Gerund and verbal noun
Gerund is sometimes also called a verbal noun, since there are similarities between these grammatical phenomena in some respects, including:
- semantic - both forms are called action;
- morphological - both forms may have common inflections expressing identical grammatical categories;
- syntactic - both forms are used in positions characteristic of a noun (in the function of the subject, complement, including after prepositions, in the function of the nominal part of the compound predicate; in combination with possessive pronouns, etc.).
The specific set of similarities and differences may vary from language to language. However, the gerund in the languages in which it stands out has a number of features that do not allow putting an equal sign between it and the verbal noun, in particular:
- The gerund has a regular formation, while the verbal noun is formed from the verb stem using a variety of word-formation methods (suffixal (lep-k-a), prefixal (flying), non-affixal (running), etc.). In addition, from many verb stems verbal nouns may simply not be formed;
- The gerund has an exclusively “procedural” meaning (calls an action as a process), while the meaning of a verbal noun often has a more indirect connection with the meaning of the verb from the basis of which it is formed (cf. “sitting” ( as a result of sitting on a cold floor ...) and "seat" ( seat upholstery...));
- Gerund, being morphological form verb, retains the control characteristic of this verb (the way of syntactic connection with dependent words), while the noun often modifies it (for example, changes the unprepositional connection to a prepositional one), for example (in English):
Based on these differences, gerunds in the grammars of some languages are distinguished into a special impersonal verb form in the system grammatical forms verb.
Features of the gerund in various languages
Gerund in English
shaping
Formation of the gerund in English is characterized by exceptional regularity - by adding the ending to the infinitive stem -ing, for example: doing, singing, flying, typing, lying etc. Some exceptions are verbs ending in the infinitive with a dumb -e (falls out: rate - rating) and -ie (replaced by -y-: tie-tying ).
In addition, in English it is possible to form complex constructions of the gerund type (ing form) of the verb to be (to be) + past passive participle, which are considered as the gerund of the passive voice (in turn, the ing form of the verb itself is like the gerund of the active voice ). The perfect form of the gerund is also constructed: having (the gerund of the verb “to have”) + the passive past participle.
Gerund in English is not used in the form plural, in this, in particular, it differs from the verbal noun derived from the gerund by substantiation, which also (in the singular) ends in -ing.
form usage
The most characteristic position for a gerund in a sentence is the position of the prepositional object after the predicate:
When the leaders saw it, they accused him of breaking the law.In this case, the gerund is substituted for a noun that could have been used in that position:
After some verbs (like, dislike, loathe, start, etc.), the gerund is used in the position of an unprepositional object. And it is this use of the gerund that is most difficult for learners of English as a foreign language, since such a verb control is unpredictable and requires memorization:
A special group of verbs that require a gerund after themselves is formed by verbs perception(see, hear, feel, etc.). After them, the gerund is also used in the position of the second non-prepositional object, and the position of the first non-prepositional object is occupied by a noun or pronoun that names the person who performs the action called the gerund:
It should be remembered, however, that instead of a gerund at this place, you can use an infinitive without "to" (the so-called bare infinitive or bare infinitive):
A relatively uncharacteristic, but still possible position for the gerund is the position of the subject, as well as the position of the nominal part of the compound predicate:
In some cases, it is difficult to make a formal distinction between gerund and related forms (participle, verbal noun). So, for example, in the following sentence
The grammatical status of the word writing depends on whether we consider the word while to be a preposition (then it is a gerund) or a union (then it is a participle). It is impossible to answer these questions unequivocally, but the existing tradition usually chooses one option. In the example we have considered, in particular, writing is recognized as a participle.
Gerund in Latin
shaping
The gerund in Latin is formed from the stem of the present tense verb with the help of the suffix -nd- and noun endings -about. The gerund, however, lacks the nominative case form, instead of which the present infinitive of the active voice is used in Latin. The dative case is also rare.
Action name in Polish
Governs genitive case direct object and is determined by an adjective, but is able to attach the indicator of recurrence and passiveness się.
Action name in Arabic
IN Arabic the name of the action has been widely developed - a verbal formation, called in this language masdar and denoting the name of the action and state expressed by the verb. Possessing all the properties of a name, masdar also has a number of verbal properties (expression of action, category of transitivity, control of the accusative case and the genitive case with a preposition). At the same time, masdar belongs to the verb group, and is, like the participle, a verb form. But, unlike the personal forms of the verb, masdar denotes an action out of touch with time and person.
Masdar can receive a specific meaning, while its substantivation takes place and it gets the opportunity to be used in the plural form.
§ 71. Gerundivum (gerund)
Gerundivum(gerund) is verbal adjective. The gerund is used in two main meanings:
1. Indicates an action to which a person or thing is to be subjected, i.e. denotes obligation in the passive sense. In this sense, the gerund is most often used in nominativus or in accusativus, as well as in the turnover accusativus cum infinitivo, performing the function of the nominal part of the predicate in the sentence.
2. Indicates the action that a person or object is undergoing at the time of the action, corresponds to the Russian passive participle of the present tense, while maintaining the connotation of obligation. In this meaning, the gerund is used mainly in indirect cases and performs the function of an agreed definition in the sentence.
The gerund is formed:
basis of infection +nd (I, IIref.) /end (III, IVref.) +us, a, um
The gerund in the function of an agreed definition is translated into Russian by a noun, i.e. in translation, a construction with a gerund does not differ from a construction with a gerund. In Latin, both constructions are common: oratorĭbus audiendis = audiendo oratōres "by listening to speakers"; de oppĭdo expugnando = de expugnando oppĭdum "about the conquest of the city", however, the construction with a gerund is used in Latin more often than with a gerund, especially instead of a gerund with a direct object. When a gerund is replaced by a gerundive construction, the complement is put in the case of the gerund, and the gerund is replaced by a gerund that agrees in gender, number, and case with the complement. For example: necessitas scribendi epistulas (gerundium) > necessitas epistularum scribendārum (gerundivum) "the need to write letters."
Since gerunds and gerunds have a number of overlapping forms, it is necessary to learn to distinguish them by their function in a sentence. Gerund- a noun - can be in a sentence either an object, or a circumstance, or an inconsistent definition, while the gerund can control another noun like a verb. Gerundive, like any adjective, it is a dependent word, it is used only with another noun sometimes a pronoun, agreeing with it in gender, number and case, i.e. is the agreed definition. This difference in syntactic functions makes it possible to distinguish between the coinciding forms of the gerund and the gerund. For example: Bellumgerendi causa (gerundium) Caesar in Galliam venit. Caesar arrived in Gaul to wage war. Belligerendi causa (gerundivum) Caesar in Galliam venit. Caesar arrived in Gaul for a war that needed to be fought. In the first example, the control word is the gerund, on which the noun depends, in the second, the control word is the noun, on which the gerund depends and agrees.
From the Latin gerund with the meaning of obligation, several words are formed that are included in the Russian language: memorandum"reminder" (from memorandum est "must be remembered"), referendum"popular poll" (from referendum est "should be discussed"), dividends"income of joint-stock companies" (from dividenda sunt "subject to division"), legend"inscription on a coin, map" (from legenda sunt "need to read"), propaganda"spread" (from propaganda sunt "need to spread").
IN German the gerundive in the role of the nominal part of the predicate corresponds to zu + Infinitiv with the verb sein: Dieses Buch ist zu lesen "this book must be read." The combination zu + Partizip I, corresponding to the Latin gerund in the definition function, also almost always has the meaning of obligation: das zu konjugerende Verb "a verb to be conjugated." In English, the gerund with the meaning of obligation corresponds to the verb to be + Infinitive + to: He is to come here tomorrow "he must come here tomorrow."
Gerundium (Gerundium)
Gerund is a verbal noun with the meaning of an abstract idea of action.
The gerund is formed from the base of the infect with the suffix -nd- for I-II conjugations and the suffix -end- for III-IV conjugations.
Unlike verbal nouns like lectio, Mnis f reading gerundium combines the characteristics of a verb and a noun.
Signs of a noun in a gerund
The gerund changes according to the second declension. It has no nominative form, no gender and no plural. The dative form of the gerund is not commonly used.
Since the abstract idea of action is expressed by the invariable form of the verb infinit + vus, it is considered the logical nominative case of the gerund. Sometimes the gerund is translated with an indefinite form of the verb (see examples below), as well as with a verbal noun or participle.
Use of the gerund
Genet+vus gerund is used
As a definition for a noun: modus vivendi way of existence;
- with prepositions cause And grati : docendi caus for the sake of learning;
- with some nouns and adjectives that require the genitive case: cupid-tas discendi thirst for knowledge, cup-dus bellandi thirsty for war .
Accusat + vus gerund used with a preposition ad(sometimes with the preposition ob) in the meaning of the purpose of the action: ad legendum to read .
Ablat + vus gerund is used:
· in the meaning of ablat+vus modi or ablat+vus instrumenti: Gutta cavat lapidem non vi, sed saepe cadendo. - A drop hollows out a stone not by force, but by a frequent fall;
- with prepositions ex, de, in : Ex discendo cap-mus voluptem. - We enjoy learning.
Verb signs of gerund
The gerund, as a verb, can be referred to by an adverb, which in this case is its definition: saepe cadendo - frequent fall(or " often falling").
With a gerund, the noun is put in the case that is used with the verb from which the gerund is formed: libros (Acc.) legere to read books - ad legendum libros (Acc) to read books. Other verbal nouns require another noun after them in the form of a genitive: lectio librMrum reading books .
Gerundiv (Gerund + vum)
The gerund is a verbal adjective meaning "one with whom something needs to be done": ornandus, a um that (that, that) that should be decorated .
The gerund is formed from the base of the infect with the help of the suffix -nd- for I and II conjugations and suffix -end- for III - IV conjugations, and adjective endings I - II declension:
| orna-nd-us, a, um |
ted - end - us, a, um |
||
| doce - nd - us, a, um |
audi-end-us, a, um |
Gerundiv is declined as adjectives of I and II declensions.
The gerund is used in the sentence:
as a definition: templa relinquenda - temples to be abandoned .
- as a nominal part of the predicate: Liber legendus est. - The book must be read.
With the help of the gerund, impersonal sentences can be formed, i.e. those in which the actor is not implied: Need to work. Coldly. In this case, the combination of the gerund with the verb is used. essay, and the gerundive is in the form of the neuter gender, and the copula verb is in the form of 3 l. units hours: Laborandum est. - Need to work hard .
The gerund can be formed from any verb. The literal translation of the gerund often contradicts the speech norms of the Russian language, and in these cases it is necessary to correct the phrase accordingly, for example: Sentus consulendus est. - The opinion of the Senate should be sought(not "the senate must be asked"), etc.
The gerund, like the participle, can be used in a predicative function. In this case, it, formally being a definition with a noun, actually performs the function of a logical predicate, and the noun (pronoun) with it - the role of a logical object, to which the action of the verb-predicate is directed: ad libros legendos. In this case, the gerund is translated by a verbal noun into singular. including: for reading books(lit. for books to be read). The combination of a noun with a gerund in a predicative function is called a "gerund construction".
The meaning of the gerund construction is the same as the meaning of the accusative gerund with direct object construction. They are translated into Russian in the same way:
Moreover, the gerund construction is used in Latin much more often than the turnover with the gerund.
Dat+vus auctMris
Dat+vus auctMris ("dative actor") is used with a gerund construction to designate a person who must perform the action indicated by the gerund: Mihi legendum est. - I need to read .
Deposition verbs (verb deponenti)
In Latin, there are a significant number of verbs that have the form of a passive voice, but at the same time - an active meaning. Such verbs are called depositional (verb deponenti).
The dictionary lists three forms of depositional verbs: praesens, perfectum and infinit+vus praesentis. The basis of the supine is determined by the form of the participium perfecti passivi, which is part of the passive perfect:
I ref. arbitror, arbitrtus sum, arbitrri think, believe
II ref. vereor, ver-tus sum, verri to be afraid
IIIref. utor, usus sum, uti to use
IVref. metior, metus sum, met+ri to measure.
Just as there is a group of third conjugation verbs in -io among indefinite verbs, there is a group of third conjugation verbs in -ior among deferred verbs. They are conjugated like third conjugation verbs in -io in the passive voice:
morior, mortuus sum, mori to die .
Praesens indicativi
The most common verbs of III conjugation in -ior:
morior, mortuus sum, mori to die;
gradient, progressus sum, gradient walk, go (usually used with prefixes; this changes the vowel in the middle of the word, for example, gr a dior I go - regr e dior i'm leaving);
patior, passus sum, pati
The forms participium praesentis, gerund, supine, as well as future participles (participium futkri), and future infinitives (infinit+vus futkri) are formed as in the active voice.
The conjugation of depositional verbs in the indicative and conjunctive does not differ from the conjugation of the forms of the passive voice already known to us.
Imperat+vus praesentis of depositional verbs is formed from the stem of the infect with the help of the following endings:
in singulris: -re(i.e. formally the singular of the imperative of these verbs looks like infinitivus praesentis activi)
in plurlis: -mini(i.e. formally the plural of the imperative is the same as the form of 2 l. pl. praesens indicat + vi pass + vi)
In conjugation III, a connecting vowel is inserted between the base and the ending -- .
I ref. arbitr-re! think! arbitra-m-ni! think!
II ref. ver-re! be afraid! vere-m-ni! be afraid!
III ref. ut-re! enjoy! ut-e-m + ni! enjoy!
IV ref. met+re! measure! meti-m-ni! measure!
The meaning of participium perfecti for depositional verbs coincides with the meaning of Russian real participles of the past tense: participle locutus, a, um from the verb loquor, locktus sum, loqui means "said", while the participle is from an urgent verb dico, dixi, dictum, re dictus, a, um- "said". Some suspensive verbs form participium perfecti, which has both an active and a passive meaning: expertus, a, um experienced And tested(from the verb experior, expertus sum, exper + ri experience).
The gerund of depositional verbs has, like the gerund of indefinite verbs, a passive meaning: loquendus, a, um that (that, those) that should be said, expressed .
Semi-deponent verbs (verb semideponenti)
Semi-depositional are those Latin verbs in which part of the forms is formed according to the type of active voice, and part - according to the type of passive. There are two types of semi-pronounced verbs: in some forms, formed from the stem of the infect, have active voice endings, and forms formed from the stem of the perfect have passive voice endings: audeo, ausus sum, audre to dare, dare, - in others, on the contrary, forms from the stem of the infect are formed according to the passive voice model, and from the stem of the perfect - according to the active voice model: revertor, reverti, (reversus), reverti come back.
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
In Latin, as well as in Russian, a group of qualitative adjectives stands out among adjectives. They name something quality subject: handsome, kind etc. These qualities can be manifested in a particular person or object to a greater or lesser extent. Accordingly, forms expressing a greater or lesser degree of this quality can be formed from one or another qualitative adjective: kind - the kindest etc.
In Latin, there are three degrees of comparison of adjectives (this includes the original forms):
positive (gradus posit + vus), which includes adjectives already known to us
- comparative (gradus comparat + vus)
- excellent (gradus superlat + vus).
Comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives can be formed:
With the help of suffixes
- with the help of words indicating the degree of quality;
- from bases that do not coincide with the bases of a positive degree.
Comparative Degree Education
Education with suffixes
N. sing. comparative degree of adjectives of all declensions is formed from the basis of the adjective, to which is added
in the forms mascul + num and femin + num - suffix -ior-
- in the form neutrum - suffix -ius :
longus, a, um long; G. sing. long-i; the foundation long- long - ior, f- long-ior,n- long-ius ;
brevis, e short; G. sing. brev-is, the foundation brev-. Comparative degree: m - brev-ior, f- brev-ior,n- brev - ius .
The comparative degree changes according to the III consonant declension:
Comparative degree of adjectives in -d-cus, -f-cus, -vOlus formed by adding to the base element -entior : magnificus, a, um magnificent -> magnificentior, ius more magnificent.
Education with auxiliary words
Comparative degree from a positive degree using an adverb magis more form adjectives whose stem ends in a vowel (i.e., adjectives ending in N. sing. in -eus, -ius, -uus): necessarius necessary, magis necessarius more necessary.
The use of the comparative degree
The comparative degree can be used:
with a noun (pronoun) that is compared with something. Comparison object is joined by union quam than : aer levior est, quam aqua air is lighter than water.
Ablat+vus comparatiMnis
The conjunction quam may be omitted for the object of comparison. In this case, the word that expresses the object of comparison is put in the ablative (in Russian, the genitive case is used: air is lighter than water). Such an ablativus is called ablat+vus comparatiMnis (blativus of comparison): ar levior est aqu .
The combination of a noun (pronoun) with a comparative degree depending on it can be used in isolation, without an object of comparison. In this case, the comparison takes place, as it were, with a certain norm that exists in the mind of the speaker. This use of the comparative degree is called the independent comparative degree. In Russian, an independent comparative degree is translated by a positive degree (i.e., an ordinary adjective) in combination with the words quite, somewhat, rather, too much, too much etc.: senex servior - too harsh old man .
Superlative education
The superlative degree of adjectives can be formed in a suffix way:
By adding an element to the base --ssim-, and to it - the endings of the masculine, feminine and neuter genders I - II declensions: long-us, a, um is long > longiss-m-us, a, um is the longest
- adjective on -d-cus, -f-cus u vOlus form a comparative degree on -entiss-mus: magnificus, a, um is magnificent -> magnific - entissimus, a, um is the most magnificent .
- adjectives in -er form the superlative degree by adding the element -r-m-, and to it - the endings of the masculine, feminine and neuter genders: liber, -ra, -rum free; the foundation liber-; superlative liber-r-m-us, a, um is the freest.
It also forms the superlative degree of an adjective. vetus, ris old, ancient -> veterr-mus, a, um the oldest, most ancient.
group of adjectives -lis forms a superlative degree with the suffix -l-m-, to which the generic endings us, a, um are attached:
fac-lis, e is light -> facil-lim-us, a, um is the lightest, etc.
diffic-lis, e heavy, difficult
sim-lis, e similar
dissim-lis, e dissimilar
hum-lis, e low
grac-lis, e graceful.
Adjectives in -eus, -ius, -uus form a comparative degree from a positive one with the help of an adverb maxime most: necessarius, a, um necessary -> maxime necessarius most necessary.
Adjectives in the superlative degree change according to I - II declensions.
The meaning of the superlative degree of adjectives
Superlative adjectives can have two meanings:
The highest degree of quality (actually gradus superlat + vus);
- a very high degree of quality (this value is called gradus elat+vus).
This or that meaning of the superlative degree is determined by the context. The most commonly used elative is: flumen latiss-mum the widest river(superlative ), a very wide river(elative).
The comparative degree can be strengthened with an adverb multo much, much; excellent - with the help of the union quam: Sementes quam max-mas facre - to produce as large crops as possible.
Suppletive degrees of comparison
suppletive forms various parts speech are called such forms that are formed from different bases (cf. in Russian: a positive degree Okay, and the comparative better). In Latin, suppletive degrees of comparison form adjectives:
Ablat+vus separatiMnis
Ablat + vus separatiMnis is used with verbs or adjectives that mean removal, separation, for example:
movre, pellre - remove, expel (from something)
cedre - to leave something
arcre, prohibre - to abstain from something
liberre - free from something.
If ablat+vus separatiMnis is expressed by an animate noun, then it is used with the preposition a(ab). The inanimate noun in ablat+vus separatiMnis is used without a preposition, and sometimes with prepositions a(ab), de, e(ex) .
Homo sum, humni nihil a me alienum puto. - I am a man, and I believe that nothing human is alien to me.
Dukes copyas castris edkcunt. - The generals withdraw the army from the camp.
Ablat+vus loci
Ablat + vus loci ("ablative place") answers the question "where" and means the place of action.
Ablat + vus loci is used without a preposition if words with the meaning of place or space have an agreed definition (that is, in the same case and number as the word to which it refers). In particular, this rule applies to combinations that include the words totus, a, um whole And locus, i, m place: tot urb in the whole city; hoc loco in (on) this place.
If there is no definition for such words with a local-spatial meaning, they are used with the preposition in: in urb in the city .
Use without preposition:
· expression terr mar+que on land and sea ;
- the name of the path or road with verbs of motion: eMdem itinr reverti - return the same way.
Location designation in Latin
When designating the place of action, answering the question "where", they are put in the form genetivus:
Names of cities I and II declension: Romae in Rome
- words
domus, i, f house: domi at home
humus, i f earth: humi on (in) the ground, on the ground
rus, ruris n village: ruri in the village [ These forms have the ending of the locative lost in Latin (local case). Therefore, the form ruri has the ending -i, which is not characteristic of the genitive III declension.]
When indicating the direction of action, words that answer the question "where?" are put in the accusativus form: Romam to Rome, domum home, rus to the village .
When indicating the place of departure (i.e. starting point), words are used in the form ablat + vus: Rom from Rome, domM from home, rur from the village .
Names of cities of I - II declensions, having the form only of the plural ( Athnae, rum f FORMTEXT Finns, Delphi, Mrum m Delphi), as well as the names of cities of the III declension ( Carthago, Carthag-nis f Carthage):
To indicate the place of action and the place of departure are put in the ablative: Athenis in Athens(or from Athens), Delphis in Delphi ( or from Delphi), Carthagin in Carthage ( or from Carthage)
- to indicate the direction of action - in the accusative: Athnas to Athens etc.
Russian nouns denoting segments of space (and time) are usually expressed in Latin by adjectives, which in this case are placed before nouns (on this basis, phrases of this type should be distinguished from ordinary combinations of a noun with an adjective - an agreed definition: media via middle of the road (cf. via media middle road) etc.
Genet + vus genris
Genet + vus genris ("genitive of the genus" or "genitive of the species") is used:
with neuter nouns singular denoting a measure, number or quantity;
- with quantitative adjectives and pronouns of the neuter gender singular. Genetivus generis designates an object or substance that is measured or counted: numrus mil-tum number of warriors; nihil novi nothing new; aliquid tempOris for a while(lit. some time).
Genet+vus partit+vus
Genet + vus partit + vus is used to denote the whole, from which only a part stands out.
Genetivus partivus is used:
in the presence of a definition expressed by an adjective in a comparative or superlative degree: GallMrum omnium fortiss-mi sunt Belgae (Caes.) - The bravest of all the Gauls are the Belgae;
- with interrogative and indefinite pronouns (see lecture): quis nostrum? which one of us? nemo nostrum none of us;
- with adjectives with the meaning of quantity, standing in the plural form (multi many, pauci few, etc.): multi nostrum many of us;
- with numerals: unus nostrum one of us .
In Russian, the combination of genet + vus genris with these words is translated in the genitive case with the prepositions "from", "between", "among".
References
Miroshenkova V.I., Fedorov N.A. Textbook Latin. 2nd ed. M., 1985.
Nikiforov V.N. Latin legal phraseology. M., 1979.
Kozarzhevsky A.I. Latin textbook. M., 1948.
Sobolevsky S.I. Grammar of the Latin language. M., 1981.
Rosenthal I.S., Sokolov V.S. Latin textbook. M., 1956.
