I decided to equip my new house according to Feng Shui. So. In the north - an office, in the west - a nursery, in the northwest - a sector for storing equipment, in the northeast - a zone of wisdom ... It turned out that everything is not so simple. I'm completely confused with the arrangement of things according to the sides of the horizon. Had to freshen up school knowledge.
How to determine the sides of the horizon of the house
In Feng Shui, there is a special Bagua scheme. It can be downloaded from the Internet. With the help of the table, you can easily navigate the apartment. To do this, you need to draw a house plan on a small scale and put a Bagua on it in mirror reflection. For example, if the windows look to the north, then in the diagram we connect them to the south.
How to calculate in which direction of the world the windows are located? The surest and easiest way is to find the coordinates of your house on the Internet or get them using a GPS navigator on your phone.
If this is not possible, then the best tool is a compass. But how many of us have such a device at home? Perhaps most housewives, like me, do not have a compass. You can determine the sides of the horizon in the house (however, and not only) using a wristwatch. The main thing is that the sun shines on this day. The accessory must be positioned so that the hour hand looks towards the sun. The median line between 12 o'clock and the hand will show south. Determining the rest of the world is already a matter of technology.
Another way is by the stars. In the starry sky, you need to find the North Star and stand facing it. In this position, you will have west on the left, east on the right.
How to choose a compass
After all the efforts I made to restore order in the house, I still bought a compass. During the purchase, I learned that compasses are:
- liquid;
- magnetic;
- electromagnetic;
- electronic.
I purchased the first one.
In my opinion, he is the best. The operation of the liquid compass does not depend on the battery and satellite communications. At the same time, unlike a conventional magnetic compass, it has no errors. The main thing is to use it carefully so as not to break it.
In order to learn how to navigate, you need to be able to determine your location on the ground relative to the sides of the horizon.
In geography, one of the four main directions: north, south, west, east. Between them are intermediate sides of the horizon: northwest, northeast, southwest and southeast. Orientation is the determination of one's location relative to the sides of the horizon and surrounding objects.
Ways of orientation on the ground
Even in ancient times, people in the Northern Hemisphere determined the south direction by the position of the sun at noon. The midday shadow from objects here is always directed from south to north. The east direction can be recognized by the place of sunrise, and the west by the place of sunset. A very reliable way in the Northern Hemisphere by the North Star. The northern end is directed towards it. earth's axis, so it always points north. If you stand facing north, then the south will be behind, the east to the right, and the west to the left.
Local signs can also be used for orientation. For example, the bark of trees on the north side is rougher and darker than on the south, and the south side of the anthills is flatter than the north.
Compass
A compass is needed to accurately determine the sides of the horizon. Its magnetic needle always points north. When determining the sides of the horizon, the compass is set in a horizontal position so that its arrow does not touch the body, and, turning it, align the end of the arrow with the pointer C (north). This position means that the compass is oriented.
Azimuth
To determine the exact direction of an object, it is not enough to know which side of the horizon it is on. You need to determine the azimuth to this object. Azimuth is the angle between the north direction and the object direction.
Angle is a figure formed by two rays coming out of the same point. The unit of measure for an angle is a degree, which is written as follows: 1°. A degree is 1/180 of a straight angle.
A degree can serve as a measure of a circle and arcs of a circle. Any circle, regardless of its radius, contains 360°, and a semicircle contains 180°. The circumference of the dial is also divided into 360°.
To determine with a compass, it is first oriented. Then a thin stick is placed on the compass but in the direction from the center of the compass to the object. Azimuth is measured from north towards the direction of the object. So, the direction to the east has an azimuth of 90 °, to the south - 180 °, to the west - 270 °.
One of the most important skills for those who like to travel or just relax as savages is orientation in the area. In this article, we will consider the main ways to determine the sides of the horizon.
With this information, you will not get lost even under the most difficult conditions. The main condition is the presence of a card. Otherwise, you will have to be guided by logic and assumptions. However, you can easily determine your location.
Compass
To learn how to determine the sides of the horizon, we will start with the easiest and most obvious. With the help of a compass, you can easily find out where the north is. There are only a few prerequisites. What you need to know so that this device does not let you down?
Firstly, it is possible to determine the cardinal directions only when the compass is in a strictly horizontal, stationary position, and the arrow has ceased to oscillate.
Secondly, within a radius of fifty meters around you there should be no railway tracks, transformers and other sources of electromagnetic or magnetic radiation. Otherwise, the compass will deviate from the correct course or the arrow will start to spin and behave incomprehensibly.
How to use this device correctly?
The most common are two army compasses - Adrianov and artillery, as well as sports varieties. They differ only in the level of prices and the presence of certain scales.
In any device, on top, on the lid, there is a special sight through which you can determine the landmark. So, keep the compass horizontal, wait until the arrow stops. Its dark end will point north. Now we rotate the sight so that it coincides with the arrow along the vector. Now the cardinal directions are easy to determine. If you are facing north, then south will be behind, east on the right, and west on the left.
Clock
Determining the sides of the horizon by the clock is one of the most interesting, unusual and effective ways. For its implementation, a mechanical watch with arrows is needed. Electronic ones won't work.
This method is a bit like determining the sides of the horizon by the sun, since we cannot do without a luminary. What are the features of this method of orientation on the ground?
First, there are different options for determining the location in the morning and in the afternoon. The time limit is one o'clock in the afternoon (13:00).
Secondly, the clock must be accurate.
So, we position the device so that the hand that shows the clock (often it is thicker and shorter than the rest) looks at the sun. Next, you need to draw an imaginary angle that will connect two lines in the center of the dial. One will coincide with the hour hand, and the second will pass through the number "one".
After that, we divide the angle in half with an imaginary straight line. South will be ahead, the median line will point to it.
The feature is as follows. Until one o'clock in the afternoon we measure the arc from the hand showing the hours. That is, the path that she still needs to go before 13:00. And after this time, we draw an imaginary arc counterclockwise. Therefore, we now measure the path that she has already covered after one in the afternoon.
The figure above will help you better understand this way of orienting yourself on the ground.
Needle
According to many tourists, the following definition of the sides of the horizon on the ground is the most unusual. In addition, additional equipment and skills are required for its implementation. From the outside, it looks more like a circus trick. So what do we need?
- Metal needle for sewing. It will become the needle of our makeshift compass.
- Something that will give the needle buoyancy properties. It can be vegetable oil (we generously lubricate the metal rod with it or drip onto the surface of the water), a small piece of cork or foam. The main condition is that the needle should float in a horizontal position.
- The metal rod must be magnetized. This can be done with a magnet, a piece of wool, or some other handy tool. For example, in the case of a needle, the most ordinary scissors will be a good choice. All you have to do is snap their ends as if you are trying to cut the needle in half. From the rapid friction of metal on metal, the rod will begin to magnetize.
- Water container. It can be some kind of container or, for example, a recess in a tree or stone filled with stagnant water.
The main sides of the horizon (in the presence of all the above items) are determined elementarily. A well-magnetized needle that floats on the surface of the water, under the action of magnetic field planets will rotate in a south-north direction.
The only inconvenience is that it will not be clear where which one will have to be determined in additional ways.
But for safety net, this method is completely suitable. In addition, it is very indicative for teaching children how to navigate the terrain and explain the principles of magnetic fields.
heavenly bodies
The sun crosses the sky at an angle of fifteen degrees in one hour. People have been guided by it for a long time. But for a more accurate determination of the cardinal points, it is worth knowing some features.
In summer, the Sun moves along the southern side of the sky. Therefore, it rises not in the east, but in the northeast. It sits down, respectively, in the northwest.
In winter, the same picture is repeated, only from the north side. In spring and autumn, the luminary rises and sets in the east and west.
The second feature on which the determination of the sides of the horizon by the sun is based is the length of the shadow. In principle, the shortest shadow occurs around one o'clock in the afternoon. It points to the north if the object is motionless and is in a strictly vertical position.
For a more accurate understanding of the location, it is worth using other ways to determine the sides of the horizon. For example, with a mechanical watch, which was described above.
At night, when there is no luminary, it is easiest to navigate by the North Star. This is a part, as astronomers say, it is located near the axis north pole of the world and is practically motionless, unlike other stars. Therefore, it is very easy to determine where the north is from it.
How to find this star? First you need to find the Big Dipper in the sky. This is a constellation in the form of a large bucket with a handle. Depending on the time of day, it can be placed vertically, horizontally or at an angle.
Now you need to mentally continue the line that connects the two stars that form the front wall of the bucket (opposite to the handle). If you extend it to a distance five times greater than the length of the segment, you will stumble upon the North Star.
You can clearly see how to do this in the figure on the left.
The buildings
The main sides of the horizon are very easily identified near the buildings of sacred significance.
It can be Orthodox churches or Catholic churches, chapels, mosques, synagogues. Each of these buildings is built according to its own strict laws.
If there is an Orthodox church, cathedral or temple nearby, you need to look at the lower crossbar. According to legend, there were the feet of Christ. It is slanted diagonally. Its upper edge is directed towards the north.
Altars in Catholic churches are located in the west, and in Lutheran and Orthodox churches - in the east.
There are other local signs of determining the sides of the horizon. So, the entrance of mosques and synagogues is located approximately in the northern part of the building. According to these religions, when a person enters a building, he must face Mecca or Jerusalem, respectively.
In East Asia, Buddhist buildings usually face south. The yurts of the indigenous peoples of Siberia also have an entrance from this side of the world.
Clearings are traditionally made in the forests. Usually they are cut either from east to west, or from north to south.
natural objects
Many methods of determining the sides of the horizon have long been known. To do this, people used observations of trees, animal behavior and other features of the environment.
For example, due to the abundance of light and heat in the summer on the south side, berries and fruits ripen faster and have a more saturated color on the side facing this side. On freshly cut trees, the rings are wider on the south side than on the north. This is due to the same abundance of sunlight and heat.
There are other signs of determining the sides of the horizon. The anthills on the north side are steeper, and on the south side they are gentle. It is also believed that icicles are more likely to form on the south side of the roof.
If there are pine trees nearby, the south is quite easily determined by them. On this side, their trunks will be lighter, the bark is rougher. And also it will have a lot more resin drips on it than on the north side of the tree. Grass is greener in the south in summer and turns yellow earlier in the north.
The most popular method is paying attention to the amount of moss on the stones and It is believed that these plants like to settle on the north side.
Lichens and mosses
Determining the signs of the sides of the horizon, you need to use complex results. This applies especially to natural phenomena and the plant world.
Earlier we mentioned the most common way to find the north side. It consists in the fact that you just need to look at the trunk of a tree or a stone. Moss should be on the north side. But if this is indeed the case, you are incredibly lucky. This happens once in a hundred trees, or even more. Why so? What is the reason?
Everything is simple. These plants love shade and moisture. It is assumed that it is on the north side that such a microclimate is formed. But in the forest, in fact, completely different conditions. It all depends on the terrain, surrounding water bodies or mountains.
In addition, you may find yourself near the outskirts of the forest. Ignore the felling and, guided by the position of moss and lichens on the trees, mark the north. Before that, those trunks that you see were in the shade in the depths of the forest. It was only after cutting down that they turned out to be the outskirts.
The same applies to the buildings we talked about earlier. Traditionally, they should be built as we have already mentioned, but today everything is changing. Some architect decided to innovate and make a door in a different place.
Therefore, be sure to use the signs in the complex, but rather take a compass with you.
lettuce
There are also quite extravagant ways to determine the horizon with cardinal points. This includes the so-called "compass plants". They usually have one or more fixed traits that are gradually fixed as they mature.
Such plants, for example, include compass lettuce. Outwardly, it looks like a very large dandelion with small yellow flowers. Over time, they, like younger brother, become fluffy parachutes.
However, it is not at all related to the common dandelion. Rather, lettuce can be called its relative.
In fact, compass lettuce is a weed. It grows in the steppe zone of the former Soviet Union almost everywhere. In the fields you can find its thickets, and along the roads, free-standing plants.
Its peculiarity is that it hides the delicate surface of the leaves from the sun's rays. Lettuce turns them sideways. And when the plant matures enough, they freeze in this position. Not always, but very often, the leaves indicate a line from north to south.
If you decide to use this method exclusively, it is better to find thickets of lettuce. Because a single plant can be an exception and confuse you.
Sunflower
Now we will study the last "vegetative" way to determine the direction of the sides of the horizon. To do this, we need one, and preferably several sunflowers growing nearby.
From the school bench, children know that the plant turns after the sun. That is, in the morning it looks to the east, and in the evening it turns to the west.
However, this is not quite true. If you carefully follow the life of a sunflower during its various stages, you can be very surprised. It turns out that over time, when a flower plate appears and takes shape from the bud, the plant freezes.
A fully open sunflower will never turn to follow the sun. He always looks to where the first morning rays come from. If this is an open place, then the flower will be directed towards the northeast or east.
If there are obstacles nearby, the sunflower will look exclusively in the direction from where the first rays appear. In this case, you cannot rely on it.
Modern technology
Modern technology allows you to navigate the terrain only on the screen of the device. We are talking about a professional navigator or an ordinary mobile phone with the Internet.
However, the reality is that the network does not catch everywhere. That is why even the GPS should be turned on before entering the forest in order to mark the place where you will need to return. For example, you are standing near the first line of trees and, judging by the device, you are looking to the southeast. So you will return to the northwest. This direction we remember.
Second important point. If the connection is suddenly lost and the navigator or map is no longer active, an unusual solution will help. We turn on the analog dial on the mobile phone in the “alarm clock” section. Now you have an electronic version of the clock with hands. And then we proceed as described above.
Thus, dear readers, today we have learned to determine the sides of the horizon on the ground. This is a useful skill that will undoubtedly come in handy for mushroom pickers, hunters, lovers of wild recreation or travelers.
Between them are intermediate sides of the horizon. The ability to determine one's location relative to the sides of the horizon, prominent objects is called orientation.
Ways of orientation on the ground
Determination of directions but a plan
When depicting directions on the plan, the upper edge of the sheet of paper is conditionally considered northern, the lower edge is southern, the right is eastern, and the left is western. On the sheet on the left, an arrow is drawn with the point up, the letter C (north) is written above it, and Yu (south) is written below it.
If you put a point on the plan and draw a line up from it, you will get an image of the direction to the north; a line drawn down will show the direction to the south; right - east, left - west. Intermediate directions can also be shown between these lines. Knowing how directions are determined, it is possible to determine directions to objects, indications. On the plan. For example, in what direction from the village of Elagino is the wooden bridge across the ravine? To complete this task, you need to find the center of the village. The bridge is located below and to the right of the center, that is, to the southeast of the village of Elagino.
How to determine the direction of curved lines, such as a river, a road, a field boundary? To do this, they must be divided into straight segments and determine the direction of these segments.
The sides of the horizon on the ground are determined by:
1) by compass;
2) according to heavenly bodies;
3) according to various features of local objects.
First of all, each student must learn to determine the sides of the horizon using a compass, in particular, using a luminous compass adapted for work at night. The trainee must master this elementary and basic device for orientation to perfection. It is not necessary to have a universal Adrianov compass; you can work well with an ordinary luminous compass. During training, it is necessary to achieve an unmistakable determination of both the main directions of the sides of the horizon, as well as intermediate and reverse directions. The ability to identify reverse directions is very important, and in training it is necessary to pay special attention to it.
The observer must memorize well on the ground the direction to the north, in order to be able to indicate the sides of the horizon from any point of standing without a compass, by memory.
On the sides of the horizon, however, it is not always possible to accurately determine the direction of movement.
Usually it is taken approximately to a certain extent, for example, in relation to the points of the north, northeast, north-northeast, etc., and does not always coincide with them. A more precise direction can be taken if the movement is in azimuth. Therefore, it is absolutely necessary to introduce the student to the elementary concepts of azimuth. At first, it is necessary to ensure that he knows how to: 1) determine the azimuth to a local object and 2) move along a given azimuth. As for the preparation of data for movement in azimuth, this can be done when the student learns to read the map.
How important it is to be able to move in azimuth can be seen from the following example. A certain rifle division fought a night battle in one of the forests in the Bryansk direction. The commander decided to surround the enemy troops. The success of the task to a large extent depended on the exact following in the given directions. Everyone, from the squad leader and above, had to follow the azimuth. And the ability to move according to the compass played a role here. As a result of a masterfully carried out night maneuver, an entire enemy division was defeated.
In the absence of a compass, you can navigate by the heavenly bodies: during the day - by the Sun, at night - by the Polar Star, the Moon and various constellations. Yes, and if you have a compass, you should know the simplest methods of orienting in the heavenly bodies; at night, they are easy to navigate and follow the route.
There are a number of ways to determine the sides of the horizon by the Sun: by its position at noon, by sunrise or sunset, by the Sun and shadow, by the Sun and hours, etc. You can find them in any manual on military topography. These methods are described in sufficient detail by V. I. Pryanishnikov in an interesting brochure “How to Navigate”; they are also in the famous book by Ya. I. Perelman "Entertaining Astronomy". However, not all of these methods are applicable in combat practice, since their implementation requires a lot of time, calculated not in minutes, but in hours.
The fastest is the method of determining by the Sun and the clock; everyone needs to know this way. At noon, at 1 pm, the Sun is almost due south; around 7 o'clock in the morning it will be in the east, and at 19 o'clock in the west. To find the north-south line at other hours of the day, it is necessary to introduce an appropriate correction on the basis that for each hour the apparent path of the Sun across the sky will be approximately 15 °. The visible disks of the Sun and the full Moon are about half a degree across.
If we take into account that the hour hand goes around the dial twice a day, and the Sun makes its apparent path around the Earth only once during the same time, then it is even easier to determine the sides of the horizon. For this you need:
1) place a pocket or wrist watch horizontally (Fig. 1);
Rice. one. Orientation by sun and clock
3) divide the angle formed by the hour hand, the center of the dial and the number "1" in half.
Equal dividing line will determine the direction north - south, and the south will be on the sunny side until 19 o'clock, and after 19 o'clock - where the sun was moving from.
It must be borne in mind that this method does not give an accurate result, but for orientation purposes it is quite acceptable. The main reason for the inaccuracy lies in the fact that the clock face is parallel to the horizon plane, while the visible daily path of the Sun lies in the horizontal plane only at the pole.
Since at other latitudes the visible path of the Sun makes different angles with the horizon (up to a straight line at the equator), then, consequently, a larger or smaller error in orientation is inevitable, reaching tens of degrees in summer, especially in the southern regions. Therefore, in the southern latitudes, where the sun is high in summer, there is no point in resorting to this method. The smallest error occurs when using this method in winter, as well as during the equinoxes (about March 21 and September 23).
A more accurate result can be obtained by using the following method:
1) the clock is given not a horizontal, but an inclined position at an angle of 40–50 ° to the horizon (for a latitude of 50–40 °), while the clock is held with the thumb and forefinger at the numbers “4” and “10”, the number “1” from yourself (Fig. 2);
2) having found on the dial the middle of the arc between the end of the hour hand and the number "1", apply a match here perpendicular to the dial;
3) without changing the position of the clock, they turn with them in relation to the Sun so that the shadow from the match passes through the center of the dial; at this point, the number "1" will indicate the direction to the south.
Rice. 2. Refined way of orienting by the Sun and the clock
The theoretical substantiation of the inaccuracies allowed when orienting by the Sun and the clock, we do not touch here. The question will be clear if one turns to an elementary textbook on astronomy or to a special manual on spherical astronomy. An explanation can also be found in the mentioned book by Ya. I. Perelman.
It is useful to remember that at mid-latitudes the Sun rises in the northeast in summer and sets in the northwest; in winter, the sun rises in the southeast and sets in the southwest. Only twice a year does the Sun rise exactly in the east and set in the west (at the equinoxes).
A very simple and reliable way to orient yourself is by the North Star, which always shows the direction to the north. The error here does not exceed 1–2°. The polar star is located near the so-called pole of the world, that is, a special point around which the entire starry sky seems to revolve to us. In order to determine the true meridian, this star was used in ancient times. It is found in the sky with the help of the well-known constellation Ursa Major(Fig. 3).
Fig 3. Finding the North Star
The distance between the extreme stars of the "bucket" is mentally laid out in a straight line up about five times and the Polar Star is found here: in brightness it is the same as the stars that make up the Big Dipper. The North Star is the end of the "ladle handle" of Ursa Minor; the stars of the latter are less bright and hardly distinguishable. It is easy to figure out that if the North Star is covered by clouds, and only Ursa Major is visible, then the direction to the north can still be determined.
The North Star provides an invaluable service to the troops, as it allows not only to determine the sides of the horizon, but also helps to accurately maintain the route, serving as a kind of beacon.
However, the situation may be such that, due to cloudiness, neither the Big Dipper nor the North Star are visible, but the Moon is visible. It is also possible to determine the sides of the horizon from the Moon at night, although this is a less convenient and accurate method than determining from the North Star. The fastest way is to determine by the moon and the clock. First of all, it must be remembered that the full (round) Moon is opposed to the Sun, that is, it is located against the Sun. From this it follows that at midnight, that is, according to our time, a 1 o'clock, it happens in the south, at 7 o'clock - in the west, and at 19 o'clock - in the east; compared with the Sun, thus, a difference of 12 hours is obtained. This difference is not expressed on the clock face - the hour hand at 1 o'clock or at 13 o'clock will be in the same place on the dial. Therefore, approximately the side of the horizon along full moon and hours can be determined in the same order as the Sun and hours.
By the incomplete Moon and the clock, the sides of the horizon are identified somewhat differently. The order of work here is:
1) note the time of observation on the clock;
2) divide by eye the diameter of the moon into twelve equal parts (for convenience, first divide in half, then the desired half into two more parts, each of which is divided into three parts);
3) estimate how many such parts are contained in the diameter of the visible crescent of the Moon;
4) if the Moon is arriving (the right half of the lunar disk is visible), then the resulting number must be subtracted from the hour of observation; if it decreases (the left part of the disk is visible), then add. In order not to forget in which case to take the sum and in which difference, it is useful to remember the following rule: take the sum when the visible crescent of the Moon is C-shaped; with the reverse (P-shaped) position of the visible lunar crescent, the difference must be taken (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Mnemonic rules for introducing an amendment
The sum or difference will show the hour when the Sun will be in the direction of the Moon. From here, pointing at the crescent of the Moon a place on the dial (but not the hour hand!), Which corresponds to the newly received hour, and taking the Moon for the Sun, it is easy to find the north-south line.
Example. Observation time 5 hours 30 hours. the diameter of the visible "crescent" of the Moon contains 10/12 -parts of its diameter (Fig. 5).
The moon is waning as its left C shaped side is visible. Summing up the observation time and the number of parts of the visible "crescent" of the Moon (5 hours 30 minutes + 10). we get the time when the Sun will be in the direction of the Moon we observe (15 hours 30 minutes). We set the division of the dial corresponding to 3 hours. 30 min., in the direction of the moon.
A dividing line passing between it with a division, the center of the clock and the number "1". will give the direction of the line north - south.
Rice. 5. Orientation by incomplete moon and hours
It is appropriate to note that the accuracy in determining the sides of the horizon from the Moon and clocks is also very relative. Nevertheless, this accuracy will quite satisfy the field observer. Astronomy guides will help you understand the margin of error.
You can also navigate by the constellations, which, as it were, form various figures in the sky. To ancient astronomers, these figures resembled the shapes of animals and various objects, which is why they gave the constellations such names as Ursa, Leo, Cygnus, Eagle, Dolphin, Lyra, Crown, etc. Some constellations got their name in honor of mythical heroes and gods, for example, Hercules, Cassiopeia, etc. There are 88 constellations in the sky.
To navigate the constellations, you first need to know the starry sky, the location of the constellations, as well as when and in what part of the sky they are visible. We have already met two of the constellations. These are the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, according to which the North Star is determined. But the North Star is not the only one suitable for orientation; other stars can be used for this purpose.
Ursa Major in our latitudes is located in the northern half of the sky. In the same half of the sky, we can see the constellations Cassiopeia (outwardly resembles the letter M or W), Auriga (with the bright star Capella) and Lyra (with the bright star Vega), which are located more or less symmetrically around the Polar Star (Fig. 6). The intersection of straight mutually perpendicular lines, drawn mentally through the constellations Cassiopeia - Ursa Major and Lyra - Charioteer, gives the approximate position of the North Star. If the Big Dipper is located above the horizon in a "bucket" vertically to the North Star, as shown in Fig. 6, then the "bucket" will indicate the direction to the north; Cassiopeia at this time will be high above his head. Charioteer - to the right, to the east, and Lyra - to the left, to the west. Therefore, you can navigate the terrain even by one of the indicated constellations, if the other of them are covered by clouds or are not visible due to any other circumstances.
Rice. 6. Constellations in the northern half of the sky
However, after 6 hours, due to daily rotation Earth, the position of the constellations will be different: Lyra will approach the horizon, Ursa Major will move to the right, to the east, Cassiopeia to the left, to the west, and the Charioteer will be overhead.
Let us now turn to the southern half of the sky.
Here we will see such constellations as Orion, Taurus, Gemini, Leo, Cygnus. Due to the daily rotation of the Earth, the position of these constellations will change. Some of them will go over the horizon during the night, while others will appear over the horizon from the east. Due to the annual movement of the Earth around the Sun, the position of the constellations will be different on different days, that is, it will change throughout the year. Therefore, constellations located in the sky far from the celestial pole are visible at one time of the year and not visible at another.
In the sky, the constellation of Orion stands out beautifully in the sky, having the form of a large quadrangle, in the middle of which there are three stars in one row (Fig. 7). The upper left star of Orion is called Betelgeuse. Around midnight in December, Orion points almost due south. In January, it is located above the south point at about 10 pm.
On fig. 7 shows the location of other constellations located in the southern half of the winter sky: this is the constellation Taurus with the bright star Aldebaran, Big Dog with the brightest star in our sky - Sirius, Canis Minor with the bright star Procyon, Gemini with two bright stars - Castor and Pollux.
Gemini is located above the point of the south in December around midnight, Lesser Canis in January.
Rice. 7. Constellations in the southern half of the sky (in winter)
In spring, the constellation Leo appears in the southern part of the sky with the bright star Regulus. This constellation is shaped like a trapezoid. It can be found on the continuation of a straight line passing from the North Star through the edge of the "bucket" of the Big Dipper (Fig. 8). The constellation Leo is over the point of the south in March around midnight. In May, around midnight, the constellation Bootes with the bright star Arcturus is located above the point of the south (Fig. 8).
Rice. eight. Constellations in the southern half of the sky (spring)
In summer, in the southern side of the sky, you can easily find the constellation Cygnus with the bright star Deneb. This constellation is located near the constellation Lyra and looks like a flying bird (Fig. 9). Beneath it can be found the constellation Aquila with the bright star Altair. The constellations Cygnus and Aquila are in the south approximately during July and August around midnight. Through the constellations Eagle, Cygnus, Cassiopeia, Charioteer, Gemini passes a faint band of stars known as Milky Way.
In autumn, the southern part of the sky is occupied by the constellations Andromeda and Pegasus. The stars of Andromeda are elongated in a single line. The bright star of Andromeda (Alferap) forms a large square with the three stars of Pegasus (Fig. 9). Pegasus is located above the south point in September around midnight.
In November, the constellation Taurus, shown in fig. 7.
It is useful to remember that during the year all the stars gradually move towards the west and, therefore, in a month some constellation will be located above the point of the south no longer at midnight, but somewhat earlier. In half a month, the same constellation will appear over the south point an hour before midnight, in a month - two hours earlier, in two months - four hours earlier, etc. In the previous month, the same constellation appeared over the south point and two hours later than midnight, two months ago - four hours later than Patunochi, etc. Equinox around 23:00. The same position of the Big Dipper is observed a month later, at the end of October, but already at about 21:00, at the end of November - about 19:00, etc. During the winter solstice (December 22), the Big Dipper "ladle" takes a horizontal position at midnight, to the right of the North Star. By the end of March, on the vernal equinox, the "ladle" at midnight assumes an almost vertical position and is visible high overhead, upward from the North Star. By the time of the summer solstice (June 22), the "dipper" at midnight is again located almost horizontally, but to the left of the North Star.
Rice. nine. Constellations in the southern half of the sky (summer to autumn)
We must use every opportunity to teach students to quickly and accurately find the main constellations in the sky at different times of the night and year. Techniques for determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies, the leader must not only explain, but also be sure to show in practice. It is very important that the trainees themselves practically determine the sides of the horizon according to the methods described, only then can one count on success in learning.
It is better to demonstrate various options for determining the sides of the horizon by celestial bodies in the same place, at different positions of the luminaries, so that students can see for themselves that the results are the same.
By the way, we note that with the help of a compass and celestial bodies (the Sun, the Moon), it is also possible to solve the inverse problem - to determine the approximate time. For this you need:
1) take the azimuth to the Sun;
2) divide the azimuth by 15;
3) add 1 to the result.
The resulting number will indicate the approximate time. The error to be made here is in principle the same as for orientation by the Sun and the clock (see pages 9 and 10).
Examples. 1) Azimuth to the Sun is 195°. Decide: 195:15–13; 13+1=14 hours.
2) Azimuth to the Sun is 66°. Decide: 66:15-4,4; 4.4 + 1 = about 5 1/2 hours.
Time, however, can be determined by the heavenly bodies without a compass. Here are some approximate methods, since the definition of time is important when orienting on the ground.
During the day, you can train in determining the time according to the Sun, if you remember that the highest position of the Sun is at 13 o'clock (at noon). By noticing the position of the Sun many times at different hours of the day in a given area, one can eventually develop the skills to determine the time with an accuracy of half an hour. In everyday life, quite often, the approximate time is determined by the height of the Sun above the horizon.
At night, you can find out the time by the position of the Big Dipper. To do this, you need to outline a line in the sky - an hour “hand” passing from the Polar Star to the two extreme stars of the “bucket” of the Big Dipper, and mentally imagine a clock face in this part of the sky, the center of which will be the Polar Star (Fig. 10). Time is defined further as follows:
1) to count the time according to the celestial "hand" (in Fig. 10 it will be 7 hours);
2) take the ordinal number of the month from the beginning of the year with tenths, counting every 3 days for one tenth of the month (for example, October 15 will correspond to the number 10.5);
Rice. ten. celestial clock
3) add the first two found numbers together and multiply the sum by two [in our case it will be (7+10.5) x 2=35];
4) subtract the resulting number from the coefficient equal to 55.3 for the “arrow” of Ursa Major (55.3-35 = 20.3). The result will give the time at the moment (20 hours 20 minutes). If the total were greater than 24, then 24 must be subtracted from it.
The coefficient 55.3 is derived from the specific location of Ursa Major among other stars in the sky.
Stars of other constellations close to the North Star can also serve as arrows, but other numbers will be coefficients in such cases. For example, for the “arrow” between the North Star and the brightest star Ursa Minor after it (the lower outer corner of the “bucket”), the coefficient is 59.1. For the “arrow” between the North Star and the middle, brightest, star of the constellation Cassiopeia, the coefficient is expressed by the number 67.2. To get a more reliable result, it is advisable to determine the time for all three "hands" and take the average of the three readings.
Methods for determining the sides of the horizon using a compass and celestial bodies are the best and most reliable. Determining the sides of the horizon from various features of local objects, although less reliable, can still be useful in a certain situation. In order to make the best use of various features objects, you need to study the surrounding area and more often look closely at everyday natural phenomena. In this way, trainees develop observation skills.
In the diaries of travelers, in fiction and scientific literature, in the periodical press, in the stories of hunters and trackers, there is always valuable material regarding orientation.
The ability to extract from one's own observations and the observations of others everything that can be useful for the combat training of the trainee is one of the tasks of the teacher.
The ability to navigate by barely noticeable signs is especially developed among northern peoples. “Over the centuries, the northern peoples developed their own view of distances. Visiting a neighbor located at a distance of two hundred or three hundred kilometers is not considered a journey.
And off-road doesn't matter. In winter, the road is everywhere. Of course, you need to be able to navigate in a very monotonous landscape, and sometimes in a blizzard, which makes it impossible to distinguish anything except swirling snow. Under such conditions, any newcomer would risk his life. Only a native of the North will not go astray, guided by some almost indistinguishable signs.
Special signs must be used carefully and skillfully. Some of them give a reliable result only in certain conditions of time and place. Suitable in some conditions, they may be unsuitable in others. Sometimes the problem is solved only by the simultaneous observation of several features.
The vast majority of features are associated with the position of objects in relation to the Sun. The difference in illumination and heating by the sun usually causes certain changes on the sunny or shady side of the object. However, a number of incoming factors can sometimes violate the expected regularity, and then even well-known features will be unsuitable for orientation purposes.
It is widely believed that you can navigate by the branches of trees. It is generally believed that tree branches are more developed in a southerly direction. Meanwhile, observational experience shows that it is impossible to navigate by this sign in the forest, since the branches of trees no longer develop towards the south, but towards free space.
They say that you can navigate by stand-alone trees, but even here mistakes are often possible. First, one cannot be sure that the tree grew separately all the time.
Secondly, the formation and general configuration of the crown of a single tree is sometimes much more dependent on the prevailing winds (see below. p. 42). than from the sun, not to mention other factors affecting the growth and development of a tree. This dependence is especially well seen in the mountains, where the winds are very strong.
The method of orienting wood growth along annual rings is also well known. It is believed that these rings on the stumps of cut trees standing in the open are wider from the south than from the north. I must say, no matter how much we observed, we could not detect the indicated regularity. Turning to the specialized literature, we found the answer there. It turns out that the width of the track of wood, as well as the development of branches on trees, depends not only on the intensity of sunlight, but also on the strength and direction of the winds. Moreover, the width of the rings is uneven not only horizontally, but also vertically; therefore, the picture of the location of annual rings can change if a tree is sawn at different heights from the ground.
We deliberately stopped at these features, since they are the most popular.
Meanwhile, the facts convince us that they should be considered unreliable.
This is easy to see, you just need to observe more.
In the temperate climate zone, it is not difficult to determine the sides of the horizon by bark and lichens (moss) on trees; you just need to examine not one, but several trees. On birches, the bark is lighter and more elastic on the south side than on the north (Fig. 11). The difference in color is so striking that birch bark can be successfully navigated even in the middle of a sparse forest.
Rice. eleven. birch bark orientation
Generally speaking, the bark of many trees is somewhat rougher on the north side than on the south.
The development of the lichen mainly on the northern side of the trunk makes it possible to determine the sides of the horizon from other trees. On some of them, the lichen is noticeable at first sight, on others it is visible only upon close examination. If there is a lichen on different sides of the trunk, then on the north side it is usually more, especially near the root. Taiga hunters navigate the bark and lichens surprisingly well. However, it should be borne in mind that in winter the lichen can be covered with snow.
The experience of the war shows that the skillful use of forest signs helped to maintain a given direction and maintain the required battle formation in the forest. One unit had to go through the forest to the west on a rainy day; seeing lichens on tree trunks to their left, and trunks without lichens to their right, the soldiers quite accurately kept the direction and completed the task.
The northern slopes of wooden roofs are more covered with green-brown moss than the southern ones. Moss and mold sometimes also develop near the drainpipes located on the north side of the buildings. Moss and lichen often cover the shady sides of large stones and rocks (Fig. 12); in mountainous areas, as well as where boulder deposits are developed, this feature is common and may be useful. However, when orienting on this basis, it should be borne in mind that the development of lichen and moss in some cases depends to a much greater extent on the prevailing winds that bring rain than on location in relation to the sun.
Rice. 12. Orientation on the moss on the stone
Pine trunks are usually covered with a crust (secondary), which forms earlier on the north side of the trunk, and therefore sets higher than on the south side. This is especially clearly seen after rains, when the crust swells and turns black (Fig. 13). In addition, in hot weather, resin appears on the trunks of pines and spruces, which accumulates more on the south side of the trunks.
Rice. thirteen. Pine bark orientation
Ants make their homes usually (but not always) south of nearby trees, stumps, and bushes. The southern side of the anthill is more sloping, while the northern side is steeper (Fig. 14).
Rice. fourteen. Ant orientation
In the northern latitudes on summer nights, due to the proximity of the setting sun to the horizon, the northern side of the sky is the brightest, the southern side is the darkest. This feature is sometimes used by pilots during operations at night.
AT polar night in the Arctic, the picture is reversed: the brightest part of the sky is the southern part, the northern part is the darkest.
In the spring, on the northern outskirts of the glades in the forest, the grass grows thicker than on the southern ones; to the south of the stumps of trunks, large stones, pillars, the grass is thicker and higher than to the north (Fig. 15).
Rice. fifteen. Orientation on the grass at the stump
In summer, during prolonged hot weather, the grass to the south of these objects sometimes turns yellow and even dries, while to the north of them remains green.
Berries and fruits during the ripening period acquire color earlier on the south side.
The sunflower and the string are curious, the flowers of which are usually turned towards the sun and turn after its movement across the sky. On rainy days, this circumstance gives the observer some opportunity for rough orientation, since the flowers of these plants are not directed to the north.
In summer, the soil near large stones, individual buildings, stumps is drier on the south side than on the north; this difference is easy to notice by touch.
The letter "N" (sometimes "C") at the weather vane points to the north (Fig. 16).
Figure 10. Vane. Letter N points to north
The altars of Orthodox churches and chapels face the east, the bell towers - “from the west; the raised edge of the lower crossbar on the dome of the church points to the north, and the lowered edge to the south (Fig. 17). The altars of Lutheran churches (kirks) also face east, and the bell towers face west. The altars of the Catholic "ostels" face west.
It can be assumed that the doors of Muslim mosques and Jewish synagogues in the European part of the Soviet Union face approximately north. The kumirni facade faces south. According to the observations of travelers, exits from the yurts are made to the south.
Figure 17. Orientation on the cross on the dome of the church
It is interesting to note that conscious orientation took place during the construction of dwellings, back in the days of piled buildings. Among the Egyptians, the orientation in the construction of temples was due to strict legal provisions; the side faces of the ancient Egyptian pyramids are located in the direction of the sides of the horizon.
Clearings in large forestry enterprises (in forest dachas) are often cut almost strictly along the lines north - south and east - west.
On some topographic maps it is very visible. The forest is divided by clearings into quarters, which in the USSR are usually numbered from west to east and from north to south, so that the first number is in the northwestern corner of the farm, and the last one is in the extreme southeast (Fig. 18).
Rice. eighteen. Order of numbering of forest quarters
Quarter numbers are marked on the so-called quarter poles, set up at all intersections of glades. To do this, the upper part of each pillar is hewn in the form of faces, on which the number of the opposite quarter is burned or inscribed with paint. It is easy to figure out that the edge between two adjacent faces with the smallest numbers in this case will indicate the direction to the north (Fig. 19).
Figure 19. Orientation by quarter column
This feature can be followed in many other European countries, such as Germany, Poland. It is not superfluous, however, to know that in Germany and Poland the forest inventory numbers the quarters in reverse order, that is, from east to west. But from this method of determining the point of the north will not change. In some countries, block numbers are often indicated by inscriptions on stones, on boards attached to trees, and finally also on poles.
It should be remembered that, for economic reasons, clearings can be cut in other directions (for example, parallel to the direction of the highway or depending on the relief). In small tracts of forest and in the mountains, this is most often the case. Nevertheless, in this case, for a rough orientation, the indicated sign can sometimes be useful. During combat operations in the forest, the numbers on the quarter posts are also interesting in another respect: they can be used for target designation. Clearings are also suitable for determining the sides of the horizon, which are usually carried out against the direction of the prevailing wind. You can learn more about all this in courses on forest management and forestry.
The presence of snow creates additional signs for orientation. In winter, snow sticks to buildings more on the north side and thaws faster on the south side. Snow in a ravine, hollow, pit on the north side melts earlier than on the south; corresponding thawing can be observed even on the tracks of a person or animals. In the mountains, snow melts faster on the southern slopes. On hillocks and hillocks, melting is also more intense on the south side (Fig. 20).
Rice. 20.Orientation by snowmelt in depressions and on hills
On the slopes facing south, in spring, clearings appear the faster, the steeper these slopes: each extra degree of slope of the terrain to the south is, as it were, equivalent to the approach of the terrain by one degree to the equator. The roots of trees and stumps are freed from snow earlier on the south side. On the shady (northern) side of objects, snow lasts longer in spring. At the beginning of spring, near the southern side of buildings, hillocks, and stones, the snow has time to thaw a little and move away, while on the northern side it is tightly adjacent to these objects (Fig. 21).
Rice. 21. Orientation by melting snow on a stone
At the northern edge of the forest, the soil is released from under the snow, sometimes 10–15 days later than at the southern edge.
In March-April, in connection with the melting of snow, one can navigate along the holes elongated to the south (Fig. 22), which surround tree trunks, stumps and poles standing in an open area; on the shaded (northern) side of the holes, there is no growth and a scallop of snow is visible. Holes are formed from solar heat reflected and distributed by these objects.
Rice. 22. Hole orientation
It is also possible to determine the sides of the horizon by holes in the fall, if the fallen snow melted from the sun's rays. These holes should not be confused with the "concentric depressions formed" by blowing in a blizzard, such as around posts or stumps.
In spring, on the slopes facing the sun, the snow mass seems to “bristle”, forming peculiar protrusions (“thorns”) separated by depressions (Fig. 23). The protrusions are parallel to each other, inclined at the same angle to the ground and directed towards noon. The angle of inclination of the protrusions corresponds to the angle of the sun at its highest point. These protrusions and depressions are especially clearly visible on slopes covered with polluted snow. Sometimes they also occur on horizontal or slightly inclined areas of the earth's surface. It is easy to guess that they are formed under the influence of the heat of the midday rays of the sun.
Rice. 23. Orientation on the snow "spikes" and depressions on the slope
Observing slopes that are differently positioned in relation to the sun's rays can also help you navigate the terrain. In spring, vegetation develops earlier and faster on the southern slopes, and later and more slowly on the northern slopes. Under normal conditions, the southern slopes are generally drier, less grassy, and the processes of washout and erosion are more pronounced on them. However, this is not always the case. The correct decision of the issue often requires the consideration of many factors.
It has been noted that in many mountainous regions of Siberia, the slopes facing south are more gentle, since they are freed from snow earlier, dry earlier and are more easily destroyed by rain and snow melt water flowing down them. The northern slopes, on the contrary, stay under the snow cover longer, are better moistened and less destroyed, so they are steeper. This phenomenon is so typical here that in some areas it is possible to accurately determine the cardinal points from the shape of the slopes on a rainy day.
In desert areas, the moisture that falls on the southern slopes evaporates quickly, so the wind blows the detrital material on these slopes. On the northern slopes, protected from the direct influence of the sun, the waving is less pronounced; here, mainly physico-chemical processes take place, accompanied by a transformation in the composition of rocks and minerals. Such a character of the slopes is observed on the borders of the Gobi Desert, in the Sahara, on many ridges of the Tien Shan system.
Determining the sides of the horizon directly by the wind is possible only in areas where its direction is constant for a long time. In this sense, the trade winds, monsoons and breezes have more than once rendered a service to man. In Antarctica, on the land of Adélie, the south-southeast wind blows so constantly that the members of the Mausson expedition (1911-1914) in a blizzard and in complete darkness unmistakably oriented along the wind; when traveling inland, travelers preferred to navigate by the wind, and not by the compass, the accuracy of which was greatly influenced by proximity magnetic pole.
It is more convenient to navigate by the results of the action of the wind on the terrain; to do this, you only need to know the direction of the wind prevailing in the area.
Traces of the work of the wind are especially clearly visible in the mountains, but in winter they are clearly visible on the plains.
The direction of the prevailing wind can be judged by the slope of the trunks of most trees, especially on the edges and separate trees, in which the slope is more noticeable; in the steppes of Bessarabia, for example, the trees are inclined to the southeast. To the southeast, all the olive trees in Palestine are tilted. Under the influence of the prevailing winds, a flag-shaped form of trees is sometimes formed due to the fact that on the windward side of the trees the buds dry out and the branches do not develop. Such "natural weathercocks", as Charles Darwin called them, can be seen on the Cape Verde Islands, in Normandy, Palestine and other places. It is curious to note that on the Cape Verde Islands there are trees in which the top, under the influence of the trade wind, is bent at right angles to the trunk. Windblows are also oriented; in the Subpolar Urals, for example, due to strong northwestern winds, they tend to be directed to the southeast. The sides of wooden structures, poles, fences exposed to the influence of the prevailing wind quickly collapse and differ in their color from other sides. In places where the wind blows in one particular direction for most of the year, its grinding activity is very sharply affected. In weathering rocks (clays, limestones), parallel furrows are formed, elongated in the direction of the prevailing wind and separated by sharp ridges. On the surface of the limestone plateau of the Libyan Desert, such furrows, polished by sand, reach a depth of 1 m and are extended in the direction of the dominant wind from north to south. In the same way, niches are often formed in soft rocks, over which harder layers hang in the form of cornices (Fig. 24).
Rice. 24. Orientation by the degree of weathering of rocks (the arrow indicates the direction of the prevailing wind)
In the mountains Central Asia, the Caucasus, the Urals, the Carpathians, the Alps and in the deserts, the destructive work of the wind is very well expressed. Extensive material on this issue can be found in geology courses.
In Western Europe (in France, in Germany), the winds that bring bad weather affect the northwestern side of objects most of all.
The impact of the wind on the slopes of the mountains affects differently depending on the position of the slopes in relation to the prevailing wind.
In the mountains, steppes and tundra, the prevailing winter winds that move snow (blizzards, blizzards) have a great influence on the terrain. The windward slopes of the mountains are usually slightly covered with snow or completely without snow, the plants on them are damaged, the soil freezes heavily and deeply. On the leeward slopes, on the contrary, snow accumulates.
When the area is covered with snow, then other signs for orientation can be found on it, created by the work of the wind. Particularly suitable for this purpose are some surface snow formations that occur in various conditions relief and vegetation. Near cliffs and ditches, on the walls facing away from the wind, a beak-shaped snow peak forms from above, sometimes curved downwards (Fig. 25).
Rice. 25. Scheme of snow accumulation near cliffs and ditches (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)
At steep walls facing the wind, due to the swirl of snow at the base, a blowing chute is obtained (Fig. 26).
Rice. 26. Scheme of snow accumulation near steep walls facing the wind (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)
At small individual elevations (hill, mound, haystack, etc.), on the leeward side behind a small blowing chute, a flat tongue-like snowdrift is deposited with a steep slope facing the hill and gradually thinning in the opposite direction: on the windward side, with sufficient steepness, a blowing chute is formed . On equally inclined low ridges, such as a railway embankment, snow is deposited only at the base of the ridge, and is blown off from the top (Fig. 27). However, a snowdrift forms at the top of high equally inclined ridges.
Rice. 27. Scheme of snow accumulation near an equally inclined low ridge (arrows indicate the movement of wind jets)
Natural snow accumulations can also be created near trees, stumps, bushes and other small objects. Near them, a triangular deposit is usually formed on the leeward side, elongated in the direction of the wind. These wind drifts allow you to navigate along them in a sparse forest or in a field.
As a result of the movement of snow by the wind, various surface formations are created in the form of snow accumulations transverse and longitudinal with respect to the wind. Transverse formations include the so-called snow waves (sastrugi) and snow ripples, while longitudinal formations include snow dunes and tongue accumulations. The most interesting of these are snow waves, which are a very common form of snow surface. They are common on the dense surface of snow crust, on the ice of rivers and lakes. In color, these snow waves are white, which differs from the crust or ice underlying them. “Snow waves on the vast plains are widely used as a guide on the way. Knowing the direction of the wind that created the waves, you can use the location of the waves as a compass on the way.
S.V. Obruchev notes that in Chukotka he had to navigate precisely by sastrugi during the journey at night. In the Arctic, sastrugi are very often used as landmarks along the way.
Hoarfrost (long ice and snow strands and brushes) forms on tree branches mainly from the side of the prevailing wind.
The uneven overgrowth of the Baltic lakes is characteristic as a result of the influence of the prevailing winds. The leeward, western shores of the lakes and their bays, directed to the west, overgrown with peat and turned into peat bogs. On the contrary, the eastern, windward, wave-cut shores are free from thickets.
Knowing the direction of the wind constantly blowing in a given area, the sides of the horizon can be determined by the shape of dunes or dunes (Fig. 28). As is known, accumulations of sand of this type are usually short ridges, generally elongated perpendicular to the direction of the prevailing wind. The convex part of the dune is turned towards the wind, while its concave part is leeward: the "horns" of the dune are extended in the direction where the wind blows. The slopes of dunes and dunes facing the prevailing wind are gentle (up to 15°), leeward - steep (up to 40°).
Rice. 28. Orientation:
A - along the dunes; B - along the dunes (arrows indicate the direction of the prevailing wind)
Their windward slopes are compacted by the wind, the grains of sand are tightly pressed against one another; lee slopes - crumbling, loose. Under the influence of the wind on the windward slopes, sand ripples often form in the form of parallel ridges, often branching and perpendicular to the direction of the wind; there are no sand ripples on the leeward slopes. Dunes and dunes can sometimes connect with each other and form dune chains, that is, parallel ridges, elongated transversely to the direction of the prevailing winds. The height of dunes and dunes ranges from 3–5 m to 30–40 m.
There are sand accumulations in the form of ridges, elongated in the direction of the prevailing winds.
These are the so-called ridge sands; their rounded ridges are parallel to the wind; they do not have a division of slopes into steep and gentle ones.
The height of such longitudinal dunes can reach several tens of meters, and the length - several kilometers.
Dune formations are usually found along the shores of the seas, large lakes, rivers, and in deserts. In deserts, longitudinal dunes are more widespread than transverse ones. Barchans, as a rule, are found only in deserts. Sand accumulations of one type or another are found in the Baltic States, in the Trans-Caspian deserts, near Aral Sea, near the lake. Balkhash and elsewhere.
Numerous sand formations in the deserts North Africa, Central Asia, Australia.
In our Central Asian deserts (Kara-Kum, Kyzyl-Kum), where northern winds are dominant, ridge sands stretch most of all in the meridional direction, and dune chains - in the latitudinal direction. In Xinjiang (Western China), where easterly winds prevail, dune chains are elongated approximately in the meridional direction.
In the deserts of North Africa (Sahara, Libyan Desert), ridge sands are also oriented in accordance with the direction of the prevailing winds. If you mentally follow in the direction from the Mediterranean Sea into the mainland, then at first the sand ridges are oriented approximately along the meridian, and then more and more deviate to the west and take on a latitudinal direction near the borders of Sudan. Due to strong summer winds blowing from the south, near the latitudinal ridges (near the borders of Sudan), the northern slope is steep, and the southern slope is gentle. Sand ridges here are often traced for hundreds of kilometers.
In the Australian deserts, sand ridges stretch in the form of many parallel, slightly winding lines, separated from one another by an average distance of about 400 m. These ridges also reach a length of several hundred kilometers. The stretch of the sand ridges exactly corresponds to the directions of the prevailing winds in different parts of Australia. In the southeastern deserts of Australia, the ridges are elongated meridionally, the northern ones deviate to the northwest, and in the deserts of the western part of Australia they stretch in a latitudinal direction.
In the southwestern part of the Indian Thar Desert, the dune ridges strike northeast, but in its northeastern part, the general direction of the dunes is northwest.
For orientation purposes, small sand accumulations that form near various obstacles (surface roughness, block, stone, bush, etc.) can also be used.
Near the bushes, for example, there is a sandy spit, elongated with a sharp edge in the direction of the wind. Near impenetrable barriers, sand sometimes forms small mounds and blowing troughs like snow, but the process is more complicated here and depends on the height of the barrier, the size of the grains of sand, and the strength of the wind.
The natural arrangement of sand accumulations in deserts is perfectly visible from an airplane, on aerial photographs, and topographic maps. Sandy ridges sometimes make it easier for pilots to endure right direction flight.
In some areas, you can also navigate by other signs that have a narrowly local significance. Especially many of these signs can be observed among the vegetation covering the slopes of various exposures.
On the northern slopes of the dunes, south of Liepaja (Libava), plants of wet places (moss, blueberries, lingonberries, crowberry) grow, while on the southern slopes dry-loving plants grow (moss moss, heather); on the southern slopes the soil cover is thin, sand is exposed in places.
In the southern Urals, in the ashes of the forest-steppe, the southern slopes of the mountains are stony and covered with grass, while the northern ones are covered with soft sediment and overgrown with birch forests. In the south of the Buguruslan region, the southern slopes are covered with meadows, and the northern slopes are covered with forest.
In the basin of the Upper Angara River, steppe areas are confined to the southern slopes; other slopes are covered with taiga forest. In Altai, the northern slopes are also much richer in forest.
The north-facing slopes of the river valleys between Yakutsk and the mouth of the Mai are densely covered with larch and almost devoid of grass cover; the slopes facing south are covered with pine or typical steppe vegetation.
In the mountains of the Western Caucasus, pine grows on the southern slopes, and beech, spruce, and fir grow on the northern slopes. In the western part of the North Caucasus, beech dresses the northern slopes, and oak dresses the southern ones. In the southern part of Ossetia, spruce, fir, yew, beech grow on the northern slopes, and sssna and oak grow on the southern slopes. “Throughout Transcaucasia, starting from the valley of the Riopa River and ending with the valley of the tributary of the Kura in Azerbaijan, oak forests settle with such constancy on the southern slopes that the countries of the world can be accurately determined by the distribution of oak on foggy days without a compass.”
ia Far East, in the South Ussuri Territory, the velvet tree is found almost exclusively on the northern slopes, the oak dominates on the southern slopes. A coniferous forest grows on the western slopes of Snkhote-Alin, and a mixed forest grows on the eastern slopes.
AT Kursk region, in the Lgovsky district, oak forests grow on the southern slopes, birch prevails on the northern slopes.
Oak is thus very characteristic of the southern slopes.
In Transbaikalia, at the height of summer, permafrost was observed on the northern slopes at a depth of 10 cm, while on the southern slopes it was at a depth of 2–3 m.
The southern slopes of the bulgunnyakhs (rounded, dome-shaped hills up to 30–50 m high are composed of ice inside, and are covered with frozen soil from above, are found in the north of Asia and North America) - usually steep, overgrown with grass or complicated by landslides, the northern ones are gentle, often forested.
Vineyards are bred on the slopes facing south.
In mountains with pronounced landforms, forests and meadows on the southern slopes usually rise higher than on the northern ones. In temperate and high latitudes in the mountains covered with eternal snow, the snow line. On the southern slopes it is higher than on the northern slopes; however, there may be deviations from this rule.
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The number of special signs by which you can navigate is not limited to the examples listed - there are many more. But even the above material clearly shows what an abundance of the simplest signs an observer has when orienting himself on the ground.
Some of these features are more reliable and applicable everywhere, others are less reliable and suitable only in certain conditions of time and place.
One way or another, all of them must be used skillfully and thoughtfully.
Notes:
Azimuth- a word of Arabic origin ( orassumut), meaning paths, roads.
The hours by which we live, by a government decree from June 16, 1930, were transferred to the USSR 1 hour ahead compared to solar time; therefore, noon comes with us not from 12, but at 13 o'clock (the so-called daylight savings time).
Bubnov I., Kremp A., Folimonov S., Military topography, ed. 4th, Military Publishing, 1953
Nabokov M. and Vorontsov-Velyaminov B., Astronomy, textbook for the 10th grade of high school, ed. 4th, 1940
Kazakov S., A course in spherical astronomy, ed. 2nd, Gostekhizdat, 1940
You can divide the radius of the moon into six equal parts, the result will be the same.
Kazakov S. Course in spherical astronomy, ed. 2nd, 1940; Nabokov M. and Vorontsov- Velyaminov B., Astronomy, textbook for the 10th grade of secondary school, ed. 4 e. 1940
Schukin I., General land morphology, vol. II, GONTI, 1938, p. 277.
Tkachenko M.,- General forestry, Goslestekhizdat. 1939, pp. 93–94.
Kosnachev K., Bulguniyakha,"Nature" No. 11. 1953, p. 112.
