Russian Turkish war of 1829 1830. Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829). Balkan theater of operations

Plan
Introduction
1 War statistics
2 Background and cause
3 Military action in 1828
3.1 In the Balkans
3.2 In Transcaucasia

4 Military action in 1829
4.1 In the European theater
4.2 In Asia

5 most striking episodes of the war
6 War heroes
7 Outcomes of the war
Bibliography
Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829) Introduction The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 is a military conflict between the Russian and Ottoman Empires that began in April 1828 due to the fact that Porta, after the Battle of Navarino (October 1827), in violation of the Akkerman Convention, closed the Bosphorus Strait. In a broader context, this war was the result of the struggle between the great powers caused by the Greek War of Independence (1821-1830) from the Ottoman Empire. During the war, Russian troops made a number of campaigns in Bulgaria, the Caucasus and the north-east of Anatolia, after which the Porte sued for peace. 1. War statistics 2. Background and reason The Greeks of the Peloponnese, who rebelled against Ottoman rule in the spring of 1821, were aided by France and England; Russia under Alexander I took a position of non-intervention, but was in alliance with the first according to the agreements of the Aachen Congress ( see also Holy Alliance).With the accession of Nicholas I, the position of St. Petersburg on the Greek question began to change; but feuds began between the former allies over the division of the possessions of the Ottoman Empire; taking advantage of this, the Port declared itself free from agreements with Russia and expelled Russian subjects from their possessions. The port invited Persia to continue the war with Russia and forbade Russian ships from entering the Bosphorus. Sultan Mahmud II tried to give the war a religious character; wanting to lead an army to defend Islam, he moved his capital to Adrianople and ordered to strengthen the Danube fortresses. In view of such actions of the Porte, Emperor Nicholas I on April 14 (26), 1828 declared war on the Porte and ordered his troops, who until then had been stationed in Bessarabia, to enter the Ottoman possessions. 3. Military operations in 1828 3.1. in the Balkans Russia had a 95,000th Danube army under the command of P. Kh. Wittgenstein and a 25,000th Separate Caucasian Corps under the command of General I.F. Paskevich. They were opposed by Turkish armies with a total strength of up to 200 thousand people. (150 thousand on the Danube and 50 thousand in the Caucasus); only 10 ships that were in the Bosphorus survived from the fleet. The Danubian army was tasked with occupying Moldova, Wallachia and Dobruja, as well as capturing Shumla and Varna. Bessarabia was chosen as the basis for Wittgenstein's actions; the principalities (greatly depleted by Turkish rule and the drought of 1827) were supposed to be occupied only to restore order in them and protect them from enemy invasion, as well as to protect the right wing of the army in case of Austrian intervention. Wittgenstein, having crossed the Lower Danube, had to move on Varna and Shumla, cross the Balkans and advance towards Constantinople; a special detachment was supposed to make a landing at Anapa and, upon mastering it, join the main forces. On April 25, the 6th infantry corps entered the principalities, and its vanguard, under the command of General Fyodor Geismar, headed for Lesser Wallachia; On May 1, the 7th Infantry Corps besieged the fortress of Brailov; The 3rd Infantry Corps was supposed to cross the Danube between Izmail and Reni, near the village of Satunovo, but the construction of a gati through a lowland flooded with water took about a month, during which the Turks fortified the right bank against the crossing point, placing up to 10 thousand soldiers in their position. troops. On May 27, in the morning, in the presence of the sovereign, the crossing of Russian troops on ships and boats began. Despite fierce fire, they reached the right bank, and when the advanced Turkish trenches were taken, the enemy fled from the rest. On May 30, the fortress of Isaccea surrendered. Having separated the detachments for the taxation of Machin, Girsov and Tulcha, the main forces of the 3rd Corps reached Karasu on June 6, while their vanguard, under the command of General Fyodor Ridiger, overlaid Kyustendzhi. The siege of Brailov quickly moved forward, and the head of the siege troops, Grand Duke Mikhail Pavlovich, in a hurry to put an end to this matter, so that the 7th Corps could join the 3rd, decided on June 3 to storm the fortress; the assault was repulsed, but when 3 days later the surrender of Machin followed, the commandant Brailov, seeing himself cut off and having lost hope of help, also surrendered (June 7). At the same time, a sea expedition to Anapa took place. At Karasu, the 3rd Corps stood for 17 whole days, since no more than 20 thousand remained in it for the allocation of garrisons to the occupied fortresses, as well as other detachments. Only with the addition of some parts of the 7th Corps and with the arrival of the 4th Reserve. cavalry corps, the main forces of the army would reach 60 thousand; but even this was not recognized as sufficient for decisive action, and in early June it was ordered to march from Little Russia to the Danube 2nd infantry. corps (about 30 thousand); in addition, guards regiments (up to 25 thousand) were already on their way to the theater of war. After the fall of Brailov, the 7th corps was sent to join the 3rd; General Roth, with two infantry and one cavalry brigades, was ordered to besiege Silistria, and General Borozdin, with six infantry and four cavalry regiments, was ordered to guard Wallachia. Even before the fulfillment of all these orders, the 3rd Corps moved to Bazardzhik, which, according to the information received, was gathering significant Turkish forces. Between June 24 and 26, Bazardzhik was occupied, after which two vanguards were advanced: Ridiger - to Kozludzha and General-Admiral Count Pavel Sukhtelen - to Varna, to which a detachment of Lieutenant General Alexander Ushakov from Tulcha was also sent. In early July, the 7th joined the 3rd Corps; but their combined forces did not exceed 40 thousand; it was still impossible to count on the assistance of the fleet stationed at Anapa; siege parks were partly located near the named fortress, partly stretched from Brailov. Meanwhile, the garrisons of Shumla and Varna gradually increased; Ridiger's vanguard was constantly disturbed by the Turks, who tried to interrupt his communications with the main forces. Considering the state of affairs, Wittgenstein decided to confine himself to Varna with one observation (for which Ushakov’s detachment was appointed), with the main forces to move to Shumla, try to lure the seraskir out of the fortified camp and, having defeated him, turn to the siege of Varna. On July 8, the main forces approached Shumle and surrounded it from the east side, strongly fortifying their positions in order to interrupt the possibility of communication with Varna. Decisive actions against Shumla were supposed to be postponed until the arrival of the guards. However, our main forces soon found themselves, as it were, in a blockade, since the enemy developed partisan actions in their rear and on the flanks, which greatly hampered the arrival of transports and foraging. Meanwhile, Ushakov’s detachment also could not hold out against the superior strength of the garrison of Varna and retreated to Derventkiy. Boss landing troops Prince Alexander Menshikov, having attached Ushakov's detachment to himself, on July 22 also approached the named fortress, surrounded it from the north, and on August 6 began siege work. The detachment of General Roth, who stood at Silistria, could not do anything due to insufficient forces and lack of siege artillery. Under Shumla, things also did not move forward, and although the attacks of the Turks undertaken on August 14 and 25 were repelled, this did not lead to any results. Count Wittgenstein already wanted to retreat to Yeni Bazaar, but Emperor Nicholas I, who was with the army, opposed this. In general, by the end of August, the circumstances in the European theater of war were very unfavorable for the Russians: the siege of Varna, due to the weakness of our forces, did not promise success; illnesses raged among the troops stationed near Shumla, and the horses fell in masses from starvation; meanwhile, the impudence of the Turkish partisans was increasing. At the same time, upon the arrival of new reinforcements in Shumla, the Turks attacked the city of Pravoda, occupied by a detachment of Admiral General Benkendorf, however, they were repulsed. General Loggin Roth barely held his ground at Silistria, whose garrison had also received reinforcements. Gene. Kornilov, who was watching Zhurzha, had to fight off attacks from there and from Ruschuk, where the enemy's forces also increased. Although the weak detachment of General Geismar (about 6 thousand), although he held on to his position between Calafat and Craiova, he could not prevent the Turkish parties from invading the northwestern part of Lesser Wallachia. The enemy, having concentrated more than 25 thousand at Viddin and Calafat, strengthened the garrisons of Rakhiv and Nikopol. Thus, the Turks everywhere had an advantage in forces, but, fortunately, did not take advantage of this. Meanwhile, in mid-August, the Guards Corps began to approach the Lower Danube, followed by the 2nd Infantry. The latter was ordered to relieve the detachment of Roth at Silistria, which was then drawn under Shumla; the guard is sent to Varna. For the proceeds of this fortress, 30 thousand Turkish corps of Omer-Vrione arrived from the Kamchik River. Several unsuccessful attacks followed from both sides, and when Varna surrendered on September 29, Omer began to hastily retreat, pursued by the detachment of Prince Eugene of Württemberg, and headed for Aidos, where the vizier's troops had withdrawn even earlier. Wittgenstein continued to stand under Shumla; his troops, for the allocation of reinforcements to Varna and other detachments, had only about 15 thousand; but on the 20th of Sept. the 6th corps approached him. Silistria continued to hold out, since the 2nd Corps, having no siege artillery, could not take decisive action. Meanwhile, the Turks continued to threaten Wallachia Minor; but the brilliant victory won by Geismar near the village of Boelesti put an end to their attempts. After the fall of Varna, the ultimate goal of the 1828 campaign was the conquest of Silistria, and the 3rd Corps was sent to it. The rest of the troops stationed near Shumla were to winter in the occupied part of the country; the guards returned to Russia. However, the enterprise against Silistria, due to the lack of shells in the siege artillery, was not realized, and the fortress was subjected to only a 2-day bombardment. After the retreat of the Russian troops from Shumla, the vizier decided to capture Varna again and on November 8 moved to Pravoda, but, having met with a rebuff from the detachment occupying the city, returned to Shumla. In January 1829, a strong Turkish detachment raided the rear of the 6th Corps, captured Kozludzha and attacked Bazardzhik, but failed there; and after that, the Russian troops drove the enemy out of Kozludzha; in the same month the fortress of Turno was taken. The rest of the winter passed quietly. 3.2. In Transcaucasia A separate Caucasian corps began operations somewhat later; he was instructed to invade the borders of Asian Turkey. In Asian Turkey, in 1828, things were going well for Russia: Kars was taken on June 23, and after a temporary suspension of hostilities due to the appearance of the plague, Paskevich conquered the Akhalkalaki fortress on July 23, and in early August approached Akhaltsikhe , who surrendered on the 16th of the same month. Then the fortresses of Atskhur and Ardagan surrendered without resistance. At the same time, separate Russian detachments took Poti and Bayazet. 4. Hostilities in 1829 During the winter, both sides actively prepared for the resumption of hostilities. By the end of April 1829, the Porte managed to bring its forces in the European theater of war to 150,000 and, in addition, could count on the 40,000th Albanian militia assembled by the Scutari Pasha Mustafa. The Russians could counter these forces with no more than 100,000. In Asia, the Turks had up to 100,000 troops against Paskevich's 20,000. Only the Russian Black Sea Fleet (about 60 ships of various ranks) had a decisive superiority over the Turkish; yes, the squadron of Count Heiden (35 ships) was also cruising in the Archipelago. 4.1. in the European theater Appointed to the place of Wittgenstein as commander-in-chief, Count Dibich actively set about replenishing the army and organizing its economic part. Having set out to cross the Balkans, he turned to the assistance of the fleet to provide troops with provisions on the other side of the mountains and asked Admiral Greig to take possession of any harbor convenient for delivering supplies. The choice fell on Sizopol, which, after taking it, was occupied by a 3,000-strong Russian garrison. The attempt made by the Turks at the end of March to capture this city again was not successful, and then they limited themselves to blockading it from a dry path. As for the Ottoman fleet, it left the Bosporus at the beginning of May, however, it kept closer to its shores; at the same time, two Russian warships were inadvertently surrounded by him; of these, one (the 36-gun frigate Raphael) surrendered, and the other, the brig Mercury under the command of Kazarsky, managed to fight off the enemy ships pursuing him and leave. by sea to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Dibich, in order to ensure his rear before the movement for the Balkans, decided first of all to seize Silistria; but the late onset of spring delayed him, so that only at the end of April he could send the necessary forces across the Danube. On May 7, siege work began, and on May 9 new troops crossed to the right bank, bringing the forces of the siege corps to 30 thousand. Around the same time, the vizier Reshid Pasha opened offensive operations in order to return Varna; however, after stubborn dealings with the troops of Gen. The company at Eski-Arnautlar and Pravod, the Turks again retreated to Shumla. In the middle of May, the vizier with his main forces again moved to Varna. Having received news of this, Dibich, leaving one part of his troops at Silistria, with the other went to the rear of the vizier. This maneuver led to the defeat (May 30) of the Ottoman army near the village of Kulevchi. Although after such a decisive victory one could count on taking Shumla, however, it was preferable to limit oneself to observing it. Meanwhile, the siege of Silistria went on successfully, and on June 18 this fortress surrendered. Following that, the 3rd Corps was sent to Shumla, the rest of the Russian troops, intended for the Trans-Balkan campaign, began to secretly converge on Devno and Pravodam. Meanwhile, the vizier, convinced that Dibich would besiege Shumla, gathered troops there from wherever possible - even from the Balkan passages and from coastal points on the Black Sea. The Russian army, meanwhile, was advancing towards Kamchik and after a series of battles both on this river and during further movement in the mountains of the 6th and 7th corps, about mid-July, they crossed the Balkan Range, capturing two fortresses along the way, Misevria and Ahiolo , and the important harbor of Bourgas. This success, however, was overshadowed by the strong development of diseases, from which the troops noticeably melted. The vizier finally found out where the main forces of the Russian army were heading and sent reinforcements to the pashas Abdurakhman and Yusuf who were acting against them; but it was already too late: the Russians were moving forward uncontrollably; On July 13, the city of Aydos was occupied by them, on 14 Karnabat, and on 31 Dibich attacked a 20 thousand Turkish corps concentrated near the city of Slivno, defeated it and interrupted communication between Shumla and Adrianople. location of the local population and the complete demoralization of the Turkish troops, he decided to move to Adrianople, hoping to force the Sultan to peace with his appearance in the second capital of the Ottoman Empire. he offered to surrender. The next day, part of the Russian troops was brought into the city, where large stocks of weapons and other things were found. Plenipotentiaries came to Dibich's main apartment to negotiate peace. However, these negotiations were deliberately delayed by the Turks, counting on the help of England and Austria; meanwhile, the Russian army was melting more and more, and danger threatened it from all sides. The difficulty of the situation increased even more when the Pasha Mustafa of Scutaria, who until then had evaded participation in hostilities, now led a 40,000-strong Albanian army to the theater of war. In mid-August, he occupied Sofia and advanced the vanguard to Philippopolis. Dibich, however, was not embarrassed by the difficulty of his position: he announced to the Turkish representatives that he would give them until September 1 to receive final instructions, and if peace was not concluded after that, hostilities on our part would resume. To reinforce these demands, several detachments were sent to Constantinople and a connection was established between them and the squadrons of Greig and Heiden. Adjutant General Kiselev, who commanded the Russian troops in the principalities, was sent an order: leaving part of his forces to guard Wallachia, with the rest to cross the Danube and move against Mustafa. The offensive of the Russian detachments to Constantinople had its effect: the alarmed sultan begged the Prussian envoy to go as an intermediary to Dibich. His arguments, supported by letters from other ambassadors, prompted the commander in chief to stop the movement of troops to the Turkish capital. Then the authorized Ports agreed to all the conditions proposed by him, and on September 2 the Adrianople peace was signed. Despite the fact, Mustafa of Scutaria continued his offensive, and in early September his vanguard approached Haskioy, and from there moved to Demotika. The 7th Corps was sent to meet him. Meanwhile, Adjutant General Kiselyov, having crossed the Danube at Rahov, went to Gabrov to act on the flank of the Albanians, and Geismar's detachment was sent through Orkhanie to threaten their rear. Having defeated the side detachment of the Albanians, Geismar occupied Sofia in mid-September, and Mustafa, having learned about it, returned to Philippopolis. Here he remained part of the winter, but after the complete devastation of the city and its environs, he returned to Albania. The detachments of Kiselev and Geismar already at the end of September retreated to Vratsa, and in early November the last troops of the Russian main army set out from Adrianople. 4.2. In Asia In the Asian theater of war, the campaign of 1829 opened in a difficult situation: the inhabitants of the occupied regions were every minute ready for a rebellion; already at the end of February, a strong Turkish corps besieged Akhaltsikhe, and the Pasha of Trabzon with an eight thousandth detachment moved to Guria to assist the uprising that broke out there. The detachments sent by Paskevich, however, managed to drive the Turks away from Akhaltsikhe and from Guria. But in mid-May, the enemy took offensive actions on a larger scale: the Erzurum seraskir Gadzhi-Salekh, having collected up to 70 thousand, decided to go to Kars; the pasha of Trabzon with 30 thousand was to invade Guria again, and the pasha of Van - to take Bayazet. Paskevich, informed of this, decided to warn the enemy. Having collected about 18 thousand with 70 guns, he crossed the Saganlug mountain range, on June 19 and 20 he defeated the troops of Gakki Pasha and Haji Saleh at the Kainly and Millidyut tracts, and then approached Erzerum, which surrendered on June 27. At the same time, the Pasha of Van, after 2 days of desperate attacks on Bayazet, was repulsed, retreated, and his hordes dispersed. The actions of the Pasha of Trabzon were also unsuccessful; Russian troops were already on their way to Trebizond and captured the Bayburt fortress. 5. The brightest episodes of the war

The feat of the brig "Mercury" The transition of the Transdanubian Cossacks to the side of the Russian Empire6. War heroes

Alexander Kazarsky - captain of the brig "Mercury"7. Results of the war On September 2 (14), 1829, the Peace of Adrianople was signed between the two parties:

Ottoman Empire

Bibliography:

Urlanis B. Ts.

Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829

For the first half of the XIX century. increased significantly urban population and in the Crimea. So, in 1850 it reached 85 thousand people. The proportion of the urban population in comparison with the entire population of Crimea increased to 27%.

The development of the country required the availability of free workers. In order to meet the needs of trade and the developing merchant fleet on the Black and Azov Seas, the government is taking measures to create a cadre of sailors free from serfdom. The Decree on Merchant Shipping of 1830 permitted the establishment of workshops for free sailors at the ports of these seas. Since 1834, in the coastal cities and villages of the Tauride, Yekaterinoslav and Kherson provinces, including Sevastopol, societies of free sailors were founded. The decree of the tsarist government explained that such societies should be created from the settlers, philistines released to freedom, and raznochintsy “with the provision of those who entered the sailors with the right to be exempted from all monetary and personal duties; moreover, people enrolled in this rank are charged with the duty to serve in the Black Sea (merchant - Ed.) Fleet for five years to acquire the necessary knowledge.

Since 1840, the number of those wishing to become sailors has been increasing. For ten years, the number of free sailors in the Yekaterinoslav province increased to 7422, in the Kherson province - 4675, in the Tauride province - up to 659 people6.

Skippers, navigators and builders of merchant ships were trained by the Merchant Shipping School, founded in 1834 in Kherson. The tsarist government in every way contributed to the development of the bourgeois class in the cities. Thus, the merchants and artisans of Sevastopol were given benefits for ten years, starting from January 1, 1838. guild service"8. The decree prescribed that merchants from other provinces who were newly registered as merchants of the city, if they built their own houses, did not pay for the guilds for three years from the time the construction was completed. For the next seven years, taxes were to be paid at half the rate. A preferential procedure for the assignment of guild rights was established; depending on the value of the house, an appropriate category was awarded, namely: “for a house worth at least 8 thousand rubles, - the right of a third, at least 20 thousand rubles. - the second and not less than 50 thousand rubles. - the first guild "9. Merchants who built plants or factories in Sevastopol were given the right not to pay for the guilds for ten years after the completion of construction. Regarding the artisans who settled in the city, it was prescribed that during the years of grace, from 1838 to 1848, they were given relief in personal and financial city duties. Just like merchants, craftsmen who built their own houses, after the completion of construction, a privilege was granted for ten years10. In 1831 there were 20 merchants in the city, in 1833 there were already 73, and in 1848 there were 83 merchants11. Merchants conducted retail trade in groceries, manufactory and other goods. A significant part of them were engaged in the quartermaster supply of various goods to the military department (flour, meat, cereals, firewood, etc.). Sevastopol merchants traded in salt, fish and other goods.

The development of the economy of southern Russia, including the Crimea, required the establishment of regular communications between the ports of the Black Sea. The shipping company on the Black Sea was founded back in 1828. The first commercial steamship "Odessa" made raids between Odessa and Yalta through Sevastopol. Soon a permanent steamship service was established between Sevastopol and other cities of the Black Sea region.

In 1825, under the leadership of the engineer Shepilov, a road was built from Simferopol to Alushta at a distance of 45 versts. In the 40s, Colonel Slavich built the road Alushta-Yalta-Sevastopol, 170 versts long13.

In the mid-40s, a postal road was laid to Sevastopol from the Belbek bridge near the station. Duvanka (now Verkhne Sadovoye) through the Mekenziev mountains and Inkerman. Previously, the road approached the northern shore of the Big Bay, from where the boats were ferried to the city. The construction of roads in the Crimea, especially in its mountainous part, cost a lot of work and expense. They were built by soldiers, serfs and state peasants.

The southern regions of Russia, in particular the northern Black Sea region and the Crimea, in the first quarter of the 19th century. were sparsely populated. After the annexation of Crimea to Russia, the question of the settlement of Crimea by Russian and Ukrainian populations acquired exceptional importance. The government, obliging the landowners to settle the Crimean estates, at the same time took measures to resettle state peasants and people of other classes from the central and Ukrainian provinces.

The lack of workers in the south of Ukraine and in the Crimea led to the fact that long before the reform, freelance labor was widely used here, not only in industrial, but also in landlord farms. Already in the 1950s, on most estates, the harvesting of bread and grass was carried out by civilian workers who came here every summer from the central provinces of Russia and Ukraine in search of seasonal work. In spring and summer, many city residents, including residents of Sevastopol, went to work on the landowners' estates. In Crimean agriculture, due to the development of capitalism, there was a very rapid process of specialization. In the 1930s and 1940s, specialized farms appeared.

In 1828 and 1830 special decrees were issued on benefits for persons involved in the cultivation of gardens. Gardening also developed in the vicinity of Sevastopol. On May 22, 1831, the Naval Ministry ordered the commander of the Black Sea Fleet to give all the lands belonging to the Admiralty for gardening, in which “there can be no need”14. By decree of the tsarist government of July 19, 1832, it was allowed to distribute to merchants for gardening, viticulture and horticulture the surplus land of the Sevastopol Admiralty15. In the same year, a joint-stock wine-making company was established in Crimea16.

In the second quarter of the XIX century. the development of light industry in the Crimea has made significant progress compared to the end of the XVIII century. And early XIX in.

There were 203 factories and factories in the Tauride province, of which in 1843 there were three factories (two cloth and one headwear) and 166 factories (soap and candle, brick, tile, leather, etc.). They employed 1273 workers17. The number of workers indicates that industrial enterprises were mostly small and differed little from handicraft workshops. Industry was also poorly developed in Sevastopol. Warships were built here, a sugar factory and several small enterprises operated: leather, candle, soap, breweries, brick and tile, etc.

Due to the lack of labor in the Crimea in the second quarter of the XIX century. prisoners were often involved in work at many construction sites and especially important enterprises. They built fortifications, government buildings, port facilities, paved roads, delivered timber from Ukraine, etc.

The living conditions of civilian workers and soldiers were extremely difficult. The Russian scientist Demidov, who traveled around the Crimea in 1837, wrote that 30,000 people were working on the construction of the Sevastopol port facilities.

Sevastopol was ruled by a military governor. In March 1826, by decree of the tsarist government, it was decided to call the city henceforth not Akhtiar, but Sevastopol18. Sevastopol was the largest Crimean city, the population of which at the beginning of the second quarter of the XIX century. together with the military amounted to about 30 thousand people19. According to official figures, in 1844 there were 41,155 inhabitants and 2,057 houses20. The bulk of the population was military: officers, sailors and soldiers. The civilian population consisted mainly of officials, artisans and military families. A relatively large part of the civilian population of Sevastopol was made up of the petty merchant bourgeoisie and artisans (shoemakers, furriers, tailors, hatmakers, barbers, tinkers, etc.).

According to contemporaries and drawings of that time, one can imagine the appearance of Sevastopol in the 30s of the 19th century. The city was located along the shores of the South, Artillery and Ship bays, on three hills separated by deep ravines. The city center was located around the southern hill (now Lenin and Bolshaya Morskaya streets). The main street was Ekaterininskaya, starting from Ekaterininskaya Square (now Lenin Square). Here were the houses of the governor-general Stolypin, the mayor Nosov and merchants, a women's school, a cathedral church, barracks for naval and working crews and a school for naval cabin boys. On the Big. Morskaya Street housed the houses of army and navy quartermasters, naval officers and officials.

The whole city was built of white Inkerman stone. The houses were small mansions surrounded by gardens, fenced from the street with front gardens. The sharp difference between the well-organized center and the impoverished settlements where working people lived was striking. Slobodki began not only immediately behind the main streets (in the area of the current Historical Boulevard), but directly in the center, on the southern hill.

Disarmed ships were placed on both banks of the South Bay, in the Artillery Bay - merchant ships that brought provisions. The South and Ship bays were the military harbor of Sevastopol.

The Admiralty was located on the southwestern side of the South Bay, where ships were repaired and brigs, corvettes and other small ships were built from Crimean oak. At the end of it were placed spare artillery pieces, shells and warehouses. Dismantling of the ships that had become unusable was also carried out here. On two old ships - Poltava and Lesnoy - prisoners were kept, most of whom were sent from various provinces to work in the port of Sevastopol.

On the banks of other bays - Streletskaya, Kamysheva and Kazachya - there were no buildings, except for small batteries and customs cordons.

Most of the sailors lived in dilapidated barracks built under Admiral Ushakov, and only a small part of the sailors were accommodated in two stone two-story barracks (about 2,500 people).

Admirals, ship captains and commanders of military units lived in old government houses. The main part of naval officers, as well as officials, lived in private apartments.

The city did not have enough fresh water: the inhabitants took it from a well in the Admiralty Bay, while the fleet was supplied with water from wells located along the banks of the bay.

The authorities cared little about the development of culture in the city. At the beginning of the second quarter of the XIX century. in Sevastopol there were only two state-owned educational institutions in addition, the urban bourgeoisie maintained several private classes and boarding houses. In 1833, a boarding school for noble maidens was opened in the city21. In the 1940s, district and parish schools and a naval school for children of sailors were opened in the city (Jung School).

The advanced people of Sevastopol and, in particular, some officers of the Black Sea Fleet made a significant contribution to the development of the culture of the Crimea. In 1825-1836. hydrographic work was carried out in the Black and Azov Seas. From the inventories compiled during these works, an atlas of the Black and Azov Seas was published, published in 1842 by the Black Sea Hydrographic Department23.

In the first decades of the XIX century. began the study of the historical past of the Crimea and its archaeological sites. Research and excavations were carried out on the sites of ancient Chersonese (Korsun), Panticapaeum, Scythian Naples. Fleet officers took part in the excavations of Chersonese. These excavations have their own history. Even before the annexation of Crimea to Russia, the officers of the first Russian ships sailing the Black Sea were ordered to pay attention to the antiquities and describe them. The military-historical archives contain several maps and plans of Chersonesos, drawn up by officers of the Black Sea Fleet.

The first excavations were made in 1821, and systematic archaeological research in Chersonese begins with the founding of the Odessa Society of History and Antiquities (1839). The society turned to the commander of the Black Sea Fleet M.P. Lazarev with a request to assist in removing the plan from the surviving remnants of Chersonese and its environs. The admiral instructed Captain Arkas to do this, who a few years later presented to the society a “Description of the Heraclius Peninsula and its antiquities” (with maps and plans)24. Somewhat later, the excavations were carried out by Lieutenant Shemyakin. His finds entered the Odessa Museum. After him, Lieutenant Baryatinsky and others were engaged in research.25 The results of these excavations were a valuable contribution to science.

In the second quarter of the XIX century. construction resumed Sevastopol fortress and port facilities. However, before the entry of M.P. Lazarev to the post of chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet, and then commander, the construction of fortifications was slow. Although the city in November 1826 was classified as a first-class fortress26, but due to poor engineering work, by the beginning of the Russo-Turkish war of 1828-1829, it was under the control of the city. was insufficiently protected from the sea and almost completely unfortified from the land.

The feudal system hindered the development and introduction of new technology and adversely affected the combat training of the army. The Prussian system of education dominated the army at that time. The army and navy were trained more for parades than for combat operations. The backwardness of military tactics and training of troops had a severe effect on the wars that Russia had to wage in the second quarter of the 19th century.

The international situation at the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war was characterized by the fact that in the center foreign policy both Russia and the countries of Western Europe became the "Eastern question". “Of the two main goals that the diplomacy of Nicholas I set for itself, one, namely the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe seemed more or less achieved at the end of the 1920s. Therefore, it became possible to put forward another capital task of Russian diplomacy: the struggle for mastery of the straits - "the keys to one's own home"27. Russia's desire to capture Constantinople and the straits was, in the words of Marx and Engels, the basis of the "traditional policy of Russia" associated with its historical past, its geographical conditions and the need to have open harbors in the Archipelago and the Baltic Sea28.

England, France and Austria tried each for themselves to decide the fate of Turkey's European possessions, especially the straits. Russia had an advantage in this rivalry for new markets and trade routes: it relied on the sympathetic attitude towards it of the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula (Serbs, Montenegrins and Bulgarians), who languished under the centuries-old oppression of Turkey and hoped to win state independence with the help of Russia. Tsarism thought least of all of the freedom of the oppressed nationalities, but it skilfully took advantage of the situation in the Balkans, putting forward the task of protecting Orthodox fellow believers.

The peoples of the Balkan Peninsula waged a stubborn struggle for their independence. The military actions of the Russian army contributed to the liberation of the Balkan peoples from the Turkish yoke.

The Russian-Turkish war began in April 1828. The tsarist command assumed that the campaign would be completed by the onset of winter with decisive operations near Constantinople. But the poorly equipped, mediocrely managed Russian army, despite all the courage of the soldiers, could not overcome the resistance of the Turks for a long time.

On the Balkan Peninsula, by the end of 1828, the Russians managed to capture a narrow strip along the Black Sea. Military operations were successfully developing on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, where Sukhum-Kale and Poti were occupied.

On April 11, 1828, the ships of the Black Sea Fleet entered the Sevastopol raid, consisting of eight battleships, five frigates, 20 sailing ships and three steamships29. On all these ships there were about 12 thousand personnel and a landing corps (up to 5 thousand people).

On April 29, the fleet left Sevastopol and on May 2 approached the Turkish fortress of Anapa. The fortress, attacked by Russian troops from land and by the fleet from the sea, capitulated on June 12. 4,000 Turks surrendered, 80 guns and several ships with landing troops sent to help the Anapa garrison from Trebizond were taken. The capture of Anapa, an important stronghold of the Turks on the Caucasian coast, was a major victory for the Russian fleet.

The military operations of the Russian army in European Turkey were designed to support the fleet, which was supposed to cover the transport ships assigned to bring ammunition and food from Odessa and other ports. The fleet was tasked with occupying a number of coastal fortifications in order to create storage points necessary for the army during the offensive to the south. To do this, in May 1828, a squadron of three ships and two frigates was allocated, heading for the southwestern shores of the Black Sea. After the capture of Anapa, the Russian fleet, together with the landing corps, was sent to the Turkish fortress in Varna in Bulgaria.

In July 1828, Russian troops surrounded it from land and sea. In the siege of the fortress, rowing ships distinguished themselves under the command of the captain of the 2nd rank V.I. Melikhova30, who captured 14 Turkish ships on the night of July 27. The fleet carried out successful bombardments of the fortress. A significant number of naval teams participated in the construction of the trenches. On September 29, after a stubborn defense, the fortress capitulated.

During the siege of Varna in August, a cruiser detachment under the command of a captain of the 1st rank of Crete stormed the coastal fortification of Inad, located 127 kilometers from Constantinople. Fortress guns were loaded onto ships, and the fortifications were blown up. The capture of Inada caused alarm in Constantinople.

In October, the ships returned to Sevastopol for the winter, and in November a detachment of two ships and two vessels was sent to observe the Bosphorus. The military operations of the fleet continued into 1829.

A bright page in the combat operations of the Black Sea Fleet was the feat of the sailors of the Russian brig31 "Mercury" under the command of Lieutenant Commander Kazarsky.

May 14, 1829 at dawn, the 18-gun brig "Mercury", cruising near the Bosphorus, was at close range from the Turkish fleet. Two Turkish ships - one 110-gun and the other 74-gun - set off in pursuit of the mime, hoping to capture the ship. Soon they caught up with the brig "Mercury" and, approaching him to shoot, opened fire. The Russian brig was poorly armed compared to the Turkish ships. Unable to avoid an unequal battle, Lieutenant Commander Kazarsky assembled a military council. The lieutenant of the corps of naval navigators I. Prokofiev spoke in favor of a decisive battle so that in the event of a threat to seize the ship, blow it up. He was supported by all the officers. The team met this decision with approval. Having delivered a short inspiring speech, Kazarsky ordered to prepare for a decisive battle. His last words were covered with a unanimous exclamation: “Hurrah! We are ready for anything, we will not give ourselves to the Turks alive!”32. A loaded pistol was placed in front of the entrance to the powder magazine, so that at a critical moment the last of the surviving officers of the brig would blow up the ship along with the enemy with a shot in a barrel of gunpowder.

It was 13:00. 30 minutes, when the alarm sounded on the brig. The only rescue skiff was thrown into the sea, which interfered with the operation of the stern guns. By firing at the brig from two sides, the enemy intended to force it to surrender, initially hitting it with longitudinal shots from bow guns. To the demand of one of the Turkish ships to surrender, the brig responded with fire from cannons and rifles.

Skillful maneuvering of Kazarsky, who used both sails and oars to prevent the enemy from using his tenfold superiority in artillery, prevented the Turks from conducting aimed fire. The fierce resistance of the Russians was a surprise to the Turks and led them into confusion. Disorderly and continuous firing began from both Turkish ships.

This unequal battle lasted almost four hours. Well-aimed volleys managed to damage the rigging33 and spars of Turkish ships. The enemy ships, having been damaged, feared a meeting with the Russian squadron, which could arrive in time to help the brig. All this forced the Turks to stop fighting. One of the enemy ships was forced to drift to repair damage. The other ship began to fall behind and soon gave up the pursuit.

Having repaired the damage, the Mercury joined the Russian fleet the next day. A small 18-gun brig defeated two Turkish ships of the line thanks to the stamina and courage of the Russian sailors. The brig received 22 holes in the hull and 297 damage in the spars, sails and rigging34.

For the valor shown in battle, all personnel received military awards, and the brig received the stern St. George's flag. According to the order, the Black Sea Fleet was to constantly have a ship with the name “Mercury” or “Memory of Mercury”, successively bearing the St. George flag, associated with the memory of the feat of the brig “Mercury”.

In 1834, in Sevastopol, on Michmansky (now Matrossky) Boulevard, a monument was erected to the commander of the heroic brig, Captain-Lieutenant Kazarsky. On a high pedestal with the inscription on it "For posterity as an example" rises a cast-iron sculpture depicting a trireme - an ancient Greek rowing vessel.

In August 1829, the Russian army entered Adrianople and stood in sight of Constantinople. The Turkish Sultan Mahmud II began peace negotiations.

The ruling circles of England did not want to allow Russia to take possession of the straits and the strengthening of Russian influence in Greece and among the Slavic peoples of the Balkan Peninsula. England was supported by France and Prussia. That is why, when there was an immediate threat of the capture of Constantinople by Russian troops, the ambassadors of England, France and Prussia persistently began to advise the Sultan to accept peace terms in order to prevent Russia from seizing Constantinople and the straits.

Russo-Turkish War 1828–1829

The beginning of the war

Despite the fact that the naval forces of three countries opposed Turkey in the Battle of Navarino, the hardened hatred of the Porte fell upon Russia alone. After the battle, the Turkish government sent a circular to the heads of the pashaliks, in which it declared Russia an irreconcilable enemy of the Caliphate and the Sultanate. The subjects of the Russian Empire were expelled from Turkish possessions.

On October 8 (20), 1827, Sultan Mahmud II announced the rejection of the Akkerman Convention of 1826 and called for a holy war "of Muslims against Russia. Gatti-sheriff (hatt-i-sheriff, sultan's decree) was promulgated about the total militia for the faith. Russian ships were banned from entering the Bosphorus. Western specialists began to strengthen the Danube fortresses.

Despite the fact that the cancellation of the Akkerman agreements actually meant that Turkey was starting a war, Russia formally declared war - on April 14, 1828, by the manifesto of Emperor Nicholas I.

The sovereign announced that he did not think about the destruction of the Ottoman Empire, however, he demanded the fulfillment by the Port of the previous agreements and the London treaty on the Greek question. Russian troops stationed in Bessarabia were ordered to enter the Ottoman borders.

In a special declaration, Nicholas I declared to Porte that he was always ready to stop hostilities and start negotiations. Turkey did not take advantage of this invitation, obviously hoping for help from England and other European powers.

Here is another quote from the multi-volume "World History", written by a friendly team of post-Soviet (and maybe post-Russian) historians: "On May 7, 1828, Russia began predatory war with Turkey. The international situation really favored Russian aggressors».

One English commander once wrote: "Right or wrong, but this is my homeland." Russian historians should, in theory, present their creed as follows: "Not right, because my homeland." To call a war of conquest and aggression against a country that not long before exterminated many tens of thousands of civilians, committed repeated acts of genocide and mass conversion of people into slavery, only historians of the Looking Glass can. But, alas, a huge number of our humanitarians have been and still are in this Looking-Glass. They receive scientific degrees and good salaries from the state, they are respected by fellow intellectuals. These werewolves with scientific degrees are heeded by students. Alas, as long as our country has such historians, nothing good awaits us. A country that stains its own past has no future. The people, with the crap and robbed historical memory, will always be only an object of humiliation and robbery.

From the book The Truth about Nicholas I. The slandered emperor author Tyurin Alexander

Russian-Persian war of 1826-1828 According to the agreement signed on October 24 (November 5), 1813 in the Karabakh village of Polistan (Gyulistan), Persia recognized the transfer of Georgian lands to Russia (which, however, had not been owned for a long time), and also refused Baku ,

From the book The Truth about Nicholas I. The slandered emperor author Tyurin Alexander

The Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 The beginning of the war Despite the fact that the naval forces of three countries opposed Turkey in the Battle of Navarino, the hardened hatred of the Porte fell upon Russia alone. After the battle, the Turkish government sent to the heads of pashaliks

From the book The World History. Volume 4 recent history by Yeager Oscar

CHAPTER THREE Eastern question. Revolt in Greece 1821–1830 The Russo-Turkish War of 1828 and the Peace in Adrianople of 1829 The Eastern Question. The situation of Turkey We have repeatedly pointed out that the so-called "Eastern Question" in the language of newspapers drags on, with various changes,

From the book The whole truth about Ukraine [Who benefits from the split of the country?] author Prokopenko Igor Stanislavovich

Russian-Turkish war In the XIII century, the first Mongols appeared on the Crimean land, and soon the peninsula was conquered by the Golden Horde. In 1441, with the creation of the Crimean Khanate, a short period of independence began. But literally a few decades later, in 1478, the Crimean

From the book History of the Russian Army. Volume two author Zayonchkovsky Andrey Medardovich

Russo-Turkish War 1828–1829 Pavel Markovich Andrianov, lieutenant colonel of the General

From the book of Bylina. historical songs. ballads author author unknown

Songs about the Russian-Turkish war of 1828–1829 The Turkish sultan writes a letter The Turkish sultan writes, writes To our white tsar: I will be Sultan

From the book Textbook of Russian History author Platonov Sergey Fyodorovich

§ 136. The Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791 and the Russian-Swedish war of 1788-1790 The annexation of the Crimea and large military preparations on the Black Sea coast were directly dependent on the "Greek project" that Empress Catherine and her collaborators were fond of in those years

From the book Great battles of the Russian sailing fleet author Chernyshev Alexander

War with Turkey 1828–1829 Russian assistance to the Greek people, who rebelled against Turkish rule, led to an aggravation of relations between Russia and Turkey. After the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Navarino on October 8, 1827, the Turkish Sultan announced the dissolution

From the book St. George Cavaliers under the Andreevsky flag. Russian admirals - holders of the Order of St. George I and II degrees author Skritsky Nikolay Vladimirovich

Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829 The war broke out as a consequence of the Battle of Navarino in 1827, during which the Anglo-French-Russian squadron defeated the Turkish fleet in order to stop the extermination of the Greeks who opposed Turkish rule. October 8, 1827

From the book History of Georgia (from ancient times to the present day) the author Vachnadze Merab

§2. Russo-Turkish war of 1828-1829 and the annexation of South Georgia (Samtskhe-Javakheti) to Russia Unlike the Russo-Iranian war, the Russo-Turkish war was not only the result of an acute confrontation in Transcaucasia. The interests of Russia and Turkey also clashed in the Balkans.

author Kopylov N. A.

The Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1823 The most successful period in Dibich's career was the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, which brought him to the pinnacle of military leadership. In 1828, Russia decided to help the Orthodox Greeks in their war for national independence and 2

From the book Commanders of the Empire author Kopylov N. A.

Russian-Turkish War of 1828–1829 During the reign of Emperor Nicholas I, one of the main areas of Russian diplomacy was the Eastern question - relations with the Ottoman Empire and the solution of international problems associated with its ever greater weakening. Within this

From the book Stories author Trenev Vitaly Konstantinovich

BRIG "MERCURY" (Russian-Turkish war of 1829) The frigate "Standard", the brig "Orpheus" and the eighteen-gun brig "Mercury" were sent to the Bosphorus from the squadron of battleships of Admiral Greig, who was near Sizopol. The task of these sentinel ships was to monitor the movements

the author Vorobyov M N

4. 1st Russo-Turkish War The war began, but it was not necessary to fight immediately, because the troops were far away. Then there were no trains or vehicles, the troops had to go on foot, they had to be collected from different points huge country, and the Turks also swayed

From the book Russian History. Part II the author Vorobyov M N

2. 2nd Russo-Turkish War Preparing for a war with Turkey, Catherine managed to negotiate a military alliance with Austria. It was a major foreign policy success, because the problems that had to be solved became much simpler. Austria could put up quite

From the book Russia and the Formation of Serbian Statehood. 1812–1856 author Kudryavtseva Elena Petrovna

4. Serbia and the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829 Adrianople Treaty of 1829. In April 1828, the Russian government adopted the “Manifesto on the War with Turkey, in which the Port was accused of non-compliance with the Ackerman Convention. At the same time, European governments

Early 1820s was a time of great political unrest in Greece, which was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. The uprising and the war for independence, brutally suppressed by the Turkish authorities, at first glance, had nothing to do with Russia. If the religious factor had not intervened, the Muslim country would impose its faith on the Greek Christians, rituals and customs that were alien and incomprehensible to them. This was the reason for the start of the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, which was brief, but had a global impact on the territorial structure of Europe.

By 1828, the situation had become so aggravated that the largest powers of the continent, belonging to both the Eastern and Western churches, decided to go to war, protecting the interests of the brothers. Orthodox Russians, together with the Catholics and Protestants of France and Britain, defeated the Turkish armada as early as 1827. Weakened by defeat, the Ottoman Empire did not put up with it, hatching plans for revenge.

Briefly, among the reasons for the next aggravation of Russian-Turkish relations, one can single out the struggle for control over the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, the expansion of territories in the Caucasus and the weakening of Turkey's influence on the Balkan countries.

In the spring of 1828, the Russian army invaded the Moldavian lands. In the summer, Nicholas I crossed the Danube with his troops, attacking the Turkish territories in Bulgaria (Shumla, Burgas, Sliven). The Trans-Balkan offensive was the first Russian history crossing the Danube valley since the time of the campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav. Brief, but important not only for the history of Russia, but for the whole of Europe as a whole.

Having besieged Adrianople, the tsarist troops in August 1828 forced the Muslim population of the city to leave it. During the fighting, the Sultan's palace was practically demolished from the face of the earth. By autumn, Varna had surrendered under the pressure of the royal flotilla. The Sultan, having gathered all his forces, managed to push Russia back to the Bessarabian lands. The tsar's army was there until the end of 1828.

The Caucasian front at that time was no less a hot spot of the war. The siege of Kars ended with the victory of Russia, and the pasha, who was close to the fortress, did not take risks and hastily retreated to Ardahan.

In the winter of 1829, while the Russians were gathering reinforcements, in the capital of Iran, Tehran, an aggressive mob smashed the embassy, killing the diplomat and writer A. Griboyedov. In St. Petersburg, after a brief discussion, it was decided to concentrate the main forces on the Caucasian direction. In May, the Turks were able to push back from Ardahan, to the northern regions of Adjara. Having won a victory near Digur, the troops of Nicholas I joined the main forces of Paskevich at Kars. Already in June, the Erzurum fortress, The largest city in eastern Turkey, passed to the Russians. For more than five centuries there has not been a single soldier inside these walls. Christian faith. According to the stories, it was the cowardice and cowardice of the local population that gave the advantage to the Russian army.

Having received reinforcements, the troops under the command of Field Marshal Dibich-Zadunaisky returned to the active stage of the war in May 1829, besieging Silistra, a fortress on the Bulgarian coast. Having defeated the Turkish troops sent to liberate Varna, royal army invaded Silistra, surrendered in June 1829

On the way to the Turkish capital - Istanbul - the Russians managed to capture several more significant enemy fortresses. Under the onslaught of Russia, the sultan was forced to sign a peace treaty in Edirne (ancient Adrianople) on September 14, 1829. Its brief essence was that the mouth of the Danube River passed under the protectorate of the Russian authorities. Like most of the eastern coast of the Black Sea, including the coast of Abkhazia with the fortresses of Anapa and Poti.

In addition to Greece, which became independent, as a result of the war, Serbia received broad autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. Moldavia and Wallachia came under the patronage of Russia as autonomous regions. In fact, having occupied these areas, Nicholas I guaranteed the local government the right to free trade. It also promised widespread support in the economic and military fields. On the Moldavian lands, the archaic system of slavery, which existed there until 1828, was abolished.

After brief discussions, Turkey had to agree that Georgia and part of modern Armenia were forever out of its influence. Since 1829, Russian ships again began to freely pass through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. The issue of the straits was resolved four years later, in 1833, by signing a cooperation agreement in Unkyar-Iskelesiysk.

The positions of the Russian government in Eastern Europe were strengthened. Having become dependent on the alignment of political forces on the continent, Turkey could only watch how its former property in the Balkans was redistributed. Russia, as the victorious country in the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, briefly formulated its demands - the Ottoman Empire should be dismembered.