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On September 14, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted a decree "On the introduction of the international metric decimal system of measures and weights." In the decree, in particular, it was determined “to take the meter as the basis for the unit of length, and for the basis of the unit of weight (mass). For samples of the basic units of the metric system, accept a copy of the international meter bearing sign No. 28, and a copy of the international kilogram bearing sign No. 12.
From January 1, 1919, all institutions of the RSFSR were ordered to introduce the metric system. If, due to technical difficulties, the use of the new system was impossible, it was allowed to use the old system with the condition that "the final transition to the metric system must be completed by January 1, 1922." People's Commissariat education, it was ordered to take measures to familiarize schoolchildren with the metric system, as well as to popularize the new system among the population. From January 1, 1922, it was supposed to stop the production of weights, and from January 1923 to withdraw them from sale. Thus, by January 1, 1924, it was supposed to complete the transition to the metric system of measurements.
To promptly resolve all issues related to the introduction and application of the metric system, it was prescribed to create a special Interdepartmental metric commission, which included representatives of the Supreme Council of the National Economy and various commissariats (finance, communications, military affairs, agriculture, education, food, post and telegraph ). However, the commission, subordinate to the People's Commissariat of Trade and Industry, did not demonstrate its competence in matters of reform, so on October 19, 1920, it was transferred to the Scientific and Technical Department of the Supreme Economic Council.
The widespread introduction of the metric system hampered the difficult economic situation of the country caused by the civil war. The reform also involved significant monetary and material costs. It was only with the end of the civil war that there was a real opportunity for change.
By the beginning of 1922, it became obvious that the Interdepartmental Metric Commission was not capable of coping with all the tasks set. In April 1922, the State Office for the Procurement and Sale of Metric Measures and Weights (“Gosmer”) was established, dealing with the manufacture and supply of the country with metric instruments.
Thus, in 1922, the duties of all metrological institutions were strictly delimited. The Interdepartmental Metric Commission becomes the governing body for the introduction of the metric system, Gosmer is engaged in production activities, and provides scientific support and verification of measures and instruments.
On May 29, 1922, a new deadline was set by the decree "On the postponement of the introduction of the metric system" - January 1, 1927. During this period, the main activities were indeed successfully implemented. In everyday practice, it was customary to use both old and new measures, indicating them in parallel. By order of April 16, 1927, such a double designation was prohibited, and all measures were ordered to be indicated exclusively in accordance with the metric system.
Metric system - the general name of the international decimal system of units based on the use of the meter and kilogram. For two recent centuries existed various options metric system, differing in the choice of base units.
The metric system grew out of the decrees passed by the National Assembly of France in 1791 and 1795 to define the meter as one ten millionth of one quarter of the earth's meridian from North Pole to the equator (Paris meridian).
The metric system of measures was approved for use in Russia (optionally) by the law of June 4, 1899, the draft of which was developed by D. I. Mendeleev, and introduced as a mandatory decree of the Provisional Government of April 30, 1917, and for the USSR - by a decree Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of July 21, 1925. Until that moment, the so-called Russian system of measures existed in the country.
Russian system of measures - a system of measures traditionally used in Russia and in Russian Empire. The Russian system was replaced metric system measures, which was approved for use in Russia (optionally) by the law of June 4, 1899. Below are the measures and their meanings according to the “Regulations on Weights and Measures” (1899), unless otherwise indicated. Earlier values of these units could differ from those given; so, for example, by the Code of 1649, a verst was established at 1,000 sazhens, while in the 19th century a verst was 500 sazhens; versts 656 and 875 sazhens long were also used.
Sa?zhen, or soot? - old Russian unit of distance. In the 17th century the main measure was the state sazhen (approved in 1649 by the "Cathedral Code"), equal to 2.16 m, and containing three arshins (72 cm) of 16 inches. Back in the time of Peter I, Russian measures of length were equalized with English ones. One arshin took the value of 28 English inches, and the fathom - 213.36 cm. Later, on October 11, 1835, according to the instructions of Nicholas I "On the system of Russian measures and weights", the length of the fathom was confirmed: 1 official fathom was equated to the length of 7 English feet , that is, to the same 2.1336 meters.
fly fathom- an old Russian unit of measurement, equal to the distance in the span of both hands, to the ends of the middle fingers. 1 fly fathom = 2.5 arshins = 10 spans = 1.76 meters.
Oblique fathom- in different regions it was from 213 to 248 cm and was determined by the distance from the toes to the end of the fingers of the hand extended diagonally upwards. From here comes the hyperbole “oblique sazhen in the shoulders”, which was born among the people, which emphasizes the heroic strength and stature. For convenience, they equated Sazhen and Oblique fathom when used in construction and land works.
Span- old Russian unit of length. Since 1835, it has been equated to 7 English inches (17.78 cm). Initially, the span (or small span) was equal to the distance between the ends of the outstretched fingers of the hand - the thumb and forefinger. Also known, "large span" - the distance between the tip of the thumb and middle fingers. In addition, the so-called “span with a somersault” (“span with a somersault”) was used - a span with an addition of two or three joints of the index finger, i.e. 5-6 inches. At the end of the 19th century, it was excluded from the official system of measures, but continued to be used as a national household measure.
Arshin- was legalized in Russia as the main measure of length on June 4, 1899 by the "Regulations on Weights and Measures".
The height of a person and large animals was indicated in inches over two arshins, for small animals - over one arshin. For example, the expression "a man is 12 inches tall" meant that his height is 2 arshins 12 inches, that is, approximately 196 cm.
Bottle- there were two types of bottles - wine and vodka. Wine bottle (measuring bottle) = 1/2 t. octopus damask. 1 vodka bottle (beer bottle, trade bottle, half bottle) = 1/2 t. ten damask.
Shtof, half-shtof, shkalik - was used, among other things, when measuring the amount of alcoholic beverages in taverns and taverns. In addition, any bottle of ½ damask could be called a half-damask. Shkalik was also called a vessel of the appropriate volume, in which vodka was served in taverns.
Russian measures of length
1 mile= 7 versts = 7.468 km.
1 verst= 500 fathoms = 1066.8 m.
1 fathom\u003d 3 arshins \u003d 7 feet \u003d 100 acres \u003d 2.133 600 m.
1 arshin\u003d 4 quarters \u003d 28 inches \u003d 16 inches \u003d 0.711 200 m.
1 quarter (span)\u003d 1/12 fathom \u003d ¼ arshin \u003d 4 inches \u003d 7 inches \u003d 177.8 mm.
1 foot= 12 inches = 304.8 mm.
1 inch= 1.75 inches = 44.38 mm.
1 inch= 10 lines = 25.4 mm.
1 weave= 1/100 fathoms = 21.336 mm.
1 line= 10 dots = 2.54 mm.
1 point= 1/100 inch = 1/10 line = 0.254 mm.
Russian measures of area
1 sq. verst= 250,000 sq. fathoms = 1.1381 km².
1 tithe= 2400 sq. fathoms = 10,925.4 m² = 1.0925 ha.
1 quarter= ½ tithe = 1200 sq. fathoms = 5462.7 m² = 0.54627 ha.
1 octopus= 1/8 tithe = 300 sq. fathoms = 1365.675 m² ≈ 0.137 ha.
1 sq. fathom= 9 sq. arshins = 49 sq. feet = 4.5522 m².
1 sq. arshin= 256 sq. vershkam = 784 sq. inches = 0.5058 m².
1 sq. foot= 144 sq. inches = 0.0929 m².
1 sq. vershok= 19.6958 cm².
1 sq. inch= 100 sq. lines = 6.4516 cm².
1 sq. line= 1/100 sq. inches = 6.4516 mm².
Russian measures of volume
1 cu. fathom= 27 cu. arshins = 343 cu. ft = 9.7127 m³
1 cu. arshin= 4096 cu. vershkam = 21,952 cu. inches = 359.7278 dm³
1 cu. vershok= 5.3594 cu. inches = 87.8244 cm³
1 cu. foot= 1728 cu. inches = 2.3168 dm³
1 cu. inch= 1000 cu. lines = 16.3871 cm³
1 cu. line= 1/1000 cu. inches = 16.3871 mm³
Russian measures of loose bodies ("bread measures")
1 cebra= 26-30 quarters.
1 tub (kad, fetters)
= 2 ladles = 4 quarters = 8 octopuses = 839.69 liters (= 14 pounds of rye = 229.32 kg).
1 sack (rye\u003d 9 pounds + 10 pounds \u003d 151.52 kg) (oats \u003d 6 pounds + 5 pounds \u003d 100.33 kg)
1 half ladle
\u003d 419.84 l (\u003d 7 pounds of rye \u003d 114.66 kg).
1 quarter, four (for loose bodies)
\u003d 2 octopuses (half-quarters) \u003d 4 half-octopuses \u003d 8 quadrangles \u003d 64 garns. (= 209.912 l (dm³) 1902). (= 209.66 l 1835).
1 octopus\u003d 4 fours \u003d 104.95 l (\u003d 1¾ pounds of rye \u003d 28.665 kg).
1 polymin= 52.48 liters.
1 quarter\u003d 1 measure \u003d 1⁄8 quarters \u003d 8 garns \u003d 26.2387 liters. (= 26.239 dm³ (l) (1902)). (= 64 pounds of water = 26.208 liters (1835 g)).
1 half quad= 13.12 liters.
1 four= 6.56 liters.
1 garnet, small quadruple
\u003d ¼ bucket \u003d 1⁄8 quadruple \u003d 12 glasses \u003d 3.2798 liters. (= 3.28 dm³ (l) (1902)). (= 3.276 l (1835)).
1 half-garnet (half-small quadrangle)
\u003d 1 damask \u003d 6 glasses \u003d 1.64 liters. (Half-half-small quad = 0.82 L, Half-half-half-small quad = 0.41 L).
1 glass= 0.273 l.
Russian measures of liquid bodies ("wine measures")
1 barrel= 40 buckets = 491.976 liters (491.96 liters).
1 pot= 1 ½ - 1 ¾ buckets (holding 30 pounds of clean water).
1 bucket\u003d 4 quarters of a bucket \u003d 10 shtofs \u003d 1/40 barrels \u003d 12.29941 liters (for 1902).
1 quarter (buckets)
\u003d 1 garnets \u003d 2.5 damask \u003d 4 wine bottles \u003d 5 vodka bottles \u003d 3.0748 liters.
1 garnet= ¼ bucket = 12 glasses.
1 damask (mug)\u003d 3 pounds of pure water \u003d 1/10 bucket \u003d 2 vodka bottles \u003d 10 glasses \u003d 20 scales \u003d 1.2299 liters (1.2285 liters).
1 wine bottle (Bottle (volume unit))
\u003d 1/16 bucket \u003d ¼ garnets \u003d 3 glasses \u003d 0.68; 0.77 l; 0.7687 l.
1 vodka or beer bottle
= 1/20 bucket = 5 cups = 0.615; 0.60 l.
1 bottle= 3/40 of a bucket (Decree of September 16, 1744).
1 pigtail= 1/40 bucket = ¼ mug = ¼ damask = ½ half damask = ½ vodka bottle = 5 scales = 0.307475 l.
1 quarter= 0.25 l (currently).
1 glass= 0.273 l.
1 cup= 1/100 bucket = 2 scales = 122.99 ml.
1 scale= 1/200 bucket = 61.5 ml.
Russian measures of weight
1 fin\u003d 6 quarters \u003d 72 pounds \u003d 1179.36 kg.
1 quarter waxed
= 12 pounds = 196.56 kg.
1 Berkovets\u003d 10 pounds \u003d 400 hryvnias (large hryvnias, pounds) \u003d 800 hryvnias \u003d 163.8 kg.
1 congar= 40.95 kg.
1 pood= 40 large hryvnias or 40 pounds = 80 small hryvnias = 16 steelyards = 1280 lots = 16.380496 kg.
1 half pood= 8.19 kg.
1 batman= 10 pounds = 4.095 kg.
1 steelyard\u003d 5 small hryvnias \u003d 1/16 pounds \u003d 1.022 kg.
1 half-pit= 0.511 kg.
1 large hryvnia, hryvnia, (later - pound)
= 1/40 pood = 2 small hryvnias = 4 half hryvnias = 32 lots = 96 spools = 9216 shares = 409.5 g (11th-15th centuries).
1 pound= 0.4095124 kg (exactly, since 1899).
1 small hryvnia\u003d 2 half hryvnia \u003d 48 spools \u003d 1200 kidneys \u003d 4800 pies \u003d 204.8 g.
1 half hryvnia= 102.4 g.
Also used:1 libra = ¾ pound = 307.1 g; 1 ansyr = 546 g,
has not been widely adopted.
1 lot\u003d 3 spools \u003d 288 shares \u003d 12.79726 g.
1 spool= 96 shares = 4.265754 g.
1 spool= 25 kidneys (until the 18th century).
1 share= 1/96 spools = 44.43494 mg.
From the 13th to the 18th centuries, such measures of weight were used asbud and pie:
1 kidney= 1/25 spool = 171 mg.
1 pie= ¼ kidney = 43 mg.
Russian measures of weight (mass) are pharmaceutical and troy.
Pharmaceutical weight is a system of mass measures used when weighing medicines until 1927.
1 pound= 12 ounces = 358.323 g.
1 oz= 8 drachmas = 29.860 g.
1 drachma= 1/8 ounce = 3 scruples = 3.732 g
1 scruple= 1/3 drachma = 20 grains = 1.244 g.
1 grain= 62.209 mg.
Other Russian measures
Quire- unit of account, equal to 24 sheets of paper.
Probably, each of you has been surprised more than once by the fact that the size of the screens of digital devices is indicated in unusual units. It has even become a tradition and it never occurs to anyone to ask why not use ordinary centimeters instead of inches, which, it would seem, have long and firmly taken their place in the history textbook?
The thing is that the United States and several other countries (unlike the rest of the world) have not switched to the metric system, preferring their traditional units of measurement to international meters and kilograms. And since many of the largest technology corporations are located in the United States, inches familiar to this country have spread in products all over the planet. After all, everyone knows in which country the city of Cupertino is located, where the head office of Apple, the company that created the first mass smartphone on Earth, is located. There are other corporations in the United States that are pushing high technology forward. And along with high technology, they are moving into the broad masses and old inches.
At the very beginning of our story, some clarity should be introduced. There is an opinion that the SI system was never approved in the USA. She is so invisible in this country that a person who does not go into too much detail can get such an impression. But it is absolutely not true! A number of acts have been adopted that approve it as the official system of weights and measures of the United States. How, then, did it happen that Americans still use the old units of measurement? The fact is that all the adopted acts are advisory (rather than mandatory) for private business and ordinary residents of the country. And this means that every American has the right to measure in familiar inches and weigh in pounds familiar from childhood. And this right is used not only by people, but also by giant corporations.
USA, Liberia and Myanmar. Three strongholds of ancient units of measurement
There are only three countries in the world that have not yet switched to the SI system. These are the USA, Liberia and Myanmar (until 1989 - Burma). The rest of the peoples of the world either switched to the metric system completely, or at least officially accepted it as a standard. Another thing is how things are with the people. In Russia, even now they can call a kilometer “verst” in conversation, but at the same time everyone clearly understands that we are talking about the most ordinary metric kilometer, and not about the old Russian verst.
But in the United States, the old folk system of weights and measures is used not only in everyday life. Football fields are measured in yards. , performed by car engines, in outlandish foot-pounds. Atmospheric pressure is in pounds per square inch.
The United States uses the U.S. instead of the international SI system. Customary System (Traditional US System). It includes more than three hundred units of measurement of various physical quantities. The difficulty lies in the fact that many of these units of measurement are called the same, but at the same time they mean completely different things.
Let's give the simplest and most understandable to every person, even very far from engineering wisdom. It would seem that what can be difficult in a ton? This is a thousand kilograms and nothing else! But in the US, there are at least nine definitions of the concept of "ton": short ton (short ton), displacement ton (displacement ton), frozen ton (refrigeration ton), nuclear ton (nuclear ton), cargo (freight) ton (freight ton) , register ton, metric ton, assay ton, fuel ton or ton of coal equivalent.
And despite all these obvious difficulties, neither in business nor in everyday life in the United States is a simple, understandable and unambiguous metric system used. The reasons for this lie, as often happens, in the history of this country.
The attitude of the United States to the metric system at first was determined by relations with France
In the colonies of Britain, the British Imperial System (British Imperial System) was used. At the end of the 18th century, the metric system was developed in France. Which, of course, neither Britain itself nor its colonies accepted.
When the United States gained independence, attempts were made in the country to streamline the system for measuring quantities. But they ran into, as is often the case, the financial issue. Thomas Jefferson, who served as US Secretary of State under George Washington, favored the decimal system. But it turned out that it would be impossible to determine the metric units of length without sending a delegation to France. And it was a costly business.
Relations with France, which had supported the United States in its struggle for independence, entered a cooling phase after 1795. When, in 1798, France invited representatives of various countries to familiarize themselves with the metric system, the Americans faced a dismissive attitude towards themselves.
And yet, representatives of the United States visited Paris and were delighted with the metric system. But the likelihood of convincing the country's leaders of the need to switch to a new system of weights and measures coming from France was very weak. In 1821, US Secretary of State John Quincy examined the units of measurement for 22 states and concluded that the U.S. The Customary System is fairly unified and doesn't need to be changed.
Napoleon reigned in France, and the Americans had doubts that the French themselves would remain faithful to the system of weights and measures they had created. As a result, consideration of the metric system in the United States on the considered historical stage stopped. But this does not mean that they did not return to it again and again as the SI system gained more and more recognition in various parts of our vast world.
US decides to adopt the metric system
In 1865, the American Civil War ended. The Americans looked around and found that most of the countries of Europe had switched to the decimal metric system. And this obvious fact in the United States could no longer be ignored. In 1866, the country's Congress passed an act according to which the metric system became official for use in all contracts, transactions and lawsuits.
Nine years later, France brought together representatives of the leading countries of the world to discuss the details of the new international version of the metric system. The United States received an invitation and sent its delegation. Representatives of these countries signed an international convention, establishing the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and the International Committee of Weights and Measures, whose tasks included reviewing and adopting changes.
The agreement provided for the creation of a special hall in the French city of Servais near Paris, where standards of metric standards, in particular the standard of the meter, should be placed. This made it possible to avoid difficulties in understanding by different peoples what exactly is meant by one or another unit of measurement.
In 1890, the United States received copies of the international standard for the meter and the international standard for the kilogram. Under the Mendenhall Order (named for the Superintendent of Weights and Measures), metric units were accepted as the fundamental standard for length and mass in the United States. A yard was defined as 3600/3937 meters and a pound as 0.4535924277 kilograms.
In 1959, English-speaking countries made some adjustments: 1 yard was equal to 0.9144 meters, and 1 pound to 0.4535923. That is, formally, the United States has already adopted the metric system as the standard for measures and weights for 145 years, and for about 120 years everything in this country should have been measured in meters and kilograms. But, as practice shows, making a decision does not mean its implementation in real life.
Metric system in the USA today
Many prominent US scientists and politicians were supporters of the obligatory metric system for the entire country. In 1971, it began to look like the United States would finally be among the countries that adopted the metric system. The National Bureau of Standards released the Metric America report recommending the country switch to the metric system within ten years.
In 1975, the Metric Conversion Act was passed by Congress, the essence of which was the same as the recommendations of standards specialists, but with only two important differences. Rigid time frames were not set, and the transition to the metric system itself assumed voluntariness. As a result, the country's schoolchildren began to pass the SI system, and some companies attempted "metrification", which turned into fruitless propaganda, since there were no real actions to switch to metric units of measurement.
It turned out that in the United States units of measurement are used, which are already forgotten in the rest of the world. A growing number of consumers of American products began to demand that the goods supplied be accompanied by a specification in the metric system. As American companies opened more and more manufacturing facilities in Europe and Asia, it became necessary to decide which units to use: metric or traditional American.
Recognizing these complexities, in 1988 Congress amended the Metric Conversion Act to make the metric system the "preferred system of weights and measures of the United States for trade and commerce." As of late 1992, federal agencies were required to use metric units when measuring quantities related to purchases, grants, and other matters related to business activity. But these instructions concerned only state structures. Private business remained free to use the usual system of measurement. Attempts have been made to interest small businesses in the metric system, but little progress has been noted.
Today, only about 30% of products manufactured in the USA are “metrified”. The pharmaceutical industry in the United States has been referred to as "strictly metric" because all specifications of the country's pharmaceutical products are specified exclusively in metric units. On drinks there are designations both in metric and in traditional for the USA systems of sizes. This industry is considered "soft metric". The metric system is also used in the US by film, tool and bicycle manufacturers. Otherwise, in the USA they prefer to measure the old fashioned way. In ancient inches and pounds. And this applies even to such a young industry as high technology.
What prevents a highly developed industrial country from switching to a system of measures and weights generally accepted on our planet? There are a number of reasons for this.
Conservatism and costs hinder the transition to the metric system
One of the reasons is the costs that would have to be incurred by the country's economy in the event of a transition to the SI system. After all, technical drawings and instructions for the most complex equipment would have to be reworked. This would require a lot of work of highly paid specialists. And, therefore, money. For example, NASA engineers reported that converting Space Shuttle blueprints, software, and documentation to metric units would cost $370 million, about half the cost of a typical Space Shuttle launch.
But the high costs of transition alone cannot explain the cool attitude of Americans towards the metric system. Psychological factors play their own, and by no means the last, role in holding back the country's transition to the international system of weights and measures. The stubborn conservatism of Americans makes them resist any innovation, especially those that come from foreigners.
Americans always like to do things their own way. Individualism is the main feature of the representatives of this people. The descendants of the conquerors of the boundless expanses of the Wild West stubbornly reject attempts to force them to abandon the inches and pounds familiar since childhood.
No high technology can force a person to reconsider his conservative views. For example, commercial. But really only in the early 1980s. Events happen only when the consciousness of the average person is ready to accept them. And this, in turn, is possible only if a person sees the meaning in it. And the average American simply does not see much sense for himself personally in the metric system.
Therefore, all efforts to introduce the metric system in the United States run into the impregnable stronghold of the everyday life of ordinary citizens of the country who do not want to let meters and kilograms go there. There is another important reason, which we talked about a little earlier. A significant part of the largest corporations in the world are located in the United States. Their products are competitive in the world market even in unusual inches and pounds. What's unusual! The whole world will be very surprised if one day the screen size of the next smartphone will be indicated in centimeters familiar from the school bench, and not in inches, which would seem to have descended from the pages of a history textbook. And this means that Americans have no reason to abandon their traditional system of weights and measures.
Sourced from science.howstuffworks.com
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Metric system is the common name for the international decimal system of units based on the use of the meter and kilogram. Over the past two centuries, there have been various versions of the metric system, differing in the choice of basic units. Currently, the International System of Units (SI) is universally recognized. With some differences in details, the elements of the system are the same all over the world. Metric units are widely used around the world both for scientific purposes and in everyday life. Currently, the metric system is officially adopted in all countries of the world, except for the USA, Liberia and Myanmar (Burma).
Attempts were made to introduce metric units for measuring time (by dividing a day, for example, by millidays) and angles (by dividing a revolution by 1000 milliturns or by 400 degrees), but they were not successful (although the degree later found quite wide application in measuring angles in geodesy). Currently, SI uses seconds (divided by milliseconds, etc.) and radians.
Story
The metric system grew out of the decrees passed by the National Assembly of France in 1791 and 1795 to define the meter as one ten millionth of one quarter of the earth's meridian from the North Pole to the equator (Paris meridian).
19th century
By decree issued on July 4, 1837, the metric system was declared mandatory in all commercial transactions in France. She gradually replaced the local and national systems elsewhere in Europe and has been legally recognized as legal in the UK and the US.
By defining the meter as a ten-millionth part of a quarter of the earth's meridian, the creators of the metric system sought to achieve the invariance and exact reproducibility of the system. They took a gram as a unit of mass, defining it as the mass of one millionth of a cubic meter of water at its maximum density. To facilitate the use of new units in everyday practice, metal standards were created that reproduce these ideal definitions with the utmost accuracy.
It soon became clear that metal standards of length could be compared with each other, introducing a much smaller error than when comparing any such standard with a quarter of the earth's meridian. In addition, it became clear that the accuracy of comparing metal mass standards with each other is much higher than the accuracy of comparing any such standard with the mass of the corresponding volume of water.
In this regard, the International Commission on Meter in 1872 decided to take the "archival" meter stored in Paris "as it is" as the standard of length. Similarly, the members of the Commission took the archival platinum-iridium kilogram as the standard of mass, “considering that the simple ratio established by the creators of the metric system between a unit of weight and a unit of volume represents the existing kilogram with an accuracy sufficient for ordinary uses in industry and commerce, and exact sciences need not a simple numerical ratio of this kind, but an extremely perfect definition of this ratio.
On May 20, 1875, seventeen countries signed the Meter Convention, and this agreement established the procedure for coordinating metrological standards for the world scientific community through the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and the General Conference on Weights and Measures.
New international organization immediately took up the development of international standards of length and mass and the transfer of their copies to all participating countries.
20th century
The metric system of measures was approved for use in Russia (optionally) by the law of June 4, 1899, the draft of which was developed by D. I. Mendeleev, and introduced as a mandatory decree of the Provisional Government of April 30, 1917, and for the USSR - by a decree Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of July 21, 1925.
Based on the metric system, the International System of Units (SI) was developed and adopted in 1960 by the XI General Conference on Weights and Measures. During the second half of the 20th century, most countries in the world switched to the SI system.
End of XX-XXI century
In the 1990s, the widespread use of computer and household appliances from Asia, in which there were no instructions and inscriptions in Russian and other languages of the former socialist countries, but were available in English, led to the displacement of the metric system in a number of areas of technology. So, the sizes of CDs, floppy disks, hard drives, the diagonal of monitors and televisions, digital camera matrices in Russia are usually indicated in inches, despite the fact that the original design is usually made in the metric system. For example, "3.5" hard drives are actually 90mm wide, CDs and DVDs are 120mm in diameter. All computer fans use the metric system (80 and 120mm). The most popular amateur photo format, 4R (known in the US as 4x6 inches and in metric countries as 10x15 cm) is pegged to the millimeter and measures 102x152mm instead of 101.6x152.4mm.
To date, the metric system has been officially adopted in all countries of the world, except for the USA, Liberia and Myanmar (Burma). The last country to complete the transition to the metric system was Ireland (2005). In the UK and Saint Lucia, the transition to the SI has not yet been completed. In Antigua and Guyana, in fact, this transition is far from over. China, which has completed this transition, nevertheless uses ancient Chinese names for metric units. In the USA, the SI system is adopted for use in science and the manufacture of scientific instruments, for all other areas - the American version. English system units.
The metric system in aviation, space and maritime
Despite the widespread use of the metric system in the world, in some industries the situation is completely different. So, historically, in aviation (civil) and in maritime affairs, an outdated system of measures based on feet and miles is used. Despite the categorical position ICAO(International Civil Aviation Organization) on the unconditional removal of non-metric units from aviation practice. In aviation, a purely metric system is used in Sweden, Russia, China and some other countries, which sometimes creates some misunderstanding between controllers and pilots.
On November 17, 2011, in the civil aviation of the Russian Federation, a partial recognition of the system of measures based on feet took place. Thus, Russian civil aviation is approaching the standards of civil aviation in English-speaking countries.
But in the space industry, including the USA (NASA), there has been a complete transition to the metric system.
Prefixes for multiples and submultiples
| multiplicity | Prefix | Designation | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Russian | international | Russian | international | ||
| 10 1 | soundboard | Deca | Yes | da | dal - decalitre |
| 10 2 | hecto | hecto | G | h | hPa - hectopascal |
| 10 3 | kilo | kilo | to | k | kN - kilonewton |
| 10 6 | mega | mega | M | M | MPa - megapascal |
| 10 9 | giga | giga | G | G | GHz - gigahertz |
| 10 12 | tera | tera | T | T | TV - teravolt |
| 10 15 | peta | peta | P | P | Pflop - petaflop |
| 10 18 | exa | exa | E | E | EB - exabyte |
| 10 21 | zetta | zetta | W | Z | ZeV - zettaelectronvolt |
| 10 24 | yotta | yotta | And | Y | Ig - yottagram |
Together with the basic and derived units in the metric system, a standard set of prefixes is used to form multiples and submultiples. (This idea was proposed by Gabriel Mouton - a French mathematician and theologian in 1670. For example, the prefix "kilo" is used to form a unit of length (kilometer) that is 1000 times the base unit of measurement. The International System of Units (SI) recommends the use of standard decimal prefixes SI for the formation of names and designations of multiple and submultiple units.
Metric variants of traditional units
There have also been attempts to slightly change the traditional units so that the relationship between them and metric units becomes simpler; it also made it possible to get rid of the ambiguous definition of many traditional units. For example:
- metric ton (exactly 1000 kg)
- metric carat (exactly 0.2 g)
- metric pound (exactly 500 g)
- metric foot (exactly 300 mm)
- metric inch (exactly 25 mm)
- metric horsepower (exactly 75 kgf m/s)
Some of these units have taken root; at present, in Russia, "ton", "carat" and "horsepower" without specification always denote the metric versions of these units.
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Notes
Links
- // Small Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 4 volumes - St. Petersburg. , 1907-1909.
- (English)
- Compulenta
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An excerpt characterizing the Metric system of measures
- What kind of people? he shouted at the people, who were approaching the droshky, scattered and timid. - What kind of people? I'm asking you? repeated the chief of police, who received no answer.“They, your honor,” said the clerk in a frieze overcoat, “they, your honor, at the announcement of the most illustrious count, not sparing their stomachs, wanted to serve, and not just some kind of rebellion, as it was said from the most illustrious count ...
“The count has not left, he is here, and there will be an order about you,” said the chief of police. – Went! he said to the coachman. The crowd stopped, crowding around those who had heard what the authorities said, and looking at the departing droshky.
The police chief at this time looked around in fright, said something to the coachman, and his horses went faster.
- Cheating, guys! Lead to yourself! shouted the voice of the tall fellow. - Don't let go, guys! Let him submit a report! Hold on! shouted the voices, and the people ran after the droshky.
The crowd behind the police chief with a noisy conversation headed for the Lubyanka.
“Well, gentlemen and merchants have left, and that’s why we’re disappearing?” Well, we are dogs, eh! – was heard more often in the crowd.
On the evening of September 1, after his meeting with Kutuzov, Count Rastopchin, upset and offended that he was not invited to the military council, that Kutuzov did not pay any attention to his proposal to take part in the defense of the capital, and surprised by the new look that opened to him in the camp , in which the question of the calmness of the capital and its patriotic mood turned out to be not only secondary, but completely unnecessary and insignificant - upset, offended and surprised by all this, Count Rostopchin returned to Moscow. After supper, the count, without undressing, lay down on the couch and at one o'clock was awakened by a courier who brought him a letter from Kutuzov. The letter said that since the troops were retreating to the Ryazan road beyond Moscow, would it please the count to send police officials to lead the troops through the city. This news was not news to Rostopchin. Not only from yesterday’s meeting with Kutuzov on Poklonnaya Gora, but also from the battle of Borodino itself, when all the generals who came to Moscow unanimously said that it was impossible to give another battle, and when, with the permission of the count, state property and residents were already taken out every night to half we left, - Count Rostopchin knew that Moscow would be abandoned; but nevertheless this news, reported in the form of a simple note with an order from Kutuzov and received at night, during the first dream, surprised and annoyed the count.
Subsequently, explaining his activities during this time, Count Rostopchin wrote several times in his notes that he then had two important goals: De maintenir la tranquillite a Moscou et d "en faire partir les habitants. [Keep calm in Moscow and get the residents out of it.] If this dual goal is allowed, every action of Rostopchin turns out to be impeccable. Why the Moscow shrine, weapons, cartridges were not taken out , gunpowder, stocks of bread, why were thousands of residents deceived by the fact that they would not surrender Moscow, and ruined? - In order to maintain calm in the capital, the explanation of Count Rostopchin answers. objects?" "In order to leave the city empty," answers Count Rostopchin's explanation. One has only to admit that something threatened the peace of the people, and any action becomes justified.
All the horrors of terror were based only on concern for the people's peace.
What was the basis of Count Rostopchin's fear of public peace in Moscow in 1812? What reason was there to suppose a tendency to rebellion in the city? Residents were leaving, the troops, retreating, filled Moscow. Why should the people revolt as a result of this?
Not only in Moscow, but throughout Russia, when the enemy entered, there was nothing resembling indignation. On the 1st and 2nd of September, more than ten thousand people remained in Moscow, and, apart from the crowd that had gathered in the courtyard of the commander-in-chief and attracted by him, there was nothing. It is obvious that even less unrest among the people should have been expected if, after the Battle of Borodino, when the abandonment of Moscow became obvious, or at least probably, if then, instead of disturbing the people with the distribution of weapons and posters, Rostopchin took measures to the removal of all sacred things, gunpowder, charges and money, and would directly announce to the people that the city was being abandoned.
Rostopchin, an ardent, sanguine man, who always moved in the highest circles of the administration, although with a patriotic feeling, had not the slightest idea about the people he thought to rule. From the very beginning of the enemy's entry into Smolensk, Rastopchin in his imagination formed for himself the role of the leader of the people's feelings - the heart of Russia. It not only seemed to him (as it seems to every administrator) that he controlled the external actions of the inhabitants of Moscow, but it seemed to him that he directed their mood through his appeals and posters, written in that snarky language, which in its midst despises the people and whom he does not understands when he hears it from above. Rastopchin liked the beautiful role of the leader of popular feeling so much, he got used to it so much that the need to get out of this role, the need to leave Moscow without any heroic effect took him by surprise, and he suddenly lost the ground on which he stood from under his feet, in resolutely did not know what to do. Although he knew, he did not believe with all his soul until last minute in leaving Moscow and did nothing for this purpose. Residents moved out against his will. If government offices were taken out, then only at the request of officials, with whom the count reluctantly agreed. He himself was busy only with the role that he had made for himself. As is often the case with people endowed with ardent imagination, he had known for a long time that Moscow would be abandoned, but he knew only by reasoning, but he did not believe in it with all his heart, he was not transported by his imagination to this new situation.
All his activity, diligent and energetic (how useful it was and reflected on the people is another question), all his activity was aimed only at arousing in the inhabitants the feeling that he himself experienced - patriotic hatred for the French and confidence in itself.
But when the event took on its real, historical dimensions, when it turned out to be insufficient to express one’s hatred for the French in words alone, when it was impossible even to express this hatred in a battle, when self-confidence turned out to be useless in relation to one question of Moscow, when the entire population, like one person , throwing their property, flowed out of Moscow, showing by this negative action the full strength of their popular feelings - then the role chosen by Rostopchin suddenly turned out to be meaningless. He suddenly felt lonely, weak and ridiculous, without ground under his feet.
Upon awakening from sleep, having received a cold and commanding note from Kutuzov, Rostopchin felt the more annoyed the more he felt guilty. In Moscow, everything that was exactly entrusted to him remained, everything that was state-owned that he was supposed to take out. It was not possible to take everything out.
“Who is to blame for this, who allowed this to happen? he thought. “Of course not me. I had everything ready, I held Moscow like this! And here's what they've done! Bastards, traitors!” - he thought, not properly defining who these scoundrels and traitors were, but feeling the need to hate these traitors, who were to blame for the false and ridiculous position in which he was.
All that night, Count Rastopchin gave orders, for which people from all parts of Moscow came to him. Those close to him had never seen the count so gloomy and irritated.
“Your Excellency, they came from the patrimonial department, from the director for orders ... From the consistory, from the senate, from the university, from the orphanage, the vicar sent ... asks ... About the fire brigade, what do you order? A warden from a prison... a warden from a yellow house...” - they reported to the count all night without ceasing.
To all these questions, the count gave short and angry answers, showing that his orders were no longer needed, that all the work he had diligently prepared was now spoiled by someone and that this someone would bear full responsibility for everything that would happen now.
“Well, tell this fool,” he replied to a request from the patrimonial department, “to stay on guard for his papers. What are you asking nonsense about the fire brigade? There are horses - let them go to Vladimir. Don't leave the French.
- Your Excellency, the warden from the lunatic asylum has arrived, as you order?
- How do I order? Let everyone go, that's all ... And release the crazy in the city. When we have crazy armies in command, this is what God ordered.
When asked about the stocks who were sitting in the pit, the count angrily shouted at the caretaker:
“Well, shall I give you two battalions of an escort, which is not there?” Let them go and that's it!
- Your Excellency, there are political ones: Meshkov, Vereshchagin.
- Vereshchagin! Hasn't he been hanged yet? shouted Rostopchin. - Bring him to me.
By nine o'clock in the morning, when the troops had already moved through Moscow, no one else came to ask the count's orders. All those who could ride rode by themselves; those who remained decided for themselves what they had to do.
The count ordered the horses to be brought in to go to Sokolniki, and, frowning, yellow and silent, he sat with his hands folded in his office.
In a calm, not stormy time, it seems to every administrator that it is only through his efforts that the entire population under his control is moving, and in this consciousness of his necessity, each administrator feels the main reward for his labors and efforts. It is clear that as long as the historical sea is calm, it should seem to the ruler-administrator, with his fragile boat resting against the ship of the people with his pole and moving himself, that the ship against which he rests is moving with his efforts. But as soon as a storm rises, the sea is agitated and the ship itself moves, then delusion is impossible. The ship moves on its own huge, independent course, the pole does not reach the moving ship, and the ruler suddenly passes from the position of a ruler, a source of strength, into an insignificant, useless and weak person.
Rostopchin felt this, and this irritated him. The police chief, who was stopped by the crowd, together with the adjutant, who had come to report that the horses were ready, entered the count. Both were pale, and the police chief, reporting on the execution of his order, reported that a huge crowd of people stood in the yard of the count, who wanted to see him.
Rostopchin, without answering a word, got up and with quick steps went to his luxurious bright living room, went to the balcony door, took hold of the handle, left it and went to the window, from which the whole crowd was visible. A tall fellow stood in the front rows and with a stern face, waving his hand, said something. The bloody blacksmith stood beside him with a gloomy look. Through the closed windows a murmur of voices could be heard.
Is the crew ready? - said Rostopchin, moving away from the window.
“Ready, Your Excellency,” said the adjutant.
Rostopchin again went to the balcony door.
- What do they want? he asked the police chief.
- Your Excellency, they say that they were going to go to the French on your orders, they were shouting something about treason. But a wild crowd, Your Excellency. I forcibly left. Your Excellency, I dare to suggest...
Measuring the mass of goods, their length, volume is a very laborious process that is repeated many times and is calculated daily by many millions of operations. This is especially the case in the food trade, where most pre-sale and post-sale operations involve mandatory weighing. Some household goods and building materials are also weighed. They measure goods in physical terms during their dosing and packaging, when performing most of the operations for receiving and dispensing in warehouses. History of development
The intensive development of industry and science, as well as the expansion of trade relations between various states in the 19th century were the main reasons that stimulated the emergence and progress of metrology as a science and the formulation as its main problem of creating a unified international system of units that would cover all areas of measurement.
The initial steps in solving this problem were the establishment and international dissemination of the metric system of measures and weights, the development of scientific foundations for constructing systems of interconnected units of physical quantities characterizing a wide range of natural phenomena, the creation and practical implementation of the systems of the SGS, MKGSS, MTS, ISS, etc. Many of these systems of units had a limited scope and were not interconnected with each other. Simultaneously with the creation of systems of units, as a result of the desire to provide maximum convenience for measuring and recording the values of certain physical quantities, a number of branches of science and technology appeared in a number of branches of science and technology. a large number of various off-system units. Because of this, there was such a situation that a large number of different units were used for the same quantity (for example, more than 10 units were used for force, more than 30 units for energy and work, 18 units for pressure, etc.).
Development and implementation
The development and implementation of the Metric System of Measures is the first step to eliminate the plurality of units of physical quantities and measures that reproduce them, which hindered the development of industry and trade.
During the period of the French bourgeois revolution, at the insistence of the commercial and industrial circles, the National Assembly of France on March 31, 1791 adopted the prepared by a Special Commission, which included well-known French the scholars of that time (Laplace, Lagrange, Borda, Condorcet, Monge, etc.), a proposal to introduce a meter equal to one ten-millionth of a quarter of the earth's meridian as a unit of length. This unit of length was finally approved on December 10, 1799, becoming the basis of the metric system. A platinum rod was chosen as its prototype (initial standard). The second unit of the Metric system was the unit of mass - the kilogram, which was originally equal to the mass in vacuum of a cubic decimeter of water at its highest density (4 ° C) at a place at sea level and at a latitude of 45 °. The prototype of this unit was the platinum weight. The prototypes of the meter and kilogram are kept in the National Archives of France and are called "Archives meter" and "Archive kilogram" respectively.
An important advantage of the Metric system of measures was its decimality, since, according to the accepted rules, submultiples and multiple units were formed in accordance with the decimal count using decimal factors, which correspond to the prefixes deci, centi, milli, deca, hecto and kilo.
The international diplomatic conference of seventeen states (Russia, France, England, USA, Germany, Italy, etc.) adopted the Metric Convention on May 20, 1875, in which the Metric system of measures was recognized as international, the prototypes of the meter and kilogram were approved. The conference established the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, whose main task was to ensure the uniformity of measurements on an international scale, and formed the International Committee of Weights and Measures, which carried out the scientific management of this work, prepared and held the General Conferences on Weights and Measures (CGPM). The first of these took place in 1889.
As a result of great efforts made by the Chief Custodian of the Chamber of Measures and Weights, the great Russian scientist D. I. Mendeleev, an ardent supporter of the Metric system of measures, in Russia on July 4, 1899, a law was adopted, according to which, from January 1900, the Metric system was allowed to be applied " on a par with the main Russian measures." But only in September 1918, the metric system of measures was officially introduced in Russia. The full transition to the metric system was completed by January 1, 1927.
After the completion in 1934 of a large and important work on the development and approval of standards for units of physical quantities for all areas of science and technology, the task was to improve them and eliminate the significant shortcomings that were inherent in these standards. The main drawback was that the standards for various areas applications were based on different systems of units.
In the post-war period, the main efforts were directed to the development of standards built on the basis of a unified system of units. From 1955 to 1958 Standards, Measures and measuring instruments approved new GOSTs for units for all areas of measurement. The establishment of new standards took place during the development of the International System of Units, which is the modern form of the Metric system, which is based on the ISSA system. Therefore, the new standards basically proceeded from this system. As in the SI, the standards make a clear distinction between the unit of mass (kilogram) and the unit of force (newton), the absence of which had previously often caused confusion between the unit of force in the MKGSS system and the unit of mass in the ISS system. Measures of English-speaking and other countries
In addition to such measures as a yard, a foot, a stock, an inch, the British also use peculiar monetary systems: pounds sterling, shillings and pence. All states of the world abandoned such monetary systems, but units of physical quantities are still used in English-speaking countries. English measures of length are presented as: 1 yard = 3 feet; 1 foot = 12 inches; 1 mile = 5280 feet = 1760 yards.
The units of volume are 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 231 cubic inches, and the units of weight are 1 pound = 16 ounces; 1 firebox = 200 pounds. The British and Americans, using these measures, long ago came to the conclusion that their system was inconvenient and began to introduce the decimal system.
Peter I was the first who tried to link the Russian and English systems of measures. By his decree, the arshin was balanced with 28 English inches, so that the fathom corresponded to seven English feet. The Russian sazhen to its English feet was equal to 216 cm, and then equaled to 213.36 cm, this is evidenced by the true ruler of Tsar Peter I. leave forever fathoms in seven real English feet, divided into three arshins, each 28 inches or 16 inches.
The pound and inch, which were used in Russia, exactly coincide with the English measures, and in fact the original Russian measures were used in parallel. Thus, systems of measures not expressed in whole numbers were used. So, for example: 1 foot = 66/7 inches, and one inches = 13/4 inches. It was certainly inconvenient. The inconveniences persisted during the transition of our country to the metric system of measures. In English-speaking countries, the metric system of measures was officially recognized in 1879, but a complete transition has not been completed even now, national measures do not give up, such is the force of habit among people and the passivity of the government of these countries.
Old Russian measures
Having recognized the expediency of the transition to the decimal metric system, we still use the measures of our ancestors. Even in state reports, our crops are estimated in billions of poods.
In a conversation, we still use such words as a mile, a spool, a pound, a bucket. Pre-revolutionary literary works force us to return to old Russian measures. A.S. Pushkin, for example, wrote: "It is true that he hit the ace from a pistol in five fathoms."
“The disease enters by the poods, and leaves by the spools,” says a popular proverb.
It is difficult to determine when Russian measures appeared, it is known that the documents of the 10th century testify not only to the existence of measures, but also proclaim the principles of state supervision over their correctness.
Measures are inextricably linked with numbers. The Old Slavonic alphabet operated with huge numbers, such as “Deck” - 1049.
Metrology- this is not only the science of measurements, it is also an auxiliary historical discipline that studies the history of adding systems of measures.
The oldest unit of money and weight in Russia was the hryvnia, it weighed 409.6 g. They say that the hryvnia came from the word “mane”, because in terms of the amount of silver, the hryvnia was equal to the price of a horse, and the hryvnia was half a hryvnia and its weight was 204 .8 g
In the XIV century. the “ruble” appeared, obviously from the word “cut”, as the hryvnia began to be cut in half - into dimes. Under the young Ivan IV in 1535, motes with a picture of a horseman with a spear in his hand were issued, which were called penny money, hence the word “penny”. Under Peter I, dime coins were issued - 10 kopecks, fifty kopecks - 50 kopecks, as well as kopecks equal to two money, and now equal to six money.
In 1769, the first paper money appeared in Russia, the real value of the paper ruble was then 100 kopecks in silver and dropped to 25 kopecks by 1810, and in 1839 the silver ruble was equal to 3 rubles 50 kopecks in banknotes.
In 1897, the gold ruble, containing 17.424 shares of gold, became the basis of the monetary system. The share was a unit of weight equal to 0.0444 grams and was the smallest unit of weight in the pre-revolutionary system of measures.
1 spool equal to 4.2657 g was 96 shares.
The system of units of weight at the beginning of the 20th century also included:
1 Berkovets \u003d 10 pounds \u003d 163.80496 kg;
1 pood = 40 pounds = 16.3005 kg;
1 pound = 32 lots = 409.51241 g;
1 lot = 3 spools = 12.797g
Measures of length in Russia had their own history, their content and fathoms and versts changed over time. The main travel measure in the XI century. there was a verst, which was equal to 750 sazhens and its length in meters was 1140 m. AT Kievan Rus a simple sazhen was equal to 152 cm - this was the distance between the span of a person's outstretched arms from the thumb of one hand to the thumb of the other. A sazhen measured, or as it was called “flywheel”, was equal to 176 cm, here the distance from the tip of the fingers of one hand to the end of the fingers of the other was taken into account; oblique fathom - 248 cm, between the sole of the left foot and the end of the middle finger of the right hand extended upwards.
In 1649, the Cathedral Code approved a verst equal to 2.16 km and a sazhen 2.16 meters, equal to 3 arshins or 48 vershoks. In the 16th century, the arshin appeared - from the Persian word “arsh” - an elbow and was equal to 72 cm. By the beginning of the 20th century, Russia came with such measures of length as:
1 mile = 7 versts = 7.468 km;
1 verst \u003d 560 fathoms \u003d 1066.80 m;
1 fathom \u003d 3 arshins \u003d 7 feet \u003d 100 nets \u003d 2.1336 m;
1 arshin = 16 layouts = 28 inches = 0.711m;
1ft = 12 inches = 30.48 cm;
1 inch = 10 lines = 25.4mm;
1 inch = 44.38 mm;
1 line = 10 dots = 2.54 mm.
From the measures of liquid bodies of Ancient Russia, such measures as a barrel, a bucket, a korchaga, a mug, a glass are known. Korchagami measured honey, wax, and it was equal to 12 kg. By the 20th century, we had the following volume measures for liquids:
1 barrel = 40 buckets = 491.97636 liters;
1 bucket = 4 quarters = 10 damasks = 20 vodka bottles = 16 wine bottles = 100 cups = 200 half-charms or scales = 12.2994 g.
For the first time, ancient Russian measures as a single system were presented by academician Rybakov B.A., who wrote: “one of the significant differences between Russian folk metrology from ancient Greek, Roman or Byzantine and Western European is the principle of gradual division into 2 ...”. “Half fathom”, “elbow”, representing the fourth part of a fathom.
Russian measures- the heritage of our culture and we have the right to be proud of our ancestors, their reasonable decisions in trade and mutual settlements.
Emergence of the international system
On December 10, 1979, the French government, headed by Napoleon, recognized the meter, and hence the metric system. A law passed by the French government stated: “A medal will be made to pass on to the memory of posterity the time when the system of measures was brought to perfection, and the operation that served as its basis. The inscription on the front side of the medal will be: "For all times, for all peoples", and below: "The French Republic, VIII year." Although the medal was not knocked out, history has preserved its motto. The revolutionary origin of the metric system prevented its spread in other countries, even the restoration of royal power in France in 1815 contributed to its oblivion. Only in 1875 in Paris, a diplomatic conference consisting of 20 countries signed the “Meter Convention to ensure the unity and improvement of the metric system”, after which the International Bureau of Weights and Measures appeared. Russian science played an important role in the transformation of the metric system of measures into an international one. The conference in Paris in 1875 was created on the initiative of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Russian representatives in their report wrote: “... academia I am indebted to Russia for the fact that the aforementioned reform was carried out on the grounds that it worked out from the very beginning and supported by it all the time against otherwise diverging opinions.
On September 14, 1918, the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR, chaired by V.I. Lenin adopted a resolution “To lay the basis for all measurements of the international metric system of measures and weights with decimal divisions and derivatives. Take the unit of length as a basis - a meter, and as a basis for a unit of weight - a kilogram. For samples of the basic units of the metric system, take a copy of the international meter, bearing the sign No. 28, and a copy of the international kilogram, bearing the sign No. 12, made of iridium platinum, transferred to Russia by the I International Conference of Weights and Measures in Paris in 1889 and now stored in the Main Chamber Measures and Weights in Petrograd.
The metric system became the only system of measures and weights allowed in the USSR from January 1, 1927.
The development and growth of international relations urgently demanded the uniformity of units on an international scale, and only in October 1960 was the XI General Conference on Weights and Measures convened, which was attended by representatives of 32 countries.
An international commission headed by the Soviet professor G.D. Bourdun, presents to the General Conference the draft International System of SI. The system is approved.
Since January 1, 1963, this system has been used as a hypothetical one in all areas of science, technology of the national economy, when teaching in our country. The new system is universal and covers all branches of science and technology, all quantities are connected in it. Systems are built on the basis of the decimal principle: multiples and submultiples are formed by multiplying or dividing by 10. An exception is made for units of time, for which division by 60 and 12 has historically remained traditional, although fractions of a second are already subject to division by 10,100, etc.
The international system of units has been legally introduced in our country GOST 8.417-81 (ST SEV 1052-78) “SI. Units of physical quantities.
The most “conservative” of the standards of the basic SI units is the kilogram. It remained equal to the mass of the international prototype stored in the Breteuil Pavilion of the Parc Saint-Cloud in the vicinity of Paris. The prototype of the kilogram, along with two proof copies, has been kept there since 1889. The archival kilogram was taken as the value of a kilogram, i.e. mass 1.000028 ds 3 of water at a temperature of the highest density equal to 40 o C.
The meter was defined as the length of 1/40,000,000 of a meridian, or a platinum and then a platinum-iridium X-shaped standard. The standard meter No. 28, received by Russia, had a length of 1 meter + 0.47 microns in 1888-1889. Comparing it with the Paris standard in 1936 already gave a length of 1 meter + 0.71 microns. There was a need to connect the length of the standard with a more constant natural value. Michelson found that 1553163.5 wavelengths of the red line of cadmium fit into a meter. Metrologists recognized the expediency of such a definition of the meter in 1937 and, having clarified, determined that the meter is 15553164.13 of the length of the cadmium red line under certain external conditions. In 1939 on International Conference it was proposed to approve the definition of the meter, but could not because of the outbreak of war. Only post-war metrologists, without rejecting the idea of determining the meter, proved experimentally that it is advisable to use krypton-86 for this purpose. From now on, the meter is equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths in the radiation vacuum, corresponding to the transition between the 2p10 and 5d5 levels of the krypton-86 atom. Now, according to this definition, the length of a meter can be restored at any place and at any time, because the accuracy of comparing wavelengths with each other is much higher than the accuracy of comparing metal length standards.
Reproduction of units of physical quantities by standards, maintaining them in working condition, ensuring their safety, comparison with exemplary standards, and with them, in turn, working measuring instruments, allows metrologists to ensure the uniformity of measurements.
English system of measures used in UK, USA and other countries. Some of these measures vary somewhat in size in a number of countries, so the following are mostly rounded metric equivalents. English measures convenient for practical calculations.
Gradually, the measures of the English system are being replaced by the metric system of measures.
kipstory.ru
The new kilogram standard
A group of scientists from the United States of America and Europe, by counting atoms in two spheres of silicon weighing one kilogram each, received new estimate constant Avogadro.
Recall that the Avogadro constant N A - determines the number of particles contained in one mole of a given substance. And it is a link between micro and macrophysics.
The calculation of the Avogadro constant allows us to estimate the value of Planck's constant h, since molar "version" of the latter, equal to N A · h and is calculated based on measurements of the Rydberg constant.
This will make it possible to obtain a new kilogram standard, replacing the obsolete platinum-iridium one made in 1889 and stored in Sèvres near Paris. It is estimated that over the years, since its inception, it has become 50 micrograms lighter.
For the calculations, the formula was used:
Where n \u003d 8 is the number of atoms in the elementary cell of the lattice, M is the molar mass, ρ is the density, a 3 is the volume of the elementary cell.
The central task was to determine the isotopic composition of silicon, and a crystal preliminarily enriched with 28Si was used in the experiments. At the beginning of the experiment, in 2004, SiF4 was enriched in the Central Design Bureau of Mechanical Engineering, then it was converted into SiH4. Next, a polycrystal was grown from the vapor phase by chemical deposition. In 2007, the process of growing a single crystal weighing 5 kg was completed in Germany.
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