.
The length of the entire territory from Murom to Torzhok (from east to west) was 450 km, and from south to north - 250-280 km, i.e. almost 120 thousand square kilometers that were devastated by military operations. This restores the Russian population of the devastated principalities against Andrei II, and his formal "accession" after the flight of Dmitry I does not bring peace.
Dmitry I returns to Pereyaslavl and prepares for revenge, Andrei II leaves for the Horde with a request for help, and his allies - Svyatoslav Yaroslavich of Tverskoy, Daniil Aleksandrovich of Moscow and Novgorodians - go to Dmitry I and make peace with him.
1282 - Andrew II comes from the Horde with the Tatar regiments led by Turai-Temir and Ali, reaches Pereyaslavl and again expels Dmitry, who runs this time to the Black Sea, into the possession of the temnik Nogai (who at that time was the actual ruler of the Golden Horde) , and, playing on the contradictions of Nogai and the Sarai khans, he brings the troops given by Nogai to Russia and forces Andrei II to return his great reign.
The price of this "restoration of justice" is very high: the Nogai officials are given the tribute collection in Kursk, Lipetsk, Rylsk; Rostov and Murom are again being ruined. The conflict between the two princes (and the allies who joined them) continues throughout the 80s and into the early 90s.
1285 - Andrei II again goes to the Horde and brings out a new punitive detachment of the Horde, led by one of the sons of the Khan. However, Dmitry I manages to successfully and quickly break up this detachment.

Thus, the first victory of the Russian troops over the regular Horde troops was won in 1285, and not in 1378, on the Vozha River, as is usually believed.
It is not surprising that Andrew II stopped turning to the Horde for help in subsequent years.
In the late 80s, the Horde sent small predatory expeditions to Russia themselves:

1287 - Raid in Vladimir.
1288 - Raid on Ryazan and Murom and Mordovian lands These two raids (short-term) were of a specific, local nature and were aimed at robbing property and capturing Polonians. They were provoked by a denunciation or complaint by the Russian princes.
1292 - "Dedenev's army" to the Vladimir land, Andrei Gorodetsky, together with princes Dmitry Borisovich of Rostov, Konstantin Borisovich Uglitsky, Mikhail Glebovich Belozersky, Fedor Yaroslavsky and Bishop Tarasy went to the Horde to complain about Dmitry I Alexandrovich.
Khan Tokhta, having listened to the complainers, detached a significant army under the leadership of his brother Tudan (in the Russian chronicles - Deden) to conduct a punitive expedition.
"Dedeneva's army" passed through the whole of Vladimir Russia, ruining the capital city of Vladimir and 14 other cities: Murom, Suzdal, Gorokhovets, Starodub, Bogolyubov, Yuryev-Polsky, Gorodets, Coal field (Uglich), Yaroslavl, Nerekhta, Ksnyatin, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky , Rostov, Dmitrov.
In addition to them, only 7 cities remained untouched by the invasion, which lay outside the route of movement of the Tudan detachments: Kostroma, Tver, Zubtsov, Moscow, Galich Mersky, Unzha, Nizhny Novgorod.
On the approach to Moscow (or near Moscow), Tudan's army was divided into two detachments, one of which went to Kolomna, i.e. to the south, and the other - to the west: to Zvenigorod, Mozhaisk, Volokolamsk.
In Volokolamsk, the Horde army received gifts from the Novgorodians, who hastened to bring and present gifts to the khan's brother far from their lands. Tudan did not go to Tver, but returned to Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, which was made a base where all the loot was brought and prisoners were concentrated.
This campaign was a significant pogrom of Russia. It is possible that Klin, Serpukhov, Zvenigorod, not named in the annals, also passed Tudan with his army. Thus, the area of ​​its operations covered about two dozen cities.
1293 - In winter, a new Horde detachment appeared near Tver, led by Toktemir, who came with punitive goals at the request of one of the princes to restore order in feudal strife. He had limited goals, and the chronicles do not describe his route and time on Russian territory.
In any case, the whole of 1293 passed under the sign of another Horde pogrom, the cause of which was exclusively the feudal rivalry of the princes. It was they who were the main reason for the Horde repressions that fell upon the Russian people.

1294-1315 Two decades pass without any Horde invasions.
The princes regularly pay tribute, the people, frightened and impoverished from previous robberies, slowly heal the economic and human losses. Only the accession to the throne of the extremely powerful and active Khan Uzbek opens a new period of pressure on Russia
The main idea of ​​Uzbek is to achieve complete disunity of the Russian princes and turn them into continuously warring factions. Hence his plan - the transfer of the great reign to the weakest and most non-militant prince - Moscow (under Khan Uzbek, the Moscow prince was Yuri Danilovich, who disputed the great reign from Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver) and the weakening of the former rulers of the "strong principalities" - Rostov, Vladimir, Tver.
To ensure the collection of tribute, Khan Uzbek practices sending, together with the prince, who received instructions from the Horde, special envoys-ambassadors, accompanied by military detachments numbering several thousand people (sometimes there were up to 5 temniki!). Each prince collects tribute in the territory of a rival principality.
From 1315 to 1327, i.e. in 12 years, Uzbek sent 9 military "embassies". Their functions were not diplomatic, but military-punitive (police) and partly military-political (pressure on the princes).

1315 - "Ambassadors" of Uzbek accompany the Grand Duke Mikhail of Tver (see the Table of Ambassadors), and their detachments rob Rostov and Torzhok, near which they smash the detachments of the Novgorodians.
1317 - Horde punitive detachments accompany Yuri of Moscow and rob Kostroma, and then try to rob Tver, but suffer a severe defeat.
1319 - Kostroma and Rostov are robbed again.
1320 - Rostov for the third time becomes a victim of a robbery, but Vladimir is mostly ruined.
1321 - Tribute is beaten out of Kashin and the Kashin principality.
1322 - Yaroslavl and the cities of the Nizhny Novgorod principality are subjected to a punitive action to collect tribute.
1327 "Shchelkanova's army" - Novgorodians, frightened by the Horde's activity, "voluntarily" pay tribute to the Horde in 2000 silver rubles.
The famous attack of the Chelkan (Cholpan) detachment on Tver takes place, known in the annals as the "Shchelkanov invasion", or "Shchelkanov's army". It causes an unparalleled decisive uprising of the townspeople and the destruction of the "ambassador" and his detachment. "Shchelkan" himself is burned in the hut.
1328 - A special punitive expedition against Tver follows under the leadership of three ambassadors - Turalik, Syuga and Fedorok - and with 5 temniks, i.e. an entire army, which the chronicle defines as a "great army". In the ruin of Tver, along with the 50,000th Horde army, Moscow princely detachments also participate.

From 1328 to 1367 - there comes a "great silence" for as much as 40 years.
It is the direct result of three things:
1. The complete defeat of the Tver principality as a rival of Moscow and thereby eliminating the cause of military-political rivalry in Russia.
2. The timely collection of tribute by Ivan Kalita, who, in the eyes of the khans, becomes an exemplary executor of the fiscal orders of the Horde and, in addition, expresses to her exceptional political humility, and, finally
3. The result of the understanding by the Horde rulers that the Russian population has matured the determination to fight the enslavers and therefore it is necessary to apply other forms of pressure and consolidate the dependence of Russia, except for punitive ones.
As for the use of some princes against others, this measure no longer seems to be universal in the face of possible popular uprisings uncontrolled by "manual princes". There is a turning point in Russian-Horde relations.
Punitive campaigns (invasions) in the central regions of North-Eastern Russia with the inevitable ruin of its population have ceased from now on.
At the same time, short-term raids with predatory (but not ruinous) goals on the peripheral sections of Russian territory, raids on local, limited areas continue to take place and remain as the most favorite and safest for the Horde, one-sided short-term military and economic action.

A new phenomenon in the period from 1360 to 1375 is the retaliatory raids, or rather the campaigns of Russian armed detachments in the peripheral, dependent on the Horde, bordering on Russia, lands - mainly in the Bulgars.

1347 - A raid is made on the city of Aleksin, a border town on the Moscow-Horde border along the Oka
1360 - The first raid is made by Novgorod ushkuiniki on the city of Zhukotin.
1365 - The Horde Prince Tagai raided the Ryazan principality.
1367 - Detachments of Prince Temir-Bulat invade the Nizhny Novgorod principality with a raid, especially intensively in the border strip along the Pyana River.
1370 - A new Horde raid on the Ryazan principality follows in the region of the Moscow-Ryazan border. But the guard regiments of Prince Dmitry IV Ivanovich who stood there did not let the Horde through the Oka. And the Horde, in turn, noticing the resistance, did not seek to overcome it and limited themselves to reconnaissance.
The raid-invasion is made by Prince Dmitry Konstantinovich Nizhny Novgorod on the lands of the "parallel" Khan of Bulgaria - Bulat-Temir;
1374 Anti-Horde uprising in Novgorod - The reason was the arrival of the Horde ambassadors, accompanied by a large armed retinue of 1000 people. This is common for the beginning of the XIV century. the escort was, however, regarded in the last quarter of the same century as a dangerous threat and provoked an armed attack by the Novgorodians on the "embassy", during which both the "ambassadors" and their guards were completely destroyed.
A new raid of the ushkuins, who rob not only the city of Bulgar, but are not afraid to penetrate as far as Astrakhan.
1375 - Horde raid on the city of Kashin, short and local.
1376 2nd campaign against the Bulgars - The combined Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod army prepared and carried out the 2nd campaign against the Bulgars, and took an indemnity of 5,000 silver rubles from the city. This attack, unheard of in 130 years of Russian-Horde relations, by the Russians on the territory dependent on the Horde, naturally, causes a retaliatory military action.
1377 Massacre on the river Pyan - On the border Russian-Horde territory, on the river Pyan, where Nizhny Novgorod princes prepared a new raid on the Mordovian lands lying across the river, dependent on the Horde, they were attacked by a detachment of Prince Arapsha (Arab Shah, Khan of the Blue Horde) and suffered a crushing defeat.
On August 2, 1377, the united militia of the princes of Suzdal, Pereyaslav, Yaroslavl, Yuriev, Murom and Nizhny Novgorod was completely killed, and the "commander in chief" Prince Ivan Dmitrievich Nizhny Novgorod drowned in the river, trying to escape, along with his personal squad and his "headquarters" . This defeat of the Russian troops was explained to a large extent by their loss of vigilance due to many days of drunkenness.
Having destroyed the Russian army, the detachments of Prince Arapsha raided the capitals of the unlucky warrior princes - Nizhny Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan - and subjected them to complete looting and burning to the ground.
1378 Battle on the river Vozha - In the XIII century. after such a defeat, the Russians usually lost all desire to resist the Horde troops for 10-20 years, but at the end of the 14th century. the situation has completely changed:
already in 1378, an ally of the princes defeated in the battle on the Pyana River, Moscow Grand Duke Dmitry IV Ivanovich, having learned that the Horde troops that had burned Nizhny Novgorod intended to go to Moscow under the command of Murza Begich, decided to meet them on the border of his principality on the Oka and prevent to the capital.
On August 11, 1378, a battle took place on the banks of the right tributary of the Oka, the Vozha River, in the Ryazan principality. Dmitry divided his army into three parts and, at the head of the main regiment, attacked the Horde army from the front, while Prince Daniil Pronsky and the devious Timofey Vasilyevich attacked the Tatars from the flanks, in a girth. The Horde were utterly defeated and fled across the river Vozha, having lost many dead and carts, which the Russian troops captured the next day, rushing to pursue the Tatars.
The battle on the Vozha River was of great moral and military importance as a dress rehearsal before the Battle of Kulikovo, which followed two years later.
1380 Battle of Kulikovo - The Battle of Kulikovo was the first serious, specially prepared battle in advance, and not random and impromptu, like all previous military clashes between Russian and Horde troops.
1382 Tokhtamysh's invasion of Moscow - The defeat of Mamai's troops on the Kulikovo field and his flight to Kafa and death in 1381 allowed the energetic Khan Tokhtamysh to put an end to the power of the temniks in the Horde and reunite it into a single state, eliminating the "parallel khans" in the regions.
As his main military-political task, Tokhtamysh determined the restoration of the military and foreign policy prestige of the Horde and the preparation of a revanchist campaign against Moscow.

The results of Tokhtamysh's campaign:
Returning to Moscow in early September 1382, Dmitry Donskoy saw the ashes and ordered to immediately restore the devastated Moscow with at least temporary wooden buildings before the onset of frost.
Thus, the military, political and economic achievements of the Battle of Kulikovo were completely eliminated by the Horde two years later:
1. The tribute was not only restored, but actually doubled, for the population decreased, but the size of the tribute remained the same. In addition, the people had to pay the Grand Duke a special emergency tax to replenish the princely treasury taken away by the Horde.
2. Politically, vassalage has increased dramatically even formally. In 1384, Dmitry Donskoy was forced for the first time to send his son, heir to the throne, the future Grand Duke Vasily II Dmitrievich, who was 12 years old, to the Horde as a hostage (According to the generally accepted account, this is Vasily I. V.V. Pokhlebkin, apparently, considers 1 -m Vasily Yaroslavich Kostroma). Relations with neighbors escalated - Tver, Suzdal, Ryazan principalities, which were specially supported by the Horde to create a political and military counterweight to Moscow.

The situation was really difficult, in 1383 Dmitry Donskoy had to "compete" in the Horde for the great reign, to which Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy again presented his claims. The reign was left to Dmitry, but his son Vasily was taken hostage to the Horde. The "fierce" ambassador Adash appeared in Vladimir (1383, see "The Golden Horde ambassadors in Russia"). In 1384, a heavy tribute had to be collected (half a penny per village) from all the Russian land, and from Novgorod - a black forest. Novgorodians opened robberies along the Volga and Kama and refused to pay tribute. In 1385, an unprecedented indulgence had to be shown to the Ryazan prince, who decided to attack Kolomna (attached to Moscow back in 1300) and defeated the troops of the Moscow prince.

Thus, Russia was actually thrown back to the position of 1313, under Khan Uzbek, i.e. practically the achievements of the Battle of Kulikovo were completely crossed out. Both in military-political and economic terms, the Moscow principality was thrown back 75-100 years ago. The prospects for relations with the Horde, therefore, were extremely bleak for Moscow and Russia in general. It could be assumed that the Horde yoke would be fixed forever (well, nothing lasts forever!), if a new historical accident had not occurred:
The period of the Horde's wars with the empire of Tamerlane and the complete defeat of the Horde during these two wars, the violation of all economic, administrative, political life in the Horde, the death of the Horde army, the ruin of both its capitals - Saray I and Saray II, the beginning of a new turmoil, the struggle for power of several khans in the period from 1391-1396. - all this led to an unprecedented weakening of the Horde in all areas and made it necessary for the Horde khans to focus on the turn of the XIV century. and XV century. exclusively on internal problems, temporarily neglect external ones and, in particular, weaken control over Russia.
It was this unexpected situation that helped the Moscow principality get a significant respite and restore its economic, military and political strength.

Here, perhaps, we should pause and make a few remarks. I do not believe in historical accidents of this magnitude, and there is no need to explain the further relations of Muscovite Russia with the Horde by an unexpectedly happened happy accident. Without going into details, we note that by the beginning of the 90s of the XIV century. One way or another, Moscow solved the economic and political problems that arose. The Moscow-Lithuania Treaty concluded in 1384 removed the Tver principality from the influence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Mikhail Alexandrovich of Tver, having lost support both in the Horde and in Lithuania, recognized the primacy of Moscow. In 1385, the son of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily Dmitrievich, was sent home from the Horde. In 1386, Dmitry Donskoy reconciled with Oleg Ivanovich Ryazansky, which in 1387 was sealed by the marriage of their children (Fyodor Olegovich and Sofya Dmitrievna). In the same year, 1386, Dmitry succeeded in restoring his influence there by a large military demonstration near the Novgorod walls, taking the black forest in the volosts and 8,000 rubles in Novgorod. In 1388, Dmitry also faced the discontent of his cousin and comrade-in-arms Vladimir Andreevich, who had to be brought "to his will" by force, forced to recognize the political seniority of his eldest son Vasily. Dmitry managed to make peace with Vladimir on this two months before his death (1389). In his spiritual testament, Dmitry blessed (for the first time) the eldest son Vasily "with his father's great reign." And finally, in the summer of 1390, the marriage of Vasily and Sophia, the daughter of the Lithuanian prince Vitovt, took place in a solemn atmosphere. In Eastern Europe, Vasily I Dmitrievich and Cyprian, who became metropolitan on October 1, 1389, are trying to prevent the consolidation of the Lithuanian-Polish dynastic union and replace the Polish-Catholic colonization of Lithuanian and Russian lands with the consolidation of Russian forces around Moscow. The alliance with Vytautas, who was against the catholization of the Russian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, was important for Moscow, but could not be lasting, since Vytautas, of course, had his own goals and his own vision of which center the Russians should gather around lands.
A new stage in the history of the Golden Horde coincided with the death of Dmitry. It was then that Tokhtamysh came out of reconciliation with Tamerlane and began to claim territories subject to him. The confrontation began. Under these conditions, Tokhtamysh, immediately after the death of Dmitry Donskoy, issued a label for the reign of Vladimir to his son, Vasily I, and strengthened it, transferring to him both the Nizhny Novgorod principality and a number of cities. In 1395, Tamerlane's troops defeated Tokhtamysh on the Terek River.

At the same time, Tamerlane, having destroyed the power of the Horde, did not carry out his campaign against Russia. Having reached Yelets without fighting and robbery, he unexpectedly turned back and returned to Central Asia. Thus, the actions of Tamerlane at the end of the XIV century. became a historical factor that helped Russia survive in the fight against the Horde.

1405 - In 1405, based on the situation in the Horde, the Grand Duke of Moscow officially announced for the first time that he refused to pay tribute to the Horde. During 1405-1407. The Horde did not react in any way to this demarche, but then Edigei's campaign against Moscow followed.
Only 13 years after the campaign of Tokhtamysh (Apparently, there was a typo in the book - 13 years had passed since the campaign of Tamerlane), the Horde authorities could again recall the vassal dependence of Moscow and gather strength for a new campaign in order to restore the flow of tribute, which had been stopped since 1395.
1408 Yedigey's campaign against Moscow - On December 1, 1408, a huge army of Yedigei's temnik approached Moscow along the winter sleigh route and laid siege to the Kremlin.
On the Russian side, the situation was repeated to the details during the campaign of Tokhtamysh in 1382.
1. Grand Duke Vasily II Dmitrievich, having heard about the danger, like his father, fled to Kostroma (supposedly to gather an army).
2. In Moscow, Vladimir Andreevich Brave, Prince of Serpukhov, a participant in the Battle of Kulikovo, remained for the head of the garrison.
3. The settlement of Moscow was again burned, i.e. all wooden Moscow around the Kremlin, a mile away in all directions.
4. Edigey, approaching Moscow, set up his camp in Kolomenskoye, and sent a notice to the Kremlin that he would stand all winter and starve the Kremlin without losing a single fighter.
5. The memory of the invasion of Tokhtamysh was still so fresh among the Muscovites that it was decided to fulfill any requirements of Edigey, so that only he would leave without fighting.
6. Edigey demanded to collect 3,000 rubles in two weeks. silver, which was done. In addition, Edigey's troops, having scattered throughout the principality and its cities, began to gather polonyanniks for capturing (several tens of thousands of people). Some cities were heavily devastated, for example, Mozhaisk was completely burned.
7. On December 20, 1408, having received everything that was required, Edigey's army left Moscow without being attacked or pursued by the Russian forces.
8. The damage inflicted by Edigei's campaign was less than the damage from the invasion of Tokhtamysh, but he also fell a heavy burden on the shoulders of the population
The restoration of Moscow's tributary dependence on the Horde lasted from then on for almost another 60 years (until 1474)
1412 - Payment of tribute to the Horde became regular. To ensure this regularity, the Horde forces from time to time made eerily reminiscent raids on Russia.
1415 - Ruin by the Horde of the Yelets (border, buffer) land.
1427 - The raid of the Horde troops on Ryazan.
1428 - The raid of the Horde army on the Kostroma lands - Galich Mersky, the ruin and robbery of Kostroma, Plyos and Lukh.
1437 - Battle of Belev Campaign of Ulu-Muhammed to Zaoksky lands. The Battle of Belev on December 5, 1437 (the defeat of the Moscow army) because of the unwillingness of the Yuryevich brothers - Shemyaka and Krasny - to allow the army of Ulu-Mohammed to settle in Belev and make peace. Due to the betrayal of the Lithuanian governor of Mtsensk, Grigory Protasyev, who went over to the side of the Tatars, Ulu-Mohammed won the Battle of Belev, after which he went east to Kazan, where he founded the Kazan Khanate.

Actually, from this moment begins the long struggle of the Russian state with the Kazan Khanate, which Russia had to wage in parallel with the heiress of the Golden Horde - the Great Horde, and which only Ivan IV the Terrible managed to complete. The first campaign of the Kazan Tatars against Moscow took place already in 1439. Moscow was burned, but the Kremlin was not taken. The second campaign of the Kazanians (1444-1445) led to a catastrophic defeat of the Russian troops, the capture of the Moscow prince Vasily II the Dark, a humiliating peace and, ultimately, the blinding of Vasily II. Further, the raids of the Kazan Tatars on Russia and the Russian response actions (1461, 1467-1469, 1478) are not indicated in the table, but they should be borne in mind (See "Kazan Khanate");
1451 - The campaign of Mahmut, the son of Kichi-Mohammed, to Moscow. He burned the settlements, but the Kremlin did not take it.
1462 - Termination by Ivan III of the issue of Russian coins with the name of the Khan of the Horde. Ivan III's statement about the rejection of the khan's label for a great reign.
1468 - Khan Akhmat's campaign against Ryazan
1471 - The campaign of the Horde to the Moscow frontiers in the trans-Oka zone
1472 - The Horde army approached the city of Aleksin, but did not cross the Oka. Russian army acted in Kolomna. There was no collision between the two forces. Both sides feared that the outcome of the battle would not be in their favor. Caution in conflicts with the Horde is a characteristic feature of the policy of Ivan III. He didn't want to risk it.
1474 - Khan Akhmat again approaches the Zaokskaya region, on the border with the Moscow Grand Duchy. A peace is concluded, or, more precisely, a truce, on the condition that the Moscow prince pays an indemnity of 140 thousand altyns in two terms: in the spring - 80 thousand, in the fall - 60 thousand. Ivan III again avoids a military clash.
1480 Great standing on the river Ugra - Akhmat makes a demand Ivan III pay tribute for 7 years, during which Moscow stopped paying it. Goes on a trip to Moscow. Ivan III comes forward with an army towards the Khan.

We end the history of Russian-Horde relations formally in 1481 as the date of death of the last Khan of the Horde - Akhmat, who was killed a year after the Great Stand on the Ugra, since the Horde really ceased to exist as a state body and administration, and even as a certain territory, which was subject to jurisdiction and real the power of this once unified administration.
Formally and in fact, new Tatar states were formed on the former territory of the Golden Horde, much smaller, but controlled and relatively consolidated. Of course, practically the disappearance of a huge empire could not happen overnight and it could not "evaporate" completely without a trace.
People, peoples, the population of the Horde continued to live their former lives and, feeling that catastrophic changes had taken place, nevertheless they did not realize them as a complete collapse, as an absolute disappearance from the face of the earth of their former state.
In fact, the process of the disintegration of the Horde, especially at the lower social level, continued for another three or four decades during the first quarter of the 16th century.
But the international consequences of the disintegration and disappearance of the Horde, on the contrary, affected quite quickly and quite clearly, distinctly. The liquidation of the gigantic empire, which controlled and influenced events from Siberia to the Balakans and from Egypt to the Middle Urals for two and a half centuries, led to a complete change in the international situation not only in this space, but also radically changed the general international position of the Russian state and its military-political plans and actions in relations with the East as a whole.
Moscow was able to quickly, within one decade, radically restructure the strategy and tactics of its eastern foreign policy.
The statement seems too categorical to me: it should be borne in mind that the process of crushing the Golden Horde was not a one-time act, but took place throughout the entire 15th century. Accordingly, the policy of the Russian state also changed. An example is the relationship between Moscow and the Kazan Khanate, which separated from the Horde in 1438 and tried to pursue the same policy. After two successful campaigns against Moscow (1439, 1444-1445), Kazan began to experience more and more stubborn and powerful pressure from the Russian state, which formally was still in vassal dependence on the Great Horde (during the period under review, these were the campaigns of 1461, 1467-1469, 1478). ).
Firstly, an active, offensive line was chosen in relation to both the rudiments and quite viable heirs of the Horde. The Russian tsars decided not to let them come to their senses, to finish off the already half-defeated enemy, and not at all rest on the laurels of the winners.
Secondly, as a new tactic that gives the most useful military-political effect, it was used to set one Tatar group against another. Significant Tatar formations began to be included in the Russian armed forces to deliver joint strikes against other Tatar military formations, and primarily against the remnants of the Horde.
So, in 1485, 1487 and 1491. Ivan III sent military detachments to strike at the troops of the Great Horde, who attacked Moscow's ally at that time - the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray.
Particularly indicative in military-political terms was the so-called. spring campaign in 1491 in the "Wild Field" in converging directions.

1491 Campaign in the "Wild Field" - 1. The Horde khans Seid-Ahmet and Shig-Ahmet in May 1491 laid siege to the Crimea. Ivan III sent a huge army of 60 thousand people to help his ally Mengli Giray. under the leadership of the following commanders:
a) Prince Peter Nikitich Obolensky;
b) Prince Ivan Mikhailovich Repni-Obolensky;
c) Kasimov prince Satilgan Merdzhulatovich.
2. These independent detachments headed for the Crimea in such a way that they had to approach from three sides in converging directions to the rear of the Horde troops in order to clamp them in pincers, while the troops of Mengli Giray would attack them from the front.
3. In addition, on June 3 and 8, 1491, the allies were mobilized to strike from the flanks. Again, these were Russians, and Tatar troops:
a) Khan of Kazan Mohammed-Emin and his governors Abash-Ulan and Burash-Seid;
b) The brothers of Ivan III, the appanage princes Andrei Vasilyevich Bolshoy and Boris Vasilyevich with their detachments.

Another new tactic introduced since the 90s of the XV century. Ivan III in his military policy with regard to Tatar attacks, this is a systematic organization of the pursuit of Tatar raids that invaded Russia, which has never been done before.

1492 - The pursuit of the troops of two governors - Fyodor Koltovsky and Goryain Sidorov - and their battle with the Tatars in the interfluve of the Fast Pine and Truds;
1499 - Chase after the raid of the Tatars on Kozelsk, recapturing from the enemy all the "full" and cattle taken away by him;
1500 (summer) - The army of Khan Shig-Ahmed (Great Horde) of 20 thousand people. stood at the mouth of the Tikhaya Sosna river, but did not dare to go further towards the Moscow border;
1500 (autumn) - A new campaign of an even more numerous army of Shig-Ahmed, but further on the Zaokskaya side, i.e. the territory of the north of the Orel region, it did not dare to go;
1501 - On August 30, the 20,000-strong army of the Great Horde began the devastation of the Kursk land, approaching Rylsk, and by November it reached the Bryansk and Novgorod-Seversky lands. The Tatars captured the city of Novgorod-Seversky, but further, to the Moscow lands, this army of the Great Horde did not go.

In 1501, a coalition of Lithuania, Livonia and the Great Horde was formed, directed against the union of Moscow, Kazan and Crimea. This campaign was part of the war between Moscow Russia and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the Verkhovsky principalities (1500-1503). It is wrong to talk about the capture by the Tatars of Novgorod-Seversky lands, which were part of their ally - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and were captured by Moscow in 1500. According to the truce of 1503, almost all these lands were ceded to Moscow.
1502 Liquidation of the Great Horde - The army of the Great Horde remained to spend the winter at the mouth of the river Seim and near Belgorod. Ivan III then agreed with Mengli-Giray that he would send his troops to expel the troops of Shig-Ahmed from this territory. Mengli Giray complied with this request, inflicting a strong blow on the Great Horde in February 1502.
In May 1502, Mengli-Girey again defeated the troops of Shig-Ahmed at the mouth of the Sula River, where they migrated to spring pastures. This battle actually ended the remnants of the Great Horde.

So Ivan III cracked down at the beginning of the 16th century. with the Tatar states by the hands of the Tatars themselves.
Thus, from the beginning of the XVI century. the last remnants of the Golden Horde disappeared from the historical arena. And the point was not only that this completely removed any threat of invasion from the East from the Muscovite state, seriously strengthened its security, - the main, significant result was a sharp change in the formal and actual international legal position of the Russian state, which manifested itself in a change in its international -legal relations with the Tatar states - the "heirs" of the Golden Horde.
This was precisely the main historical meaning, the main historical meaning liberation of Russia from the Horde dependence.
For the Muscovite state, vassal relations ceased, it became a sovereign state, a subject of international relations. This completely changed his position among the Russian lands, and in Europe as a whole.
Until then, for 250 years, the Grand Duke received only unilateral labels from the Horde khans, i.e. permission to own his own patrimony (principality), or, in other words, the consent of the khan to continue trusting his tenant and vassal, to the fact that he will be temporarily not touched from this post if he fulfills a number of conditions: pay tribute, send a loyal khan politics, send "gifts", participate, if necessary, in the military activities of the Horde.
With the disintegration of the Horde and the emergence of new khanates on its ruins - Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean, Siberian - a completely new situation arose: the institution of vassalage of Russia ceased to exist. This was expressed in the fact that all relations with the new Tatar states began to take place on a bilateral basis. The conclusion of bilateral treaties on political issues, at the end of wars and at the conclusion of peace, began. And that was the main and important change.
Outwardly, especially in the first decades, there were no noticeable changes in relations between Russia and the khanates:
Moscow princes continued to occasionally pay tribute to the Tatar khans, continued to send them gifts, and the khans of the new Tatar states, in turn, continued to maintain the old forms of relations with the Grand Duchy of Moscow, i.e. sometimes, like the Horde, they staged campaigns against Moscow right up to the walls of the Kremlin, resorted to devastating raids for the Polonians, stole cattle and robbed the property of the subjects of the Grand Duke, demanded that he pay an indemnity, etc. etc.
But after the end of hostilities, the parties began to sum up the legal results - i.e. record their victories and defeats in bilateral documents, conclude peace or truce treaties, sign written commitments. And it was precisely this that significantly changed their true relations, led to the fact that, in fact, the entire relationship of forces on both sides changed significantly.
That is why it became possible for the Muscovite state to purposefully work to change this balance of forces in its favor and achieve, in the end, the weakening and liquidation of the new khanates that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde, not within two and a half centuries, but much faster - in less than 75 years old, in the second half of the XVI century.

"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.
V.V. Pokhlebkina "Tatars and Russia. 360 years of relations in 1238-1598." (M. " International relationships"2000).
Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary. 4th edition, M. 1987.