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Part 1 The Start of Piracy Piracy was a problem of thousands of years before the Spanish began to bring gold, silver, and other treasures from the New World back to Spain. Men sailed the seas as pirates when countries began to cross the Oceans and Seas to trade goods with each other. There were powerful pirates that sailed the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. These pirates set up a large pirate nation in Cilicia. Cilicia is now part of the country of Turkey. Barbary corsairs controlled the western part of the Mediterranean. Vikings were brave and strong pirates. They sailed all over the Atlantic Ocean, but especially terorized the European coastlines. Piracy was also active in the waters surrounding Asia. As ships were built bigger and better and men became braver, piracy began to spread into the New World.
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Early Pirates. Vikings When the Roman Empire was destroyed, the people from Scandinavia became the pirates in power. These were the Vikings which means "pirate men". The Vikings were very talented. The Viking ships were called a longship and was a long thin ship. This longship moved through the water either by sail and wind, or by slaves who rowed the boat quickly through the water when they were chasing another ship.
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Part 2. Modern Piracy Piracy has not gone away. There are still many attacks today. One attack occurred on February 26, 1996 near the Philippines Islands. A fishing boat with 10 crewman on board that was fishing got attacked by two speedboats with two men on each boat. The speedboats pulled on the side of the fishing boat and the pirates in the speedboats pulled out automatic guns and opened fire on the fishing boat. Nine of the ten crewman got killed. Jangay Ajinohon got injured in the head but was still able to jump off the boat and swim to safety. There were 223 other attacks just that year. Organized efforts to take statistics of these attacks weren "t put together until 1992. Countries near the Pacific and Indian oceans didn't take much care about piracy. Pirates took this as an advantage so they wouldn't' get caught. The number of attacks in 1992 was 106 and there were 26 murders and the numbers have been rising ever since.
The purpose of the project: to draw the attention of students to such a topic as a decent appearance of a schoolchild, to find out the opinion of parents, teachers and the students themselves about wearing a school uniform in order to develop practical advice for students in grades 5-11. Project in English “SCHOOL UNIFORM. ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST.
Type of project: Information and research Project components: Written part of the project - reports on the topic "School uniform in educational institutions of the world" Oral part of the project - presentation opinion polls on the topic of the project. The creative part of the project is the design of a school uniform and its demonstration. Project in English “SCHOOL UNIFORM. ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST.
Research focus: the project is not a scientific study, but includes research methods such as questionnaires and interviews. Creative orientation: the project involves the most free approach to the presentation of results (demonstration of school clothes models) Role orientation: designers take on the role of speakers and demonstrators of clothing Information orientation: the project is aimed at collecting information on this topic in order to analyze, generalize and present it to a wide audience Applied orientation: the result is focused on social interests project participants(preparation of reference material). The main directions of the project:
The educational aspect is to cultivate a sense of respect for people, honor school traditions, instill a sense of beauty in actions and clothes. The educational aspect is to teach students to work with various sources of information, make extracts from them, rephrase an existing thought, draw up a plan, present information according to the plan. The developing aspect is the development of skills for predicting the final result. Project in English “SCHOOL UNIFORM. ARGUMENTS FOR AND AGAINST.
History of Russian school uniform In Russia, school uniforms were abolished after the 1917 revolution, but were re-introduced in revolution The style of Soviet school uniform was modernized in 1962, and since that time was modified each decade.Soviet
History of Russian school uniform In the early 1980s, a dark blue three-piece suit was introduced for girls and the strict rules on haircuts were loosened. Today, there is no unified standard uniform in Russia; however, certain schools may have their own uniform that students are required to wear.
Most schools in England require children to wear a school uniform. The uniform Boys Long gray or black trousers (shorts may be worn in the Summer) White Shirt School tie (optional in most primary schools) Jumper or sweater with the school logo on. The color is the choice of the schools. Black shoes Girls As above. Girls may wear skirts During the summer term girls often wear summer school dresses. Tyuttina L.V.
Decreasing theft because of expensive clothes helping students to concentrate on their school work helping school officials recognize strangers who come to the school improving discipline in students save parents time and money its expensive to buy uniform uniforms are very inconvenient (its too cold in winter and too hot in summer) uniforms are impractical uniforms deny students their rights to personal identity school uniforms are very conservative by design cant follow the fashion students social standing depends on individual character and less their economic status cant get lost during school trips everyone is equal stopping kids worrying about what to wear each day cant express your own image School Survey Tyuttina L.V.
SCHOOL UNIFORM SAVE MONEY STOP THEFT CANT GET LOST STOP STRANGERS IMPROVE DISCIPLINE EASIER IN THE MORNING EVERYONE IS EQUAL CANT WEAR YOUR STYLE CANT FEEL UNIQUE DESTROY INDIVIDUALITY EXPENSIVE UNCOMFOR- TABLE CONSER- VATIVE DESIGN PRIORITY OF CHARACTER School Survey
Tyuttina L.V.
We are looking forward to seeing you! model.html model.html uniforms-have-pros-and-cons/ uniforms-have-pros-and-cons/ junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/questions/education/uniform.html junior.kent.sch.uk /customs/questions/education/uniform.html JUNIOR%29 JUNIOR%29
average comprehensive school №1
Kamyshlovsky urban district
Research project on English language
“British and Russian breakfast. Traditions and Modernity»
Head: Chernykh Anna Alekseevna
7th grade student: Anastasia Ivanova
Kamyshlov 2014
Content.
Introduction ………………………………………………………………2
Chapter 1
The concept of “breakfast” and its significance for the body and the work of the brain of a schoolchild…………………………………………………….4
How do the British eat breakfast? Traditional British breakfast…………………………………………………………..8
Comparison of British and Russian breakfasts……………….11
2.1 The results of the survey of students……………………… 13
2.2 Analysis of the British and Russian breakfasts from the point of view of usefulness for the student's body…………………………..19
Conclusion ………………………………………………………..20
References……………………………………………….21
Introduction.
The work is devoted to the study of the importance of breakfast for the body and the work of the brain of a schoolchild, through a comparison of the breakfast of different cultures - British and Russian. A full breakfast helps to provide the body of an adult and a child with all the necessary important components.
Relevance:
Very often at school, at home, on television, we hear about the need to lead a healthy lifestyle. One of the elements of a healthy lifestyle is proper nutrition. Every morning parents force their children to have breakfast. But they often refuse to eat, citing their reluctance to eat breakfast or lack of time. Parents begin to explain that breakfast is essential for children to grow up strong and healthy.
The theme of our project:“British and Russian breakfast. Traditions and Modernity»
Aim our work is - the creation of the booklet "Breakfast is important!" through a comparison of British and Russian breakfasts in terms of usefulness for the body and the work of the student's brain.
Based on the purpose of the work, the following tasks:
Find out what breakfast is and how it should be;
Reveal the importance of breakfast for schoolchildren;
Compare Russian and British breakfasts;
Analyze two breakfasts in terms of their usefulness for brain function;
Conduct a survey among the students of our school;
Prepare an information booklet for students and parents "Breakfast is important!".
Research hypothesis: If the student regularly eats breakfast, then he will be more attentive and active during the educational process.
Research methods:
theoretical research;
comparison and generalization;
questioning students;
Breakfast and its importance for the body and the work of the brain of a student.
Breakfast - the first meal of the day, morning meal; food prepared for morning meal. Breakfast is an important part of our diet and the requirements for it in our modern world are simple. Breakfast of the 21st century should be prepared and eaten quickly and simply, long and beneficial.
The most important meal of the day is breakfast. Nutritionists say that a balanced diet begins with breakfast! During the night, the body uses up the nutrients it has received during the day and needs a quick refueling in the morning. That is, breakfast helps to replenish the supply of nutrients consumed during the night, which means it gives energy in the morning. The body immediately adjusts to active work and burns calories. And, without having breakfast, the body sleeps, remains in a passive state, in which the minimum number of calories burns.
As a result of research, it was found that morning is the most favorable time for eating food and charging the body with energy.
Those who skip breakfast are much more likely to suffer from stress-related illnesses than people who eat breakfast regularly. Good breakfasts contribute to improved brain function.
Many studies show that a healthy breakfast (as opposed to eating donuts and cakes in the morning) can help you create a nutritious diet without depriving your body of essential nutrients, vitamins, and minerals. Everything that a person eats at 7 o'clock in the morning (even a piece of chocolate cake), the body processes into energy, and not into body fat. If a person follows the figure, he should try to consume 1/3 of the daily calorie intake before 10 am. During the year, a person who regularly refuses breakfast gains 3-7 kilograms of excess weight. Also, a proper breakfast improves attentiveness (both in study and work), gives strength and endurance for sports.
For breakfast, children should receive approximately 25% of the daily diet, for lunch - 30-35%, for afternoon tea - 15 - 20%, for dinner - 25%.
The effect of breakfast on mental performance, especially in children. It has been the subject of much research work. It turned out that children who did not eat breakfast were less intelligent at selecting critical information for decision making compared to those who ate breakfast. Eating breakfast contributes to a child's better performance in school, both in terms of math and creative tasks.
This is because breakfast is especially rich in carbohydrates. Provides the body with glucose - the best source of energy for the brain. Teachers are well aware of the benefits of breakfast, confirming that children do not absorb material well on an empty stomach. Adults also benefit from eating breakfast. According to the results of a series of tests on memory and recall, it was found that eating breakfast significantly improved the quality of the performance of information retention and memory tasks. The playback speed was also faster.
It is best to start breakfast with fruit or a glass of vegetable juice. This helps to increase appetite, which is often absent in the morning. After that, you need to eat a piece of cheese or cottage cheese, drink a glass of yogurt. For breakfast, it is best to eat brown bread instead of white or buns. Sugar should be preferred marmalade or honey.
Experts believe that breakfast for a child should consist of three main elements: fruits, grains and dairy products.
Fruit. It is a source of vitamins that support immunity. In the period of the approaching spring beriberi, citrus fruits will be relevant (provided that the child is not allergic to them), pomegranates, as well as cherries, strawberries and our Siberian berries.
Cereal products. They contain carbohydrates that give energy after a night break.
Dairy products - milk, yogurt, cottage cheese, cheese - an indispensable source of calcium, which is so necessary for the child's body.
Breakfast should consist of a snack, a hot dish, a hot drink.
The diversity of the menu is achieved by using a sufficient range of products and various ways culinary processing.
Parents often ask doctors what and how to feed their child in order to achieve a good appetite and proper growth and development. The child's food should be mixed with enough vitamins. All food must be fresh.
The student's diet is directly related to his daily routine. Most of the time teenagers spend at school. In this regard, the alternation of mental stress and periods of rest should be taken into account. During a period of significant mental stress, nutrition should be fractional and easy to digest.
Thus, a full breakfast increases efficiency, improves well-being, energizes, provides the body with useful and necessary substances that help maintain health and beauty.
How do the British eat breakfast? Traditional British breakfast. Comparison of British and Russian breakfasts.
Very often, the British, when asked what they like most about their culture and country, answer the not quite expected word “breakfast”. Yes, yes, not the Queen, Stonehenge or the legendary singers of the Beatles, but the usual English breakfast. However, this is not at all the standard oatmeal that is described in most novels and movies. On the contrary, it is a complex meal, consisting of a wide selection of dishes that a rare European consumes at the beginning of the day.
The classic morning British breakfast consists of the following courses:
eggs prepared in various ways, namely: fried eggs, scrambled eggs, scrambled eggs or poached;
a couple of very fatty sausages fried in a pan;
fresh and fragrant bacon, fried until golden brown and crunchy in the mouth;
fresh or canned tomatoes, slightly poached in a pan;
some fried mushrooms, mostly champignons;
servings of white beans, preserved in tomato sauce according to an old English recipe.
According to statistics relating to the second half of the last century, almost 50% of families in England began their day with just such a dense meal. To date, their number has decreased to 1%. And it's not at all that people want to lead a healthy lifestyle, consume fewer calories or have no choice of products. They simply do not have enough time to cook and eat all these dishes, especially when adults need to work, and children need to study. However, this tradition lives on for the simple reason that the British really honor their history and try to arrange a morning feast at least on one of the weekends.
The traditional set of dishes for a classic English breakfast can vary significantly from region to country. So, for example, the Scots complete it with blood pudding, potato pancakes and oatmeal cakes. The Irish, on the other hand, prepare a truly unique white pudding, consisting of cereals and pork. Wales will delight guests with a breakfast of bread, the main components of which are boiled seaweed, eggs, bacon and shellfish. However, almost everywhere these gastronomic delights are washed down with black tea with milk.
Comparison of English and Russian breakfast.
What is the difference between a traditional Russian breakfast and a native English breakfast?
This can be judged if you find out the ingredients of the Russian morning meal. It includes:
cereals;
sandwiches with sausage or cheese;
juice or fruit;
yogurt, cheese or milk;
boiled egg;
hot drink (tea, coffee)
delicious pastries.
In our work, we tried to compare two breakfasts in terms of their usefulness for the body, namely for the work of the brain of a schoolchild. And here's what we got: the list of products in the two countries is very diverse, but it is precisely those products that are useful for brain function and mental activity (fruits, dairy products and grain products) that are present in greater quantities in the breakfast of the Russian people.
Chapter 2
2.1 The results of the survey of schoolchildren.
Quite often in the morning we neglect breakfast because we are late for school or work, and someone cannot force himself to eat at all in the morning or intercepts a coffee sandwich.
Even if there is no appetite at all, and we cannot swallow a single piece, force yourself to eat at least a small portion of porridge. If we regularly force our body not to skip breakfast for at least one week, then this will become habitual, and we ourselves will not notice that we will begin to wake up with a feeling of hunger and eat our breakfast with appetite.
Breakfast is as important a habit as brushing your teeth in the morning and other hygiene, so you must definitely accustom your body to it.
We decided to find out from schoolchildren of our school about the benefits of breakfast on the body and brain function. For the study, schoolchildren of different ages were taken: grades 5-6 and grades 7-8. We took a test - a survey as the basis of our study. 100 people took part in the survey
According to the questionnaires, the students noted that if they offer something for breakfast that they like, they will eat it with pleasure.
The results of the questionnaire survey among students of school No. 1 showed that out of 100 respondents to the question: “Do you have breakfast in the morning?”, Answered: - I always have breakfast - 62 people, (62%), I don’t have time to have breakfast - 20 people, (20% ), refuse breakfast - 18 people (18%).
Some guys do not always have breakfast for various reasons (they rush to the bus, do not want to have breakfast - there is no appetite). (diagram 1)
Diagram 1
Percentage of students eating breakfast in the morning
To the question: What is included in your breakfast? The guys answered as follows - homemade breakfast for 62 people (62%) of the students surveyed consists of tea with cookies or a sandwich, 20 people (20%) eat porridge in the morning and 18 people (18%) refuse breakfast altogether. As you can see, many guys eat dry food, or just drink tea instead of a normal breakfast. It should also be noted that the older the student becomes, the poorer his breakfast, or it is absent altogether. (diagram 2)
Diagram 2
Ingredients of breakfast
To the question: What do you think: breakfast is necessary, breakfast is not needed, find it difficult to answer? Of the students surveyed - 80 people (80%) believe that breakfast is necessary, breakfast is not needed - 14 people (14%), it is difficult to answer - 6 people (6%). We can conclude that these guys think about their health and understand the benefits of breakfast. (diagram 3)
Diagram 3
Students' opinion about the need for breakfast
But to the question: “What do you think, when it is necessary to have a tight breakfast, lunch or dinner?” - students' opinions were divided: breakfast was answered by 8 people (16%), lunch - 19 people (36%), dinner - 10 people (20%), I don't know - 13 people (26%). (diagram 4)
Diagram 4
Student diet
To the question: “Do you want to know how to eat right?” The guys answered: they want to know - 78 people, (78%), do not want - 18 people, (18%), have not decided yet - 4 people, (4%). (diagram 5)
Diagram 5
Students' knowledge of the benefits of breakfast.
Thus, according to the results of our study, it can be seen that the majority of students in our school consider it necessary to have breakfast in the morning and consider breakfast a very important element in their lives. But not all students eat breakfast correctly. Therefore, our goal was to create an information booklet with recommendations on the correct and healthy breakfast for schoolchildren.
2.2 Analysis of British and Russian breakfasts in terms of usefulness for the student's body.
It was believed that the British breakfast at all times was useful, we decided to check it out by studying the necessary literature, statistics and comparing English and Russian breakfasts. Based on the results of our study, we found that it is for mental work and brain function that the breakfast of the Russian people is more useful, since it contains more useful components for the mental activity of a schoolchild (glucose, vitamin B1, bioproducts) compared to the British breakfast, which is very dense and containing products that are less active for the mental activity of the child.
Returning to the hypothesis put forward, on the basis of the study, we can conclude that the hypothesis about the importance of breakfast was revealed not only from the point of view of scientists, but also from the practical side.
Conclusion.
In our work, we examined the breakfasts of two peoples: the British and Russians in terms of their usefulness for the body and the work of the brain of a schoolchild and came to the following conclusions:
Breakfast is the most important meal of the day.
Diagram 1 shows that out of 100 students surveyed, they eat breakfast in the morning (62%);
Diagram 2 shows that most students eat breakfast, but their breakfast consists of a sandwich with tea, which is not a proper and healthy breakfast. To this end, we have compiled an information booklet for parents and schoolchildren about the right breakfast "Breakfast is important!"
Most students understand the importance of breakfast, so they consider it necessary, since our health depends on it. Many of the respondents would like to expand their knowledge about the benefits of breakfast, in connection with this need, we decided to study this topic and do research.
Students who eat breakfast feel refreshed mentally and physically in the morning and look slimmer and more beautiful.
Bibliography.
Gabovich R.D. Hygiene [Text] / R.D. Gabovich. M. : Medicine, 1983. - p. 158-178, p. 384.
Kislyakovskaya VG, Nutrition of children of early and preschool age. [Text]/ [Text]/ V.G. Kislyakovskaya, L.P. Vasilyeva, D.B. Gurvich // M: Education, 1983. -p.59, p.207.
Malakhov G.P. Golden rules of nutrition. [Text] / G.P. Malakhov. St. Petersburg: Krylov, 2006. - p.173, p.318
Martynov S.M. The health of the child is in your hands. [Text] / S.M. Martynov.M: Enlightenment, 1991.-p.72-75, p.223
Studenikin M.Ya. Children's health book. [Text] / M.Ya. Studenikin. Moscow: Medicine, 1982. - p.142-144, p.240
English language project
Topic:"Differences between American and British English"
I.Introduction ............................................... ................................................. ......................... 3-4
II. Main part
1. The history of the emergence of American English………… 5
1.1 Opinions on American independence
English………………………………………………………………… 5-6
1.2. History of the emergence of American English……………… 6-7
2. Noah Webster's transformations in American English…….. 8
3. Comparative analysis of vocabulary, grammar, phonetics of two variants
in English …………………………………………………………………. nine
3.1. Vocabulary of English and American languages ……………………………. nine
3.2. Phonetics of English and American languages …………………………. 10-11
3.3. Grammar of English and American languages ………………………. eleven
III. Conclusion ............................................... ................................................. ..................... 12
IV. Bibliography……………………………………………………………………. 13
V. Applications…………………………………………………………………………….. 14-17
Introduction.
English is now the universally recognized language of international communication. This is the language of modern business, science, office work, information technology and, of course, communication. English is official language many states, including the UK, USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand. The following figures speak of the exceptionally wide spread of the English language: approximately 1.6 billion people, i.e. almost one third of the world's population speaks English, although English is the mother tongue of only 380 million people. It is in this language that most books, magazines and newspapers are published. It is difficult to judge the positive or negative aspects of the globalization of the English language, but one cannot but agree that in the history of mankind no other language has ever been so widespread and popular.
In the modern world, there are several varieties of English (British, American, Canadian, Australian and New Zealand).
American English is a more successful rival to British English, and there are several reasons for this. One of them is that American English was linguistically especially pure and correct, since the settlers, people from different parts of Britain, finding themselves together in new and risky conditions, were forced to discard dialect differences and keep in speech only what was common to all of them. It was America in the twentieth century that most contributed to the spread of English.
However, despite this, the teaching of English in many countries, including Russia, has been focused on the British version of the language for many years. But at the present stage of development of teaching English, one cannot but take into account the fact that students almost daily come into contact with its American version.
Indeed, at school we study English, learn the rules and words, suffer from pronunciation, and from the TV screen, in video games we hear English words, phrases, sentences that are different from what we are taught at school.
Probably, many of you have met with a situation where seemingly correctly written English words in text editors with spell checking are detected as incorrect. For example, in the widely used text editor MS Word, some correctly spelled English words are underlined with a red wavy line.
The thing is that Microsoft is an American company, and by default, American English spelling rules are set there.
If there is an American language, then wouldn't it be better to study it in schools? It is used to communicate on the Internet, a significant part of the goods are produced in America, a huge number of films, cartoons, computer innovations are created in the USA.
If the American language is an independent language, then why does it have so much in common with English and why do Americans and British people easily understand each other? And if the American language is a dialect, a variant of the English language, then how did it form, when, and where? Therefore, we must be competent in the differences between American and British languages.
All of the above explains the relevance of this work. Namely: is American English an independent language or it was formed from British English, and is its dialect, as well as which language is better to learn: British English or American English.
Objective- to systematize the main differences between British and American English.
Research objectives:
1. Explore different points of view of the problem: English and American English are one or two languages.
2. Explore the history of American English
3. Conduct a comparative analysis lexical units, phonetics and grammar of British English and American English.
Object of study: the spread of American English in society.
Subject of study: American English. In this paper, we will consider the history of the formation of the American version of the English language and the reasons for the appearance of differences between the American and British variants, as well as the main lexical, grammatical and phonetic differences between them.
Hypothesis: Is it true that American English is a dialect of English?
History of American English.
1.1. Opinions about the independence of the American language.
Studying the literature on the research topic, I noticed that the differences between English in America and English in the UK have been widely discussed for a long time not only in specialized linguistic literature, but also in popular literature. In our opinion, the essence of the problem was especially vividly expressed by G.B. Shaw: "We (the British and Americans) are two countries separated by a common language." ("We British and Americans are two countries that are separated by a common language"). The fact that prominent figures of literature and culture of the past were not indifferent to the problem of American and British English suggests that the best minds of that time have been asking this question for a long time. Many of the great American writers of the past (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, O. Henry, and Jack London) were ardent supporters of the in-depth study of folk speech and staunch opponents of purists who equated any Americanism with barbarism.
Modern English is very far from the one that existed 3 centuries ago. Now linguists distinguish 3 types: 1) conservative English(language of parliament and royal family, 2) accepted standard(media language), 3) advanced(language of youth).
Currently, disputes over which of the variants of the English language should be considered "exemplary" and whether American English should be considered an independent language, finally separated from British English, continue.
I conducted a survey about the independence of the American language among the English teachers of our school and city. Their answer was unequivocal: American English is a dialect of English.
Disagreements about the independence of the American language have arisen due to the fact that the English spoken by Americans is somewhat different from classical English: there are changes in phonetics and vocabulary, and even in its most stable part - grammar. In contrast to the British version, American English is considered easier to understand. Therefore, in my work, I consider the similarities and differences in these two types of English. I will try to explore this problem by comparing the vocabulary, phonetics and grammar of British and American English and prove the hypothesis that American English is a "derived" from English, its dialect.
Turning to the explanatory dictionary, I found out the meaning of the words "language" and "dialect". Language is a historically established system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means that objectifies the work of thinking and is a tool for communication, exchange of thoughts and mutual understanding of people in society; a system of signs (sounds, signals) that convey information;
Dialect - a local or social variety of a language, a local dialect, otherwise a territorial dialect serving the masses; has its own grammar
structure and basic vocabulary; in the process of nation formation can form the basis of the national language.
1.2. History of American English.
Today, English is the most widely spoken, but not the only one, spoken in the United States. Let's assume that American English is a separate language. Then he should have his own historically established system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means, objectifying the work of thinking and being a tool for communication, exchange of thoughts and mutual understanding of people in society (in accordance with the definition). Therefore, it is necessary to find out its origin more precisely, how it appeared in America, and also how the system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means historically developed.
Turning to historical and geographical reference books for information, I found out the following information. In the early seventeenth century, colonists from England began to bring their language to America. In 1607, John Smith founded the first colony in Virginia. And already at the beginning of the 17th century, Europeans began to move to North America. In the beginning, there were a small number of migrants, but after three centuries there were millions of them. People left in the hope of a new, rich, free life full of interesting events and adventures. He created a completely new society with its own laws, principles of life, with its own economic structure, with its own statehood. People left for America for various reasons: someone hoped to get rich quickly, someone was hiding from the persecution of the punishing hand of the law, someone wanted to gain political freedom, and someone wanted to get rid of religious persecution and gain freedom of religion. There were many reasons. People came to America from all over Europe. But most of the colonists were from England. Therefore, it was English that became the main language of communication in the then-nascent huge country. At the initial stage, American English was not much different from British. English colonists arrived from different areas Great Britain, and the language of groups of people from different regions differed both in the pronunciation of individual words and in the use of lexical phrases. There was no uniformity and norms in written language. Years passed, centuries passed, and emigrants coming later made their own changes to the vocabulary, phonetics and grammar of the language - during the XVIII-XX centuries they native language changed. Other linguistic groups of people who came to live and work in America from European countries also contributed to the formation of the language. They were Spaniards and Italians, Scandinavians and Germans, French and Russians.
All these new inhabitants of North America (we should not forget also the indigenous people - the Indians) contributed to the formation of the dialect of the colonies. However, the English language of the North American colonies was significantly enriched by borrowings. The settlers borrowed words from Indian languages to designate unfamiliar plants (for example, hickory - hazel genus, or persimmon - persimmon) and animals (raccoon - raccoon, woodchuck - woodchuck). The words prairie are borrowed from the French language - prairie; from Dutch - sleigh - sleigh . Many new words appeared by combining already known ones, for example, backwoods - wilderness, outback, bullfrog - bullfrog (kind of frog). Many English words have been given new meanings; corn meaning "corn" (in England this word used to mean any grain, usually wheat). Obviously, new words appeared insofar as many new realities now appeared in the life of former Europeans, for which there were no words in English and other languages.
In addition to the lexicon, there was a difference in pronunciation, in grammatical constructions, especially strong - in intonation.
With the development of American English, the main principle was laid - the simplification of the language. Ordinary, simple people, leaving all the past behind, went to America in the hope of finding happiness. And they needed a simple and accessible way of communication that would unite all nationalities.
Today, the English spoken by Americans is not as diverse as it was during the founding of the United States of America. American English is clearly regulated and is the main language of communication and has the status of the state language
Noah Webster's transformations in American English.
In 1806, Noah Webster first introduced into the dictionary such terms as "Americanize", "census", "checkers", "electrician" (a person versed in electricity), "presidential" (referring to the president), "publicity", " slang", "whiskey" "(alcohol obtained from grain by distillation") and so on.
He introduced many vernaculars into the dictionary, explaining that if the whole nation uses this word, it means that it has the right to enter the language. Webster has been criticized by many for the vulgarization of language.
Webster was a linguistic democrat and populist. He changed the spelling of many words in the direction of simplification - as it is heard, so it is written. For example, in the word "music" the British wrote "ck" at the end, and Webster - only "s". In many words - "colour", "honor", "favour" - he removed the combination of the letters "ou" at the end of the word, replacing them with a simple "o", which is heard there: "color", "honor", "favor" .
In a special group, a number of nouns that ended in -ce should be singled out. Subsequently, Webster replaced -ce with a simple -s: defense - defense; offense - offense; license - license; practice - practice; pretension - pretense.
English orthography is characterized by doubling the final -l before derivational and inflectional suffixes -ed, -ing, -er, -ery, -or, -ist and others. Noah Webster left only one -l in these words: apparelled - appareled; councilor - councilor; leveled - leveled; woollen - woolen; travelling - traveling.
In cases where hesitation was noted in the spelling of the verbal suffix -ize (-ise), Noah Webster preferred -ize: apologize, capitalize, criticize, civilize, dramatize, naturalize, tantalize, visualize and others.
Of particular note is a group of words in which Noah replaced the ending part -re with -er:centre - center; fiber - fiber; luster - luster; meter - meter; saber - saber.
American English also lacks the endings -me and -ue: catalog - catalog; check - check; gramme-gram; pragramme - program.
Noah Webster Americanized the spelling of many words and generally contributed to the creation of the situation now characterized by the catchphrase "Americans and British are one people divided by a common language."
3. Comparative analysis of vocabulary, grammar, phonetics of two variants
in English
3.1. Vocabulary of English and American languages
Unlike the British version, American English is more flexible, open to change and easy to understand. In particular, that is why it has become more widespread in the world. This is the language of a new generation without a specific nationality and place of residence, brought up on mass culture.
We need to know the features of both British and American English in order to better navigate when communicating with people from different parts of the world. And now consider some differences between the American and British versions:
1. British English When we talk about an action that took place in the past and has a result in the present, we use the Present Perfect: I've lost my key. Have you seen it? I have lost my key. Haven't you seen him?
American English Along with Present Perfect, we can use Past Simple: I lost my key. Did you see it? I have lost my key. Haven't you seen him?
2. British English I have a bath every day. I take a bath every day. American English I take a bath every day. I take a bath every day.
3. British English We needn't hurry. We don't need to rush. The British version also allows: We don't need to hurry. We don't need to rush. American English In the American version, we only say don't need to: We don't need to hurry. We don't need to rush.
4. British English After the words demand, insist, etc. we can use should: I demand that he should apologise. I insist that he apologize. American English In American English, we don't use should after words like demand, insist, etc. I demand that he apologize. I insist that he apologize.
5. British English The British say to/in hospital: Three people were injured and taken to hospital. Three people were injured and taken to the hospital.American English Americans say to/in the hospital: Three people were injured and taken to the hospital. Three people were injured and were taken to the hospital.
6. British English Verbs used with nouns such as government, team, family can be either plural or singular: The team is/are playing well. The team is playing well (now). American English In American English, verbs with similar nouns usually take only the singular form: The team is playing well. The team is playing well (now).
7. British English Will you be here at the weekend? Will you be here on the weekend? American English Will you be here on the weekend? Will you be here for the weekend?
Examples of differences in the vocabulary of these variants of the English language are given in the table (Appendices).
3.2. Phonetics of English and American languages
Of course, the difference between American and British English is not limited to vocabulary. The general tendency of American English towards simplification continues and in pronunciation.
First, the differences in consonants: sound [r]:
In British English, only heard clearly after vowels,
In American it is pronounced wherever possible (for example, in the words car, ford), They do not “swallow” the sound [r] like the English, so the speech seems more rude, and in American English this sound has a retroflex character
Secondly, some differences are observed in the pronunciation of the sounds [d] and [t].:
The English pronounce them very clearly,
Americans can generally swallow them, as in the words understand (pronounced as in American) and intercontinental, that is, when these sounds do not come between vowels. The sound [t] is pronounced as a weakly articulated [d], and the letter combination tt located in the middle of the word in Americans is very similar to [d]
Thirdly, the pronunciation of vowels differs. First of all, these are sounds in the words calf, bath, aunt, dance, chance, class, etc. :
In American it is pronounced, for example: dance pronounce like, ask read [əsk]
In British. dance pronounce like, ask read,
This occurs mainly in those words in which the vowel is followed by a voiceless fricative consonant or nasal [n].
Examples of differences in pronunciation are given in the table (Appendix).
Fourth, word stress. Some British and American words are pronounced with different syllables, such as address (Brit.) and address (Amer.), cafe (Brit.) and cafe (Amer.).
However, such features of American English as a strong second stress in the words dictionary, territory, expiratory, oratory, peremptory were characteristic of the English language of Shakespeare's time, which can be considered evidence that American English has English roots.
intonation difference. American English can be called "sloppy"
language. The British English version is more scrupulous. It has a huge variety of intonation patterns, unlike American English, where there is practically one: a flat scale and a falling tone. This intonation pattern determines the entire sound structure of American English.
There are many scales in British English: descending and ascending, stepped and sliding.
British speech has a large range of intonations
American speech is monotonous.
3.3. Grammar of English and American Languages
The American version carries a large number of differences at all language levels. These differences are associated with unique historical events, with a large number of various borrowings from different languages, as well as with the tendency to simplify language structures and units.
However, there are relatively few grammatical differences between British and American English. These are mostly regional trends regarding morphology and syntax, and only a few are general syntactic differences. Consider examples of typical grammatical differences between American English (AE) and British English (BrE).
| Description | ||
| If the pronoun one is the subject, then he, him, his, himself are used in the sentence | One should try to get to know one "s neighbors. | One should try to get to know his neighbors. |
| In phrases noun + noun, the possessive case is often omitted | a baby's bottle | |
| In colloquial correlative as..,as the first as is omitted | She is as hard as nails. | She is hard as nails. |
| After a number of verbs, such as demand, insist, suggest, in the subordinate clause, a construction is used that does not contain should | l demanded that he should apologise. What do you suggest I should do? | l demanded that he apologize. What do you suggest I do? |
| A number of irregular verbs have regular forms | ||
| In interrogative-negative sentences for the 1st person singular, the abbreviation ain't I is used | I "m late, aren" t I? | I "m late, ain" t I? |
| To express a past action, the result of which is available in the present tense, the Past Simple can be used. | I "ve lost my key. Have you seen it? | I lost my key. Did you see it? |
| With adverbs just, already, yet Past Simple can be used | I"m not hungry. I"ve just had lunch. Have you finished your work yet? | I just had lunch. Did you finish your work yet? |
| With adverbs of indefinite tense ever and never Past Simple can be used | Have you ever hidden a horse? | Did you ever guide a horse? |
| Have you got a brother? | Do you have a brother? |
|
| to get, got, got | to get, got, got |
|
| He is in hospital. | He is in the hospital. |
|
| on/over the weekend |
||
| She lives in Main Street. | She lives on Main Street. |
Based on the analysis carried out, it can be said that the grammatical differences between American and British English are found mainly in the system of verbs and tense patterns. But they are not so significant as to interfere with communication between speakers of different language variants. The main reasons for the emergence of such discrepancies is the tendency to simplify the language in the American version.
Output.
In my work, I came to the conclusion that the hypothesis put forward by us that American English is a dialect of the English language was confirmed.
My conclusions are based on comparative analysis systems of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means of American and British English. They allow us to argue that often the lexical difference arises from the fact that the same words are more often used in different meanings in two versions of the language, which means that an American and an Englishman will be able to understand each other, since there are almost no words that are only American or only British.
I believe that it is not difficult for a student of British English to understand the speech of an American, and it is unlikely that the differences between American and British English can be considered anything more than the differences between two dialects of the same language.
What kind of English should be taught - American or British? The answer to this question depends on why you need a language at all. I must say that Russian schools have adopted the British Standard of English, that is, most textbooks and dictionaries are compiled exactly according to these rules. Correct basic English is needed, by the way, in order to understand other language variants, dialects and features. And to be able to master them.
However, such incidents, when a teacher explains at a school or university that a word should sound and be written in one way, but in practice: on radio, TV, in newspapers and the Internet, words are used in a completely different way, not a few. Such things should be treated as different accents of the same language and these differences should be applied in a particular situation. That is, if in a Russian school you are required to use the rules of British English, then you need to use the British version, if you went to America under the Work and Travel program, then you need to pay attention to the differences and try to put them into practice. Both versions of English will be correct in a particular situation.
There will be no language barrier between you and the Americans, although, of course, you will not be considered “one of their own”.
I suggest that you practically use the results of my research in English lessons at school, for free communication on the Internet with people from different countries, when traveling abroad, as well as for a better understanding of the texts of movies, animated films, computer games in English (British or American versions). ).
List of used literature
1) Afanasyeva O.V., Mikheeva I.V. "English language" (for grade 10 schools with in-depth study of English, lyceums and gymnasiums). - M., Education, 2007;
2) Arakin V.D. History of the English language: Textbook. - M., 1985
3) Arbekova T.I. Lexicology of the English language: Textbook. - M., 1977
4) Big English-Russian dictionary: 2nd edition, corrected and supplemented. - Minsk: Modern Writer, 2008, - 1167 p.
5) Zabotkina V.I. New Vocabulary of Modern English: Textbook. - M.: Higher School, 2000, - 124 p.
6) Collins. Russian-English Dictionary. - M., 2006 - 573 p.
7) Nesterchuk G.V. USA and Americans. - M.: Higher School, 1997, - 238 p.
8 Commager, Henry Steele. The Nineteenth-Century American. –from The American History: How the Past Helps Explain the Present and Future, 70-79;
9) Schweitzer A. D. Literary English in the USA and England. - M.: Higher school, 1991, - 200 p.
Appendix
| American variant | Translation into Russian | |
| first floor | ||
| second floor | ||
| government | ||
| flat | ||
| homework | ||
| Assembly Hall | ||
| banknote | ||
| billion | ||
| sad | ||
| tin | ||
| Course of Study | ||
| wardrobe | ||
| corn | ||
| apothecary | ||
| repair | ||
| guarantee | ||
| Intersection, junction | crossroads | |
| lend | ||
| located | ||
| magician | ||
| tube/underground |
||
| cinema | ||
| napkin | ||
| oatmeal | ||
| package, package | ||
| pantry | ||
| pavement | ||
| chairman | ||
| control, test | ||
| order | ||
| schedule | ||
| sewer | ||
| injection | ||
| label | ||
| course work | ||
| truck | ||
| two weeks | ||
| underground crossing | ||
| vacation | ||
| telegram | ||
| wrench | ||
| postcode |
| American pronunciation | british pronunciation | ||
| half |
|||
| automobile |
|||
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Knowledge only then becomes knowledge
Relevance The purpose of using the design methodology: The use of modern technologies makes it possible to study life by means of a foreign language in a real information space. One of the technologies that provide student-centered learning is the method of projects. It makes it possible to include students in real communication in a foreign language. Project activity arose at the beginning of the century, when the minds of teachers and philosophers were aimed at finding ways, ways of developing a child’s active independent thinking, in order to teach him not only to memorize and reproduce the knowledge that the school gives them, but to be able to apply this knowledge to practice. Today, the project method is again used, but in an updated form. The main task of methodologists and teachers is to help projects take their proper place in the school practice of teaching foreign languages. It is the comprehension and application of this method in a new socio-cultural situation in the light of the requirements for education at the present stage of social development that allows us to speak of the school project as a new pedagogical technology that allows us to effectively solve the problems of a student-centered approach in teaching the younger generation. So, the project method is a way to achieve a didactic goal through a detailed development of the problem, which should end with a very real, tangible practical result, formalized in one way or another (Prof. E. S. Polat); This is a set of techniques, actions of students in a certain sequence to achieve the task - solving a problem that is personally significant for students and designed in the form of a certain final product. What is the project method of teaching English at school?With regard to a foreign language lesson, a project is a set of actions specially organized by the teacher and independently performed by students, culminating in the creation of a creative product. The project is valuable because in the course of its implementation, students learn to independently acquire knowledge, gain experience in cognitive and educational activities. The project methodology is characterized by high communicativeness and involves students expressing their own opinions, feelings, active involvement in real activities, taking personal responsibility for progress in learning. The project methodology is based on the cyclical organization of the educational process. A separate cycle is considered as a complete independent period of study aimed at solving a specific problem in achieving the overall goal of mastering the English language. The main goals of introducing the project method into school practice are: A distinctive feature of the design methodology is a specific form of organization. When organizing work on a project, it is important to observe several conditions: Focusing on the goals and objectives that a foreign language teacher faces, and knowing the requirements for the level of education in the modern world, I apply this technique in my work. The experience of working at school has shown that in developing interest in a subject, one cannot rely only on the content of the material being studied. If students are not involved in an active activity, then any meaningful material will cause them a contemplative interest in a subject that will not be cognitive interest. In order to awaken active activity in schoolchildren, they need to offer an interesting and meaningful problem. The project method allows students to move from mastering ready-made knowledge to their conscious acquisition. Novelty approach is that students are given the opportunity to design the content of communication themselves, starting from the first lesson on the project. I work on UMK "English" V.P. Kuzovlev and UMK ”Enjoy English” M.Z. Biboletova. And the method of projects can be used within the program material on almost any topic. A very fruitful idea is used in the design methodology. Along with verbal means of expression, students also widely use other means: drawings, collages, pictures, plans, maps, diagrams, questionnaires, graphs and diagrams. The soundtracks of the course use onomatopoeia and sound effects. Thus, the development of communication skills is reliably supported by a variety of means that transmit this or that information. In this system of education, involuntary memorization of lexical means and grammatical structures is widely used in the course of solving problematic problems, the development of creative thinking and imagination is stimulated. Conditions are created for freedom of expression of thought and comprehension of the perceived. Preparing, executing and presenting a project is a much longer process than traditional assignments. With the help of the project methodology in the lesson, you can achieve several goals at once - to expand lexicon children, consolidate the studied lexical and grammatical material, create a holiday atmosphere in the lesson and decorate the foreign language classroom with colorful children's works. The variety of means of expressing meaning leads children to free creativity. This methodical find, successful in its simplicity, is the key to the construction of project tasks, where the language element is presented sparingly - to an advanced level, where it plays a leading role. At the same time, project work has unique opportunities for truly communicative teaching of a foreign language, even when relying on minimal language material. The project is carried out according to a certain scheme: Stage 2. Organizational Stage 3. Implementation of activities Stage 4. Processing and registration of project results. Stage 5 Discussion of the results obtained (reflection) The result of the work on the project is a product that is created by the project participants in the course of solving the problem posed using not only educational, but also real life experience. The project is effective because it is focused on achieving the goals of the students themselves and forms an incredibly large number of general educational skills and abilities: reflective, research, evaluative independence skills, the ability to work in collaboration, managerial, presentational. By the nature of the final product of the project activity, the following can be distinguished types of projects in the field of learning a foreign language in the classroom: Gaming – role-playing projects, for example, acting out fragments of a lesson at school (programs for the practice of oral speech, grammar, phonetics), dramatization of a play (programs for the practice of oral speech, children's literature of the country of the language being studied). Project defense on the topic "Animals in wood"
Protection of the project on the topic "Zoo"
Project defense on the topic "Traveling" Informative research projects, for example, "Studying the region of a country", "Guide to the country of the language being studied" are included in the country studies program, for example, in the 8th grade on the topic "Great Britain", and in the 11th grade on the topic "Australia". Scenario projects- a script for an extracurricular event for a school or a separate class, for example, "Christmas" (Christmas). creative work- free literary composition, literary translation of a work into the native language (programs for the practice of oral speech, children's literature of the country of the language being studied. Publishing projects- wall newspapers, materials for stands. For example,
Network projects– intermunicipal, regional and all-Russian competitions and festivals on the Internet. I have been trying to use the project method in elementary, middle and high school for several years. It is most fully and widely applicable for classes where the general level of development of students allows them to give them a higher level of knowledge. Any type of project involves the activation of students: they have to write, cut, paste, rummage through reference books, talk with other people, look for photographs and drawings, and even record themselves on an audio cassette. And finally, students with different levels of language training can participate in project work in accordance with their abilities. For example, a student who does not speak English well enough can draw perfectly. The main task of education is the actual study of the surrounding life. Teacher and students walk this path together, from project to project. The project that the students are doing should arouse their enthusiasm, captivate them, come from the heart. Any action performed individually, in a group, with the support of a teacher or other people, children must independently plan, perform, analyze and evaluate. By communicating to others about themselves and the world around them in English, students discover the value of English. language as the language of international communication. They may find themselves in a situation where they need to describe their family or city to foreigners, and project work prepares them for this. Basically, most of the projects are carried out during the final lessons, when, based on the results of its implementation, I assessed the assimilation of certain educational material by students. In conclusion, I would like to say that summing up some results of the work on the project method, I invited my students to take part in the survey. The purpose of the survey is to find out whether they are interested in this form of work, whether or not it is worth continuing to move in this direction. 1. What sources of information did you usually use when preparing the project? 59% chose the "book" option. 2. Was there enough time allotted for project preparation? 86% chose the "yes" option. 3. Preparing projects has taken your time away from more important and interesting things? 81% answered "no". 4. Will the schoolchildren following you be interested in working on projects? The “yes” option was chosen by all participants in the survey. Analyzing the practical experience of project development presented above, we can conclude that the use of the project method in the process of educating students by means of the English language integrated schoolchildren into various environments: social, language, etc., students were included in real research activities and aimed at getting real result. In addition, the independent choice of the content and methods of activity contributed to the development of the emotional sphere of the individual, her abilities, inclinations, and interests. Today we understand the phrase "method of projects" and a certain set of ideas, and a fairly clear pedagogical technology, and the specific practice of the work of teachers. The ideas that the project method was called upon to implement are once again becoming significant in wide circles of the pedagogical community. Despite my little experience, I am convinced that teaching should be fun not only for students, but also for the teacher himself, who should enjoy learning his subject and teaching it. No one claims that project work will solve all problems in learning, but it is an effective remedy for boredom. It contributes to the development of students, self-awareness as a member of the group, the expansion of language competencies. The project is also a real opportunity to use the knowledge gained in other lessons by means of a foreign language. I would like to imagine how it all can be in the near future. School for a child is an active school, involving the implementation of numerous tasks that are often invented on the go, because they are not in any book. To do this, of course, the teacher and the child need access to technology at any time. I recently read an article in a magazine on how this problem is solved in Dutch schools: in a small room with equipment there is a computer, a printer, a copier, a person from among the voluntary assistants of the school is always on duty - student interns, parents, who can always help to cope with technical problems. problems for adults and children. Nothing breaks or gets damaged. There are many books, various textbooks and reference books in the classrooms. I hope that most of our schools will soon also be equipped with the latest technology and the implementation of design tasks will become even more interesting and fruitful. Project activities in English lessons Read also:
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