In the II millennium BC. e., far to the east of the ancient civilizations of Asia Minor and India, a slave-owning society takes shape and the first slave-owning state arises in Northern China. This was of great importance for the history of the peoples who inhabited both China and other countries of the Far East. By this time, the most ancient traditions of the Chinese people, the beginnings of their hieroglyphic writing, the growth and spread of their influence high culture. Since that time, the centuries-old history of the great Chinese people originates.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system and the emergence of the Shang (Yin) state

The Russian name "China" was borrowed from the Central Asian peoples, who gave the country this name by the name of the Kitai (a people of Mongolian origin), who owned in the X-XII centuries. n. e. northern part of China. The Western European and Middle Eastern names of China go back to the word "Chin", the Tajik-Persian designation for the name of the country. This name comes from the name of the ancient Chinese kingdom of Qin, which extended its power to most of China in the 3rd century BC. BC e.

The Chinese themselves called their country differently, most often by the name of the reigning dynasties, for example: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, etc. Since ancient times, the name “Zhong Guo” (“Middle State”) has also been common, which has survived until now. Another Chinese name for the country is "Hua" ("Flowering") or "Zhonghua" ("Middle Blooming"); now it is part of the name of the People's Republic of China.

Nature and population

According to geographical and economic features, modern China is usually divided into two parts: western and eastern. The territory of Western China is a vast plateau with such powerful mountain systems as the Himalayas, Kunlun and Tien Shan. The highest mountain ranges in the world, the Himalayas, which in some places have a height of more than 8 km above sea level, form a kind of barrier between China and India.

Eastern China does not have such powerful mountain systems as Western; a significant part of the territory here is made up of lowlands, coastal plains, mountains of medium height and plateaus adjoin them.

In East China, more favorable natural conditions than in the West, the climate is much milder, the vegetation is more diverse, etc. All these conditions contributed to the fact that it was in this part of China that the most ancient agricultural culture was born, the first centers of Chinese civilization appeared, and the state arose earlier than in other parts of the country.

China has a significant river network, but all major rivers are located in the eastern part of the country. The main rivers of China flow from west to east. River valleys are the most fertile and most populated areas countries. The ancient population of China was concentrated in the river valleys. The basin of the main river of Northern China - the Yellow River, whose length is more than 4 thousand km, was the center of the most ancient Chinese civilization. Huang He is a stormy river. It repeatedly changed its course, flooded vast expanses of land, bringing great disasters to the population. The largest river in China is the Yangtzejiang, which has a length of over 5 thousand km, its basin is Central China. the largest river Southern China is the high-water Xijiang (about 2 thousand km).

The bowels of China abound in minerals. Rivers, lakes and seas are rich in fish. In ancient times, vast areas in Katay were covered with forests.

The climate of the eastern part of China is very favorable for agriculture, since the hottest time of the year is summer. the largest number atmospheric precipitation, autumn is warm and dry. The climate of the western part of China is notable for its considerable dryness, with long, cold winters and short, hot summers.

The population of China in ancient times was not homogeneous. The Chinese tribes proper, bearing, according to the indications of later literary sources, the names Xia, Shang, Zhou, etc., already in very early times occupied a significant part of Eastern, Northern and Northwestern China. In the south and south-west of the country, various tribes of the Sino-Tibetan group of languages ​​\u200b\u200bthat were mainly related to the Chinese lived. The west, north and northeast of China were inhabited mainly by the tribes of the Turkic, Mongolian and Manchu-Tungus language groups.

The main areas of Chinese settlement in ancient times were the areas of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, as well as the plain adjacent to the Bohai (Zhili) Bay. Fertile alluvial (alluvial) soil, formed mainly from river silt, prevailed here. The fertile soil and temperate climate of the Great Chinese Plain contributed to the development of agriculture here among the ancient Chinese tribes.

In a less advantageous position were the ancient tribes who inhabited the region of loess soils, which occupy a vast area in northern and northwestern China. Loess, which is a deposit of mineral dust particles blown off the mountain heights by winter monsoons, contains nutrients (organic residues and easily soluble alkalis) that make it possible to do without fertilizers. But relatively little precipitation falls in the area of ​​the loess plateau, so artificial irrigation is required here for the development of agriculture. Due to the conditions noted above, the tribes that inhabited the loess plateau in ancient times had less developed agriculture than in the area of ​​the lower reaches of the Yellow River.

Decomposition of the primitive communal system

According to Chinese literary sources, it can be concluded that in China in the III millennium BC. e. maternal survivals. This can be seen from the fact that ancient sources, reporting on the origin of the first ancestors of the Shang, Zhou and Qin tribes, do not speak about their fathers, but only give the names of mothers, the kinship was then counted along the maternal line. It is known that under the maternal clan (matriarchy), sons could not inherit from their father, since they belonged to another clan, namely to the mother's clan. According to Sima Qian, the author of "Historical Notes" 1 ("Historical Notes" ("Shi Ji"), consisting of 130 chapters, is the first time in China's consolidated history of the country, covering the period from legendary antiquity to the 1st century BC Sima Qian (II-1 centuries BC), the author of this work, used sources available in his time and subsequently lost. times, the economic structure of the country (mainly the 2nd-1st centuries BC), cultural development, etc.), the legendary rulers Yao and Shun, before their death, chose their successors not from among their sons.

"Historical notes" bring to us memories of the period when there was a council of tribal elders. The leader of the tribe often consulted with him on the most important issues. Clan or tribal leaders, by decision of the council of elders, could be relieved of their duties. From the legends cited by literary sources, we can conclude that at the end of the 3rd millennium, the elective principle was replaced by hereditary law: tribal leaders were no longer elected, the hereditary power of the leader appears, passed from father to son. The family of the leader, isolated from the rest of the tribe, later became the bearer of royal power. But even under these conditions, the council of elders still exists, although its rights are limited, and its decisions become optional for the hereditary leaders of the tribe.

The data of archaeological excavations allow us to conclude that in the 2nd millennium, when bronze appeared in China, there was a decomposition of the primitive communal system and a gradual transition to a class, slave-owning society.

The sources do not make it possible to trace the entire process of the disintegration of the tribal system and the transition to a class society in China; they report only fragmentary data on this. According to them, we can conclude that slavery appears even in the bowels of the tribal society. Captives captured during wars between individual tribes and clans were used as labor force, turned into slaves. This process took place on the basis of the further development of the productive forces, the emergence of private ownership of the means of production and products of labor, on the basis of the growth of property inequality, and took place in a continuous struggle both within the tribes that inhabited China in ancient times and between tribes. Based on Chinese literary sources, it can be assumed that the struggle within the tribes was accompanied by the struggle of tribal elders against the leaders of the tribes.

By the end of the III millennium, as can be assumed on the basis of ancient legends, the Xia and Shan tribes played a decisive role in the territory of ancient China. Ultimately, the winner was the Shang tribe, whose name is associated with the creation of the first state in the history of China. About the tribe, science does not have reliable archaeological data. We can judge about it only according to some data of literary sources.

Creation of the State of Shang (Yin)

Judging by the legends preserved in ancient literary sources, the Shan tribe originally inhabited the Yishui River basin (the northwestern part of the current Hebei province). Then, as some modern Chinese researchers suggest, this tribe settled from the Yishui River basin in different directions: to the west - to the territory of modern Shanxi province, to the south - to Henan, to the southeast - to Shandong, to the northeast - along the coast Bohai Bay to the Liaodong Peninsula.

By the 18th century BC e., when, according to legend, Cheng Tang was at the head of the Shai tribe, the final subjugation of the Xia tribe by him dates back.

Cheng Tang, according to Chinese tradition, founded a dynasty called the Shang. In later times, after the fall of this dynasty, in the inscriptions on bronze vessels, the Shang dynasty and the state as a whole, as well as its crown population, for the first time began to be denoted by the hieroglyph "yin". This name is widely used both in ancient sources and in modern Chinese and foreign literature. Therefore, we also use two names to designate the same state or period: Shang and Yin.

The name Shang, which was used until the destruction of this kingdom in the 12th century. BC e., comes from the name of the area where, apparently, the ancestral possessions of the leaders of the Shan tribe were located. This name was also used to designate the tribe, then it was adopted as the name of the state and country.

The main source of information about the Shang (Yin) kingdom is data gleaned from excavations of the remains of the last capital of this kingdom, the city of Shan, found near the city of Anyang, near the village of Xiaotun (in modern Henan province). Of particular importance are the bones found here with inscriptions. These inscriptions are mainly divinatory records - the questions of the Yin kings to the oracles and the answers of the latter. The inscriptions were made on the bones of various animals (most often bulls and deer) and shields (shells) of turtles and can be attributed to the XIV-XII centuries. BC e.

Based on the data of these inscriptions, some researchers conclude that the entire territory of the state of Shang (Yin) was divided into five large regions, bearing the names: Shan, Northern lands, Southern lands, Eastern lands and Western lands. The Shan region was considered central, the main one, therefore in the inscriptions on the bones it was called Central Shan.

The Shang (Yin) kingdom occupied the territory of the modern province of Henan, as well as parts of the adjacent provinces. Around the kingdom of Shang there was a number of semi-dependent, at times subordinate to him, including Chinese tribes. In the neighborhood with the Western lands lived the tribes of Zhou, Qiang, Guifan, Kufan; the neighbors of the Northern Lands were the Luifang and Tufan tribes; the neighbors of the Southern lands were the Caofang and others, and, finally, the Renfang tribe was in the neighborhood of the Eastern lands.

Tools. Agriculture.

The materials of archaeological excavations give a certain idea of ​​the development of productive forces in the Shang (Yin) period. First of all, bronze items are widely used, but at the same time stone and bone tools still retain great importance.

During excavations in Xiaotong of the Yin city, the capital of the Shang (Yin) kingdom, many items made of copper and bronze were found: sacrificial vessels, household utensils and weapons - swords, halberds, axes, arrowheads, spear points. In addition, bronze tools were found: axes, knives, awls, chisels, pitchforks and needles. If we take into account that in the pre-Yin period, vessels were made mainly from clay, and tools and weapons from stone and bone, then it should be concluded that during the Shang (Yin) period, great progress was made in the development of productive forces. This is also evidenced by a wide variety of forms, more skillful dressing of products, in particular vessels, and rich painting on them.

Although in the life of the population of ancient China during this period, primitive forms of economy, such as fishing and partly hunting, still retained their importance, they no longer played a decisive role. They were supplanted by cattle breeding and agriculture, and the latter began to play the main role.

To designate various kinds of concepts related to agriculture, a number of signs are used in the inscriptions on the bones, meaning: “field”, “well”, “arable land”, “boundary”, “wheat”, “millet”, etc. The sign “field” (tian) was depicted as regular four squares connected together, or as a rectangle divided into several parts, or as an uneven five-hexagon.

The main crops in northern China were millet, which required relatively little moisture, wheat, barley, and sorghum (kaoliang). It is possible that rice culture also existed at this time in the Yellow River basin. The inscriptions on the bones testify to the presence of horticultural crops during the Shang (Yin) period, as well as the cultivation of silkworms (silkworm) and the cultivation of mulberry trees. According to legend, silkworms have been bred in China since ancient times. Silk cocoons were discovered during excavations at one of the Neolithic sites in the village of Xincun (Shanxi Province). In the inscriptions on the bones, there are often signs depicting a silkworm. Silkworm caterpillars were held in high esteem by the Yin people. They even made sacrifices to their spirits. In divinatory inscriptions, there are also signs depicting silk threads (a product of a silkworm), a dress, etc.

The further development of agriculture is evidenced by the higher than before, the technique of cultivating the land. A number of modern Chinese scholars suggest that even then irrigation was used, apparently primitive and still on a small scale. This conclusion is suggested both by ancient legends, which tell about the beginnings of artificial irrigation back in the pre-Yin period, and by inscriptions on bones. In the latter there are a number of hieroglyphs expressing the idea of ​​irrigation. One of them depicted a field and streams of water, which were, as it were, irrigation canals.

In agriculture, metal tools were already used. This is evidenced by the copper shovels found during excavations in the vicinity of Luoyang and near Anyang. The interpretation of a number of characters in the inscriptions on the bones suggests that the Yin people used cattle for cultivating the land. So, one of the signs, "y", depicted an ox standing on the side of an agricultural tool. Another sign, “li” (plough, plow), also has an ox in its composition, and sometimes, but rarely, a horse. Divinatory inscriptions also contain combinations of two hieroglyphs denoting a plow and a bull.

According to Chinese legends, in ancient times there was the so-called "paired plowing", when two people plowed together. This gave more effect when loosening the earth. The concept of “paired plowing” also had a broader meaning: it meant the combined efforts of two or more people in cultivating the land, that is, the collective cultivation of the field.

Hunting and fishing no longer played the main role in the economy of the Yin people, but continued to remain significant. This is evidenced by many inscriptions on the bones.

In Yin society, cattle breeding occupied a significant place. This is evidenced by the number of animals sacrificed to the spirits. Sometimes it is also white kaolin. At that time, the potter's wheel already existed, although clay vessels were also made by hand. Clay products were fired, sometimes covered with glaze, often decorated with fine ornaments.

We have already talked about the development of sericulture in the Yin times. The existence of such hieroglyphs, which denoted the concepts of “silk thread”, “clothes”, “shawl”, etc., testifies to the production of silk fabrics and the development of weaving.

The existence of various branches of handicraft and special workshops, as well as the high skill of Yin artisans, testify to the fact that handicraft production has already come a long way in its development.

exchange development.

With the advent of the division of labor between agriculture and handicrafts and the growth of surplus agricultural products and handicrafts, exchange develops. Archaeological finds allow us to conclude that there are economic ties between the Yin people and other tribes, including very distant ones. From the tribes from the coast of Bohai, the Yin people received fish, sea shells; apparently from modern Xinjiang - jasper. From the regions located in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and in South China, copper and tin were brought, from which bronze was smelted. Nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes received agricultural products and handicrafts, in particular weapons, from the Yin people. The finds on the Abakan River of vessels, and on the Yenisei River of bronze weapons, similar to the products of Shan artisans, testify to the connections of the Ints with the tribes of Siberia.

Archaeological excavations show that at least after the XIV century. BC e. among the Indians, precious cowrie shells were the measure of value.

In the ruins of the Yin capital, many such shells with a smooth, polished outer side were found. In order to make the shells more comfortable to wear, holes were drilled in them and strung on a thread. The cost of the bundles appears to have been significant. In the inscriptions there is a mention of a gift by the king of several bundles, at most up to ten. Later, as the exchange expanded, the number of sea shells in circulation became insufficient, and it was difficult to extract them. Then they began to resort to replacing natural shells with artificial ones made of jasper or bones. Shells, having become a measure of value, later turned into a symbol of treasure, wealth. Concepts meaning preciousness, wealth, accumulation, and many others, close to them in meaning, began to be denoted by hieroglyphs, in which the shell was the main component.

The class character of Yin society.

The remains of dwellings and burials indicate a significant property stratification. While the poor huddled in dugouts, the rich lived in large wooden houses with stone foundations. Burials also reflect class differentiation. The tombs of kings and nobility differ sharply from the burials of ordinary people in terms of the abundance and richness of the things found in them. A large number of expensive items made of bronze and jade, as well as decorated weapons, were found in the burials of the nobility. Together with the dead noble people, their servants, probably slaves, were buried. So, in the graves of the Yin parei, corpses with severed heads were found. There is reason to believe that sometimes slaves were buried alive.

Until relatively recently, scientists unanimously considered Yin society to be pre-class, while noting that by the end of its existence (the 12th century BC), primitive communal relations disintegrated and a transition to a slave-owning system took place. However, further research on deciphering the Yin inscriptions on bones and archaeological excavations produced by Chinese scientists for last years, allowed us to draw a different conclusion, namely: Yin society was a class, slave-owning society. But it is very difficult to establish the exact time of the transition from a tribal society to a class society. Although the data of archaeological excavations, reflecting class relations, refer to the period after the transfer of the capital by King Pan Geng to Shang, i.e., to the XIV century. BC e., it can be assumed that a class society arose even before that time. For a long time, this system, of course, retained significant vestiges of primitive communal relations.

The most reliable literary monument, whose data on Yin shed light on the period preceding the creation of the Shang Dynasty, is the chapter "Basic Records of Yin" from Sima Qian's Historical Notes. It is characteristic that the list of Yin wangs (rulers, kings) given by Sima Qian is mainly confirmed by inscriptions on bones. This gives grounds to consider Sima Qian's materials as reliable enough. According to Sima Qian, Cheng Tang, addressing the zhuhou (military leaders) and the population, said: “Those of you who do not respect my orders, I will severely punish and destroy. No one will be spared." So the ruler could speak, already fully in control of the lives of his subordinates.

Ancient China is one of the most mysterious countries on our planet. Even now, this state is strikingly different from its neighbors in almost everything. But the main distinguishing feature of the Chinese is that they are not mystics, but practitioners. Nowhere has so much invention been made as in this country. And the religion and philosophy of ancient China shows the extraordinary wisdom of this people.

The emergence of the state of Shan-Yin

The most ancient period in the history of China, which can be studied on the basis of materials obtained by archaeologists, as well as on the basis of available documents, is the era belonging to the 18th-12th centuries BC. e. At that time, the state of Shang-Yin existed here. His story remained in the legends, which say that around 1400 BC. e. A certain leader named Pan Geng, along with his tribe, came to Anyang and built the beautiful city of Shang on the Yellow River. The name of the settlement was given not only to the state, but also to the whole dynasty of kings.

Further, the legend says that the Chou tribes, who lived near the Wei River, in the XII century BC. e. captured ancient country. After the defeat of the Shang capital, which occurred in 1124 BC. e., the conquerors also gave him the name Yin. Also in the legend it was said that the ruler Pan Geng lived peacefully and did not fight with anyone.

Evidence for the existence of the state

Until the 30s of the last century, the Shan-Yin era was studied only on the basis of a legend. But in 1928, archaeological excavations began, during which they found monuments of material culture that confirmed the legend of the existence of the Shan state. The ruins of the city were discovered in Anyang County, near the village of Xiaotun, in the north of Henan province (China). The history of the ancient world appeared here in all its glory. In addition to the remains of numerous houses, craft workshops, a temple and the royal palace, about 300 tombs were found, 4 of which belonged to the royal dynasty. The latest burials stood out among the rest for their impressive size and luxurious decoration.

Thanks to the excavations, scientists concluded that already at that time there was a significant class stratification of society. In addition to the tombs of aristocrats, archaeologists have discovered simpler burials, as well as those that belonged to obvious poor people. In addition, the royal tomb turned out to be a real treasury. About 6,000 objects made of bronze, gold, mother-of-pearl, jade and turtles were found in it. With these archaeological finds, new opportunities have opened up in the study of the centuries-old history of China.

Nature

This country is 80% mountains and plateaus. The nature here is extraordinarily beautiful. Western China is the world's largest highland, so it has a sharply continental climate. The eastern part of the country is located slightly lower and has access to the sea, and there are also vast river valleys, which led to the emergence of important trade routes in these places. This region has a mild climate, so it differs from Western China in a large variety of vegetation. Naturally, it was in the east that the most ancient state with its own agricultural culture was formed.

The nature of ancient China is somewhat different from modern. So, in the northern part of this state, an incomparably larger area was covered with forests than now. This could be determined from the inscriptions on fortune-telling bones, which told about hunts, often organized for deer. And in the "Book of Songs" there are references to vast forests. The green massifs largely contributed to a more uniform precipitation. This gave the local inhabitants the opportunity to hunt. In addition, they had a lot of wood for making tools and building houses.

Natural conditions described in the legends

Ancient China has always been famous for its legends. They often told about the struggle of the people with the dangerous river and their stubborn struggle for the organization of the agricultural economy. From ancient legends it can be seen that the Chinese constantly fought against floods, the cause of which was the Yellow River. Overflowing waters brought with them catastrophic disasters, destroying populous villages and destroying crops. In addition, the inhabitants of ancient China tried to use the artificial irrigation system to distribute water as evenly as possible throughout the country.

Population

The mountainous regions, plateaus and steppes that adjoined the river valleys have always been inhabited by numerous nomadic tribes. The people of Ancient China, who inhabited the fertile plains, constantly defended themselves from the predatory raids of the mountain, steppe and nomadic tribes, and this significantly hampered the development of not only culture, but also statehood. Gradually, the Chinese were able to colonize those regions where the backward warlike peoples were in charge. But on these lands for a long time remained nomadic pastoralism, since it was of great importance in the life of ancient states.

Nationalities inhabiting the country

Ancient China in its own way ethnic composition was quite varied. It is known that this country occupies a vast territory, where a quarter of the population of the entire planet lives. Therefore, it seems natural that in ancient times it was not so homogeneous. Historical documents mention various tribes that constantly clashed with each other, fought and traded. On the north and northwest side, the Chinese coexisted with the Mongols, Tungus and Manchus, and in the south and southwest - with the tribes of Tibet, India and Burma.

Beliefs

The religion of ancient China was not personalized. Unlike other countries of the world, temples dedicated to any particular deity were not built here, and the role of priests was most often performed by government officials. Most of all, the Chinese revered various kinds of spirits that personified nature itself, as well as the dead ancestors of the Shang-di.

The most important place in the life of this people was occupied by a cult dedicated to the spirits of the earth. They made constant sacrifices, accompanied by prayers and requests for a good harvest. Most often they were recorded on tortoise shells or lamb shoulder blades. And all this was accompanied by special rituals, which were equated with matters of national importance. These ceremonies were always seriously and carefully prepared.

The religion of ancient China divided everything that exists into two parts - yin (male) and yang (female). The first of them personified the bright, light, strong, that is, everything positive that is in life, and the second, on the contrary, was associated with the Moon and embodied darkness and weakness.

Teachings

The peoples inhabiting Ancient China had their own system of worldview. They believed that the world is chaos, and there are life-giving particles in it - tsy. The sky was considered the progenitor of all life that is on earth. But he was not revered as a God to whom one could turn and ask for anything. The sky for the Chinese is just some kind of abstract entity, absolutely indifferent to people. That is why there are many philosophies that deities replace them with.

The teachings of ancient China are very diverse. It is impossible to describe them all in one article. Therefore, we briefly consider the three most common.

1. Confucianism is a system based on ancient traditions, including duty and humanism. For his followers, the main thing is the strict observance of all rituals and rules. The founder of this teaching was an official belonging to the ancient family of Kung Fu Tzu.
2. Chinese Buddhism appeared due to its close proximity to India around the 1st century BC. e. The very ideas of Buddhism to the Chinese came mostly to taste. But two aspects of this teaching they accepted without enthusiasm. The fact is that Indian monks could beg for alms, and for the Chinese, such behavior was considered shameful. The second point was the idea of ​​monasticism. Before the advent of Buddhism, this way of life was not known here. The monastic order demanded to give up the name, and for the Chinese this meant renunciation of their ancestors.
3. Taoism has something in common with Confucianism. The doctrine is based on the concept of Tao - a rather complex and multifaceted concept, with which its followers must connect. This goal can only be achieved by observing the laws of morality, meditating and refusing unnecessary material assets. The founder of the doctrine is the archivist Lao Tzu.

Discovery #1

The first of the greatest inventions of ancient China is paper. Confirmation of this fact can be found in Chinese chronicles dating back to the Eastern Han Dynasty. The document says that in 105 the court eunuch Tsai Lun invented the paper. Prior to this, records were made on special rolled scrolls made of bamboo strips, on clay or wooden tablets, on silk scrolls, etc. Older writings dated to the 2nd century BC. e. (the reign of the Shang Dynasty), were written on the shells of turtles.

As early as the 3rd century, paper, invented by Cai Lun, was widely used. The technology of its production was as follows: a mixture of mulberry bark, hemp, fabrics and nets unsuitable for catching fish was boiled until it turned into pulp. Then it was ground to a homogeneous mass and a little water was added. The resulting mixture was loaded into a special reed sieve and shaken. After this procedure, an even and thin fibrous layer was formed on the bottom. Then it was thrown back on flat boards. They made several such castings at once. Then the boards were laid on top of each other and tightly tied, while the load was still placed on top. The use of this technology made the paper sheet strong, light, even and comfortable for writing.

Discovery #2

After the invention of Ancient China No. 1, printing appeared. For the first time, its entire technological process was described by the Chinese scientist Shen Ko in 1088. The book says that the invention of typesetting and fired clay letters belongs to a certain master Bi Sheng.

The discovery of printing in the 9th century brought with it a change in the technique of weaving. At the end of the Tang era, books that had previously looked like scrolls turned into a stack of paper that resembled a brochure familiar to everyone. During the reign of the Yuan Dynasty, and this is 1271-1368, the spine of the book began to be made from stiffer paper, and later stitched with thread. Fortunately, many books from ancient China have survived to this day. The Diamond Sutra is considered the first full-fledged printed edition. It was made during the Tang Dynasty, which ruled from 618 to 907. The length of the scrolls of the Diamond Sutra is 5.18 m.

Discovery #3

The next most important invention is gunpowder, which appeared in the 10th century. It was used as a filling for incendiary projectiles. Judging by the Chinese chronicles, barrel gunpowder weapons were first used in battles in 1132. It was a bamboo tube into which gunpowder was placed and set on fire. Thus, tangible burns were inflicted on the enemy. After 125 years, the Chinese invented a gun, but already firing bullets. It was a bamboo tube loaded with gunpowder and bullets. Around the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th century, iron cannons appeared in China that fired stone cannonballs.

But gunpowder was used not only for military purposes. It was used as a disinfectant in the treatment of all kinds of wounds and ulcers, as well as during numerous epidemics. Almost the entire Ancient East, China was no exception, believed that all evil spirits are afraid not only of a loud sound, but also of a bright glow. Therefore, from time immemorial, on the Chinese New Year, bonfires were traditionally lit in the courtyards, in which bamboo was burned. Starting to burn, it hissed and burst with a crash. With the advent of powder charges, which created much more noise and light, the old way of celebrating began to be abandoned. Nowadays, it is already difficult to imagine the New Year without colorful fireworks, which are used almost all over the world.

Discovery #4

The next invention is the compass. Its prototype appeared in the era of the Han Dynasty, which ruled from 202 BC. e. before 220 AD But its original purpose was divination, not navigation. The ancient compass looked like a plate with a spoon placed on it, the handle of which pointed due south. This device, which determines the cardinal points, was first described in Chinese book"Wujing Zongyao" in 1044. Another kind of compass was cast from iron or steel ingots in the form of a fish, which was placed in water. To accurately determine the course, two of the above-mentioned devices were usually used at once.

A more advanced design of this device was described by the same Chinese scientist Shen Ko in 1088 in the Notes on the Stream of Dreams. In his work, he described in detail the magnetic declination, which indicates the true north, as well as the device of the compass itself with a needle.

Other inventions

Some of the discoveries of the Chinese in many ways contributed to the fact that most areas of culture and art became accessible not only to rich people, but also to the general population. Absolutely all the inventions of Ancient China are hard to list. Here are just a few of them: tea, silk, fork, porcelain, toothbrush, money, noodles, gong, drum, playing cards, crossbow and more. etc. But most scientists believe that the main inventions were still paper, printing, compass and gunpowder.

Chinese civilization (ancestors of the state-forming Han ethnic group) - a group of cultures (Banpo 1, Shijia, Banpo 2, Miaodigou, Zhongshanzhai 2, Hougang 1, etc.) of the Middle Neolithic (c. 4500-2500 BC) in the Yellow River basin, which are traditionally grouped under the common name of Yangshao. Representatives of these crops grew cereals (chumiza, etc.) and bred pigs. Later, the Longshan culture spread to the area: Middle Eastern cereals (wheat and barley) and livestock breeds (cows, sheep, goats) appeared.

State of Shang-Yin

The Zhou period as a whole is characterized by active development of new lands, resettlement and ethnic mixing of people from different regions, destinies (later - kingdoms), which contributed to the creation of the foundation of the future Chinese community.

In the V-III centuries. BC. (Zhanguo period) China enters the Iron Age. Agricultural areas are expanding, irrigation systems are expanding, handicrafts are developing, revolutionary changes are taking place in military affairs.

During the Zhangguo period, seven major kingdoms coexisted in China - Wei, Zhao and Han (previously all three were part of the Jin kingdom), Qin, Qi, Yan and Chu. Gradually, as a result of fierce rivalry, the westernmost - Qin - began to gain the upper hand. Having annexed one by one the neighboring kingdoms, in 221 BC. e. The ruler of Qin - the future emperor Qin Shi Huang - united all of China under his rule.

Qin Shi Huang, who built all his reforms on the foundations of legalism with barracks discipline and cruel punishments for the guilty, persecuted Confucians, putting them to death (burial alive) and burning their writings - because they dared to speak out against the most severe oppression established in the country.

The Qin Empire ceased to exist shortly after the death of Qin Shi Huang.

Han Empire

The second empire in the history of China, called Han (Chinese traditional 漢, simplified 汉, pinyin Han; 206 BC e. - n. e.) was founded by a native of the middle bureaucracy, Liu Bang (Gaozu), one of the military leaders of the revived Chu kingdom, who fought against Qin after the death of Emperor Qin Shi Huang in 210 BC.

China at that time was experiencing an economic and social crisis caused by the loss of control and wars between the commanders of the Qin armies and the elites of the previously destroyed kingdoms, who were trying to restore their statehood. Due to migrations and wars, the rural population in the main agricultural areas has significantly decreased.

An important feature of the change of dynasties in China was that each new dynasty replaced the previous one in an environment of socio-economic crisis, weakening of the central government and wars between military leaders. The founder of the new state was the one who could capture the capital and forcibly remove the ruling emperor from power.

With the reign of Gaozu (206-195 BC), a new period begins Chinese history, which was called the Western Han.

In the period from 8 to 23 years. n. e. power is seized by Wang Mang, who proclaims himself emperor and founder of the state of Xin. A series of transformations begins, which is interrupted environmental catastrophe- The Yellow River changed its course. Because of the three-year famine, the central government weakened. Under these conditions, the red-browed uprising and the movement of representatives of the Liu clan for the return of the throne began. Wang Mang was killed, the capital was taken, power returned to the Liu dynasty.

The new period was called the Eastern Han, it lasted until BC. e.

The State of Jin and the Nan Bei Chao period (4th-6th centuries)

The Eastern Han was replaced by the Three Kingdoms period (Wei, Shu and Wu). During the struggle for power between the warlords, a new state of Jin was founded (traditional Chinese 晉, simplified 晋, pinyin jin; -).

State of Tang

The rulers of the Liu Dynasty put an end to the speeches of the nobility and carried out a series of successful transformations. There is a division of the country into 10 provinces, the "allotment system" was restored, administrative legislation was improved, the vertical of power was strengthened, trade and city life were revived. Significantly increased the size of many cities and urban population.

Despite the forced territorial concessions to neighbors, the Song period is considered the era of China's economic and cultural flourishing. The number of cities is growing, the urban population continues to grow, Chinese artisans reach heights in the manufacture of products from porcelain, silk, lacquer, wood, ivory, etc. Gunpowder and the compass are invented, book printing is spreading, new high-yielding varieties of cereals are being developed, and cotton cultivation is increasing. One of the most impressive and effective of these innovations was the very conscious, systematic and well-organized introduction and distribution of new varieties of early-ripening rice from South Vietnam (Champa).

Yang Guifei saddling a horse, painter Xing Xuan (1235-1305 AD)

Genghis Khan created an organized and combat-ready army, which became a decisive factor in the subsequent successes of the relatively small Mongolian ethnic group.

Having conquered the neighboring peoples of Southern Siberia, Genghis Khan went to war against the Jurchens and took Beijing.

The conquests in South China were continued already in the 1250s, after campaigns in Europe and the Near and Middle East. At first, the Mongols captured the countries surrounding the South Sung Empire - the state of Dali (-), Tibet (). The Mongol troops led by Khan Kublai invaded South China from different sides, but the unexpected death of the Great Khan Mongke () prevented the implementation of their plans. Khan Kublai, having seized the khan's throne, moved the capital from Karakorum to the territory of China (first to Kaiping, and in Zhongdu - modern Beijing). The Mongols managed to take the capital of the South Sung state of Hangzhou only in. All of China was conquered, and the Sung Empire was destroyed.

The heavy economic, political and national oppression established by the Mongol feudal lords held back the development of the country. Many Chinese were enslaved. Agriculture and trade were undermined. The necessary work to maintain irrigation facilities (dams and canals) was not carried out, which led to a terrible flood and the death of several hundred thousand people. The Great Chinese Canal was built during the Mongol domination.

Popular dissatisfaction with the new rulers resulted in a powerful patriotic movement and uprisings, led by the leaders of the White Lotus (Bailianjiao) secret society.

The Mongols, pushed back to the north, begin to actively develop the steppes of modern Mongolia. The Ming Empire subjugates part of the Jurchen tribes, the state of Nanzhao (modern provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou), part of the modern provinces of Qinghai and Sichuan.

The Chinese fleet under the command of Zheng He, consisting of several dozen multi-deck frigates, has been making several sea expeditions to Southeast Asia, India and the east coast of Africa for the period from to. Having brought no economic benefit to China, the expeditions were stopped and the ships were dismantled.

The Manchu dynasty in the Qing state ruled from one year to the next. In the hands of the Manchu nobility were the highest authorities and the leadership of the army. Mixed marriages were forbidden, and yet the Manchus quickly became sinicized, especially since, unlike the Mongols, they did not oppose Chinese culture.

In the first two centuries of the Qing Dynasty, China, closed from everyday contact with the outside world, manifested itself as a strong independent state, expanding in all directions.

During the war, the superiority of the Japanese army and navy led to major defeats for China on land and at sea (at Asan, July 1894; near Pyongyang, September 1894; at Jiuliang, October 1894).

Triple intervention

The conditions imposed by Japan on China led to the so-called "triple intervention" of Russia, Germany and France - powers that by this time already had extensive contacts with China and therefore perceived the signed treaty as detrimental to their interests. On April 23, Russia, Germany, and France, simultaneously but separately, appealed to the Japanese government to demand that the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula, which could lead to Japanese control of Port Arthur, be abandoned, while Nicholas II, supported by the Western Allies, had his own views of Port Arthur as an ice-free port for Russia. The German note was the most severe, even offensive to Japan.

Japan had to give in. On May 10, 1895, the Japanese government announced the return of the Liaodong Peninsula to China, however, having achieved an increase in the amount of Chinese indemnity by 30 million taels.

Successes of Russian policy in China

In 1895, Russia provided China with a loan of 150 million rubles at 4% per annum. The treaty contained a commitment by China not to accept foreign control of its finances unless Russia was involved. At the end of 1895, the Russo-Chinese Bank was founded on Witte's initiative. On June 3, 1896, a Russian-Chinese treaty on a defensive alliance against Japan was signed in Moscow. On September 8, 1896, a concession agreement was signed between the Chinese government and the Russian-Chinese Bank for the construction of the Chinese Eastern Railway. The CER Society received a strip of land along the road, which came under its jurisdiction. In March 1898, a Russo-Chinese treaty was signed to lease Port Arthur and the Liaodong Peninsula to Russia.

Capture of Jiaozhou by Germany

In August 1897, Wilhelm II visited Nicholas II in Peterhof and obtained consent to the establishment of a German naval base in Jiaozhou (in the then transcription version - "Kiao-Chao"), on the southern coast of Shandong. In early November, German missionaries were killed by the Chinese in Shandong. On November 14, 1897, the Germans landed troops on the Jiaozhou coast and captured it. On March 6, 1898, the German-Chinese agreement was signed, according to which China leased Jiaozhou to Germany for a period of 99 years. At the same time, the Chinese government granted Germany a concession to build two railways in Shandong and a number of mining concessions in that province.

One Hundred Days of Reforms

A short period of reforms began on June 11, 1898, with the issuance of a decree by the Manchu Emperor Zaitian (the name of the years of reign - Guangxu) "On the establishment of the main line of state policy." Zaitian enlisted a group of young reformers, disciples and associates of Kang Youwei, to draft a series of reform decrees. In total, more than 60 decrees were issued that concerned the education system, the construction of railways, factories and factories, the modernization of agriculture, the development of domestic and foreign trade, the reorganization of the armed forces, the cleansing of the state apparatus, etc. The period of radical reforms ended on September 21 of the same year, when Empress Dowager Cixi staged a palace coup and canceled the reforms.

20th century

Map of China proper at the beginning of the 20th century from the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Boxer Rebellion

Cixi, Emperor's Widow (1900s).

In May 1900, a great uprising broke out in China, known as the Boxer or Yihetuan Rebellion. On June 20, the German envoy Ketteler was assassinated in Beijing. Following this, the rebels besieged the diplomatic missions located in a special quarter of Beijing. The building of the Catholic Cathedral of Petang (Beitang) was also besieged. Mass killings of Chinese Christians by the "Yihetuans" began, including 222 Orthodox Chinese who were killed. On June 21, 1900, Empress Cixi (慈禧) declared war on Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Japan, the United States, and Russia. The Great Powers agreed on joint action against the rebels. The German general Waldersee was appointed commander-in-chief of the expeditionary forces. However, when he arrived in China, Peking had already been liberated by a small advance detachment under the command of the Russian General Linevich. The Russian army occupied Manchuria.

Railway map of China (1908)

Russo-Japanese War

After the fall of the monarchy, the ruler of Mongolia refused to obey the republic and separated from China. On November 3, he signed an agreement with Russia. England took advantage of the internal struggle in China to turn Tibet into her zone of influence. Tibet rose up to fight and forced the Chinese garrison to leave the country. All subsequent attempts by the Chinese to restore their power there were thwarted by Britain. Russia agreed to regard Tibet as an English sphere of influence, and England recognized Russian interests in independent (outer) Mongolia.

On March 22, 1916, the republic was restored. Yuan Shikai was forced to relinquish the title.

The era of militarists

After the death of Yuan Shikai, numerous military-feudal fiefdoms of various militaristic groups began to take shape in China. The largest was the Beiyang grouping, which subsequently broke up into the Fengtian group led by the former leader of the Honghuz gang Zhang Zuolin, the Zhili group led by General Feng Guozhang, and the Anhui group led by General Duan Qizhui. In Shanxi province, the militarist Yan Xishan, who flirted with the Beiyang group, dominated, and in Shaanxi province, General Chen Shufan. The camp of the southwestern militarists consisted of two large groups: the Yunnanese led by General Tang Jiyao, and the Guangxi led by General Lu Rongting.

Under the control of the Fengtian group were the provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Fengtian, under the control of the Zhili - Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and part of Zhili. The Fengtian and Anhui cliques were financed by Japan, the Zhili clique by England and the USA. Li Yuanhong was a protege of the southwestern militarists. Vice President General Feng Guozhang was oriented towards England and the United States, while Prime Minister General Duan Qirui was pro-Japanese. In 1917, Japan began to provide Duan Qirui large loans, receiving more and more concessions for them, including concessions in Manchuria.

Kuomintang victory

The government of Chiang Kai-shek received military assistance from Germany during the Weimar Republic. With the advent of Hitler to power, aid was increased in order to fight the communists. Factories for the production of licensed German weapons were created in China, German advisers trained personnel, M35 Stahlhelm, Gewehr 88, 98, C96 Broomhandle Mauser were exported to China. China also received Henschel, Junkers, Heinkel and Messerschmitt aircraft, Rheinmetall and Krupp howitzers, anti-tank and mountain guns such as the PaK 37mm, and Panzer I tankettes.

On November 25, 1936, Japan and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, directed against the USSR and the communist movement. On December 12, 1936, the Xian Incident took place, forcing Chiang Kai-shek to unite with the Communists.

March of the Chinese Communists in Beijing (1949)

cultural revolution

In 1966, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong launched a massive campaign to keep the revolutionary spirit alive among the masses. Its actual task was the establishment of Maoism as the only state ideology and the destruction of political opposition. Mass mobilization of youth, called "

China - begin in the Tibetan Plateau and carry a lot of sand and silt to the Pacific Ocean. The sea into which the Huang He flows is called Yellow. River sediments are very fertile, people have long settled on the banks of rivers. But the Huang He and the Yangtze often overflowed their banks, changed the position of the channel, which led to severe floods and the death of many people. Over thousands of years, the Chinese have built thousands of kilometers of dams - protective earthen ramparts along the Yellow River and the Yangtze. But floods still threaten the country. The nature of China, its state structure, and the customs of the people were described, upon returning, by Marco Polo.

History of Ancient China

• 1766-1027 BC e. - Shang Dynasty.
• 1027-221 BC e. - Zhou Dynasty.
• OK. 722-481 BC e. - The kings of the Zhou dynasty lose power. Wars between nobles (Spring and Autumn period).
• 481-221 BC e. - the seven kingdoms are at war with each other (the era of the warring kingdoms, or the period of the Warring States).
• 221-210 AD BC e. - reign of Qin Shi Huang, the first Chinese emperor.
• 202 BC e. - 220 AD e. - Han dynasty.

Shang dynasty

By about 1765 BC. e. a huge part of China was under the rule of the royal family (or dynasty) Shang.

Zhou dynasty

Around 1027 BC. e. The Shang Dynasty was defeated by the Zhou tribe. The new rulers from the Zhou Dynasty allowed the nobles to own the land. Those in return had to keep them loyal and help during the wars.

Over time, the nobility gained such power that power began to slip from the hands of the Zhou dynasty. The nobles founded their own small kingdoms and constantly fought with each other, trying to grab a larger piece of land.

Qin dynasty

Han dynasty

Shortly after the death of the first Chinese emperor, Qin Shi Huang, rebellions broke out and the Qing Empire collapsed. In 202 BC. e. commander Liu Bang, having extended his power over the whole country, proclaimed himself emperor. He became the founder of the new Han Dynasty, which ruled China for the next four hundred years. The capital of the ancient emperors from the Han Dynasty was the city of Handan.

officials

The emperors of the Han Dynasty had many officials who helped them run the empire. Officials collected taxes, monitored the condition of roads and canals, checked whether all subjects were obedient to the law.

Anyone who wanted to become an official had to pass the test. The applicant was asked questions about ancient poetry and the teachings of the philosopher Confucius.

Silk Road

From about 105 BC. e. Chinese merchants cross Asia and enter into trade relations with people in the west. Since then, along the legendary Silk Road, stretching from China to the Mediterranean Sea, they began to carry Chinese silk, spices and precious stones on camels.

Wars with the Huns

The emperors of the Han Dynasty fought wars to defend the empire from the Hun tribes from the north, and eventually got the better of them. The Huns no longer raided China and withdrew to the west.

Fall of the Han Dynasty

The power of the emperor was weakened by strife between the royal family and their courtiers. In 220 AD e. the last emperor of the Han Dynasty abdicated and the empire collapsed.

Trade

Ambassadors, warriors, merchants of China got to the center of Asia along the Great Silk Road. It received this name from the main transported product - Chinese silk. China is the birthplace of silk, paper, porcelain.

Europeans began trading with China during the time of ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Then she passed into the hands of Arab merchants.

Life and life in ancient China

• OK. 5000 BC e. - Agriculture enters China.
• OK. 4000 BC e. They start growing rice.
• OK. 2700 BC e. - the beginning of silk weaving.
• OK. 1400 BC e. - inscriptions on fortune-telling bones.
• 551 BC e. - Birth of Confucius.
• OK. 1 - 100 years n. e. Spread of Buddhism from India.
• OK. 100 AD e. - Invention of paper.

Ancient Chinese writing

Writing in China appeared around 1400 BC. e. The priests, wanting to predict the future, carved questions on divination bones. The bones were heated until they began to crack, and then they read over the pattern formed by the cracks, trying to find answers to their questions.

Architecture of Ancient China

the great Wall of China

2300 years ago, the Chinese erected a huge stone wall about 5000 km long to protect themselves from the raids of nomadic cattle breeders. Part of it has survived to this day. It is clearly visible from space, it is often drawn on geographical maps.

Confucius

A thinker named Kongzi (or Confucius) lived in a troubled era in ancient China. He taught that wars would stop only when people understood how they should behave. The subjects must obey their ruler, and the ruler must be kind to his people. material from the site

Science of Ancient China

The ancient Chinese were the first to invent paper. They dipped a bamboo sieve into a mixture of crushed tree bark, plants, and rags. A thin layer of mass remained on the sieve, which was dried.

Chinese scientists invented many instruments that are still used today: compass, wheelbarrow and ship's steering wheel. The ancient Chinese invented an earthquake detection device, a bowl flanked by metal dragon heads with a ball in its mouth. During an earthquake, the ball fell into the mouth of a toad statue located under each head of the dragon - this was how the direction of the earthquake was determined.

Silk production

The Chinese were the first to learn how to unwind cocoons and weave fabric from silk threads. Silk thread is secreted by caterpillars of silkworms (a type of butterfly), which weave a cocoon from it. Before unwinding, the cocoons were washed in a vat of hot water. To maintain the flame, women blew on the fire.

Use of metal

Chinese artisans during the Shang Dynasty learned how to make weapons and utensils from bronze. The population preferred to cook food and wine for their deceased ancestors, whom they considered gods, in bronze cauldrons with a complex pattern.

Pictures (photos, drawings)

• Map of China under the Shang Dynasty

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  A nobleman from the Zhou dynasty in his war chariot

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  Map of China under the Han Dynasty

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  Chinese nobleman

• Wooden figurine of a nobleman from the Han Dynasty

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  An official with his servants

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  Officials take an exam

• Chinese silk banner

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  Funeral costume of Princess Tu Van made of jade

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  Wooden bowl covered with glossy lacquer

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  bronze cauldron

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  divination bone

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  Paper production

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  Chinese earthquake detection device

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  Chinese ancient civilization has about 5000 years. Found ancient sources prove that China is no less 3500 years. For several centuries after the death of the first emperor, China was torn apart by wars. By 626 B.C. the golden age again began in the country. Power passed to the first emperor of the dynasty Tan - Taizong . In the capital of the empire, moved to Chang'an, merchants arrived along the Great Silk Road. Markets were bustling all over the city. Different religions coexisted peacefully. For the first time simple people, and not just know, could hold public office. Everyone who expected to get a place in the public service had to pass an exam. The population worked in the production of salt, paper, iron. The arts and crafts flourished. Peasants sold their goods on the streets, many were drafted into the army.
  

  First Emperor

  Before 221 BC China was divided into several kingdoms, each with its own ruler, who fought among themselves for more than 250 years. The state won Qin(from this word comes the name of China in European languages). Its ruler took the title Qin Shi Huang, which means "the first emperor of Qin". He ascended the throne at just 13 years old. A brilliant commander and politician, he swept away anyone who stood in his way. For his cool temper, he was nicknamed " qin tiger". Qin ordered to burn books that contradicted his ideas, and throw dissenting scientists into a pit. But the emperor was afraid to die. In his magnificent palace there were more than 1000 bedrooms, and every night he changed his place of lodging for the night, fearing to be killed in his sleep.
  Qin Shi Huang sought to preserve the unity of the empire. He removed the former rulers from power, settling them in the capital Chang'an, re-divided the country into regions and appointed his officials. At his direction, a network of roads and canals was built. For the security of the northern border, the emperor ordered the construction of a gigantic structure - the Great Wall of China, part of which has survived to this day. The emperor undertook to restore the strength and wealth of the country after long wars. The writing was unified. All products, even bricks, had to bear the name of the manufacturer: for bad job masters could be punished. The length of the cart axles had to be the same, corresponding to the rut knocked out in the roads. Chinese kingdoms minted their own coins. At Qin Shi Huang all coins were round, with a hole for a cord.
  Despite all efforts, the empire collapsed shortly after death. Qin Shi Huang, in 210 BC
  

  the great Wall of China

  

  For a long time, China was threatened by the nomadic tribes of the Xiongnu (Xiongnu, or Huns) who lived to the north of it. Local rulers tried to protect themselves by building large walls. AT 214 BC the emperor ordered them to be connected into one giant border wall more than 3460 km. The construction was led by a military leader Meng Tian who sent officials to oversee the work. The wall was built by thousands of peasants. Whip-wielding overseers constantly monitored the pace and speed of the work. The soldiers guarded the construction site from enemy attacks. Cold, damp and dangerous working conditions killed people. The dead were buried right where they fell.

  The workers used simple tools - picks, shovels, baskets and cargo, manual wheelbarrows. For lifting huge cobblestones, slabs and stones, scaffolding was used from tied bamboo poles. A mound of stones and earth was covered with stone slabs.

  The height of the wall was 9 meters, and the width is such that a chariot could pass through it. AT upper parts fortifications were built watchtowers. Slot-like openings for archery and crossbows were also designed in the wall.

  Ultimately, it was considered that Great Wall has a silhouette Chinese dragon head to the west and tail to the east.
  

  Capital of China - Chang'an

  Under the Tang dynasty Chang'an became largest city world. Chang'an means " forever safe". The city was home to over a million permanent residents and many foreign merchants, travelers and scientists. The clothes were made of colored silk. Only the emperor could wear yellow clothes. The emperor's palace, surrounded by a high wall, was located in the northern part of the city. Musicians and dancers, houses made of wood were covered with varnish, tiles were constructed on the roofs of houses.
  

  The life of the rich nobility

  The rich lived in grand style. Wealthy families had beautiful houses of 2-3 floors. Lush silk robes, luxurious feasts at which servants served pork or venison dishes and drinks made from millet and rice. Long hours were devoted to enjoying music and poetry, playing chess and cards. The houses were decorated with luxury goods made of gold and silver, jade and porcelain. Lacquerware and painting on silk were popular. Noble Chinese moved around the city in a stretcher - a palanquin.
  

  Great Inventions

  The Chinese were great inventors. In 2nd century BC they invented paper, later printing with wooden stamps. They also designed an instrument to measure the strength of earthquakes. In the era of the Tang Dynasty, a mechanical water clock, a magnetic compass, paper playing cards and fine china appeared. Gunpowder was invented, with which fireworks were arranged. The Chinese invented printing. The pages were connected in a long strip, the book was rolled up.
  

  Great Silk Road

  The Tang emperors encouraged trade. Caravans of camels and horses took away silk, porcelain, salt, tea and paper along the Great Silk Road more than 7000 km. It connected China with the Mediterranean and went through Central Asia, Persia, and Syria. The Chinese bought furs, horses, gold, spices from their neighbors. Fur products were brought from the north.
  The journey along the Great Silk Road was long. Merchants traveled in caravans. We set up camp for the night. The Great Silk Road was named so because of the great importance of the silk trade.
  

  Craft and Art of China

  

  The Chinese have learned how to extract salt from underground salt water. The brine was brought to the surface and sent through bamboo pipes to vats, where the water was evaporated. In the II century BC. China started making paper. Pulp was made from mulberry wood and dried on wooden frames. Buddhist monks first brought tea bushes from the Himalayas, which soon began to grow. Farmers plowed the fields before sowing millet and grew rice. Irrigation allowed to develop new lands for crops .About the VI century BC. The Chinese learned how to make silk from silkworm cocoons. Craftsmen learned how to build blast furnaces and smelt steel. Their weapons and tools have become stronger. The road builders rammed the earth to build the road.
  It was very popular in China calligraphy- the art of beautiful writing. Artists decorated pottery with colored glaze. The outlines of the superb beautiful landscape of rocks in South China have become a favorite subject of painters and artists.
  

  Philosophy and the way of knowledge

  The Chinese have never believed in a single god. They deified nature, worshiping the spirits of mountains, rivers and trees. They also developed two religious and philosophical schools, indicating the norms of human relations. These are the teachings of Laozi (Taoism) and Confucius (Confucianism). The basis of Taoism is the belief in harmony with nature. Confucians relied on virtue, the family, and the stability of society. However, when in 1st century BC. borrowed from India Buddhism, it spread very widely. Monk Xuan Zang returned to India with Buddhist treatises for his learned brethren in 629. Pilgrims went to the sacred "Caves of a Thousand Buddhas". More than in 1000 caves there were wall paintings, Buddhist sculptures and an extensive library.
  Taoist sages contemplated the symbol Yin Yang. The Chinese believed that yin and yang had great power with the universe, and their balance ensured the harmony of the world.
  The Chinese believed that in the human body there is a network of pathways through which energy flows. Needles inserted into special points affect the flow of energy and heal diseases. This treatment is called

  Since ancient times, the Chinese have buried the dead along with objects for the afterlife. In the graves of rulers, not only food, drinks and personal property are found, but also the bodies of servants who were supposed to be in the eternal service of their master. The Chinese revered their dead ancestors, believing in their help and protection.
  princess Dou Wan buried in a robe of pieces of jade, connected by gold. Jade was supposed to protect her body from decay.
  In the tomb of the emperor, a life-size copy of his army, made from terracotta: 7500 infantry, archers, officers, chariots and horses. The crossbows were cocked to fire in an attempted robbery. There were also models of palaces, and canals filled with mercury, set in motion by wheels, depicting a river Yangtze. Thousands of people worked on this. AT 1974 the tomb was accidentally found by workers digging a well.
  Imperial tomb with " terracotta army "They built on Mount Li. The bodies of the figures were made separately, then the head and hands were attached. Inside the tomb, in the underground corridors, warriors and horses stood row by row. The face of each warrior was different from the other.