This article provides basic information about the structure of sentences (syntax) and their types. You will also find examples of some problematic questions in written English.

Many linguists cannot come to a consensus: what is a sentence? We will give the following definition: a sentence is a sequence of words related in meaning and grammatically, the first of which begins with capital letter, followed by a punctuation mark (period, question mark, or exclamation point).

Subject and predicate

All sentences contain information about someone or something. This someone or something is called the subject in the sentence. In English, the subject usually appears at the beginning of a sentence:

· She is always complaining about her boss!(She always complains about her boss!)

· The dress is very beautiful(The dress is very beautiful).

· This tree is cut down because someone wants to build on these place a new supermarket(This tree is being cut down because someone wants to build a new supermarket on this site).

The predicate tells what this or that object does, what it is. Usually the predicate comes immediately after the subject:

· She wants to move to a new flat(She wants to move to a new apartment).

· We have no time for this nonsense(We don't have time for this nonsense).

· My friend is interested in creative story writing(My friend is interested in writing interesting stories).

A simple subject is the main subject in a sentence, a simple predicate is the main predicate.

· John waited until midnight(John waited until midnight).

In the above example John- subject, waited-predicate. A simple subject is always expressed by a noun or a pronoun, and a simple predicate is always expressed only by a verb.

Here are some more examples of sentences containing simple subjects and predicates:

· My English teacher also speaks French and Latin(My English teacher also speaks French and Latin).

· At the entrance a large dog with sad eyes is waiting for his master(Near the entrance, a large dog with sad eyes is waiting for its owner).

· The young girl wants a teddy bear as her birthday present(A little girl wants a teddy bear for her birthday.)

· My friend and I are going to the cinema tonight(My friend and I are going to the cinema tonight).

· At the wedding ceremony the groom suddenly said “No”.(At the wedding ceremony, the groom unexpectedly answered “No”)

Note that simple subjects and predicates can be composed of two or more words.

Helpful Tip: To learn how to write strong, clear sentences, you need to be clear about what or who you are writing about and what that someone/something is doing. Your writing style will become more readable if the subject does not come first in every sentence.

Offer types

Each complex sentence consists of several simple ones, which allow us to characterize it. So, simple sentence is the one that contains the only grammatical basis(subject and predicate). For example:

· I am afraid of snakes(I scared of snakes).

· She has a cat(She has a cat).

· We are going to Italy this summer(This summer we are going to Italy).

· He passed all his exams(He passed all his exams).

The next type is a compound sentence, consisting of at least two simple ones, which are connected by coordinating conjunctions and(and, a), but(but), so(Consequently), or(or). For example:

· I hate cooking, but my best friend is talented in this field(I hate cooking, but my best friend is talented in this area).

· She was at the library yesterday, and tomorrow she is going to the Art museum(Yesterday she was in the library, and today she is going to the art museum).

The next type is a complex sentence. It consists of a main clause and a dependent clause, which are connected by complex conjunctions. because(because), while(while), if(if), although(although), where(where).

· Although I hate cooking, I have to do it(Although I hate cooking, I have to do it).

· She was crying all night, because her boyfriend had said that she was fat(She cried all night because her boyfriend said she was fat).

· In spite of showing his feelings directly, he never tells us about his life.(Despite the fact that he shows his emotions openly, he never tells us about his life).

In English, the subordinate clause is called " fragmentsentence”and cannot be without the main.

There are also sentences that contain both a coordinating connection and a subordinating one. For example:

· My brother loves cooking, and I hate to do it, although my Mom has tried to teach me.(My brother loves to cook and I hate to cook even though my mom tried to teach me)

· She was at the library yesterday, and tomorrow she is going to the Art museum, because she wants to see what she was reading about(She was in the library yesterday, and today she is going to the art museum because she wants to see what she has been reading about).

Helpful Hint: Do not give preference to simple, short sentences or too long sentences with a lot of subordinate clauses. A lot of simple sentences that follow one after another can bore the reader, and extremely complex sentences can tire him. Therefore, use variety: let short sentences alternate with long ones in your letter.

"Problem Suggestions"

To write sentences correctly, you need to clearly know what a sentence is. If a person does not understand the definition, or does not want to delve into it, then there will be many errors in his sentences. Moreover, not only learners of English, but also native speakers are subject to this.

One of the most common mistakes is the “merging” of two or more sentences due to the fact that the author forgot to put a comma or union in the right place. Such forgetfulness can lead to the following suggestions:

· All your life you should learn the demands of modern reality(You have to learn all your life these are the requirements of modern reality).

· You should learn your whole life, because of thedemands of modern reality(You have to study all your life, because these are the requirements of modern reality).

Helpful Hint: Read what you have written aloud and with expression. When you speak words, you make natural pauses that mark the end of a sentence or clause. With the help of reading aloud, you can easily find the place where you forgot to put the right punctuation mark or conjunction.

Let's talk about subordinate clauses. As mentioned above, the subordinate clause cannot stand without the main one, since they only express the complete thought of the author in a pair. Among the most common mistakes are those that occur when a person draws up a subordinate clause as an independent sentence. The result is something like this:

· I couldn't go for a walk with you last week because I was busy with my exams(I couldn't go out with you last week. Because I was busy preparing for my exams).

He spoke to the teacher in a very offensive tone. Which wasn't a good idea at all.(He spoke to the teacher in a rude tone. Which was not a good idea at all)

Useful advice: if you find a sentence that “sounds” like a subordinate clause or does not contain a normal grammatical basis (subject + predicate), then you made a mistake somewhere. Complex sentences are easy to identify if you read them the other way around, i.e. from the last sentence to the first. To correct a mistake, it is enough to attach a subordinate clause before or after the sentence.

Writers who have a thorough understanding of sentence structure sometimes deliberately frame the clause as a separate sentence in order to have a particular effect. So when reading good fiction, don't be surprised if you come across the sentence we labeled as a mistake above. You can use the same technique if you are writing short stories, but it will be considered a blunder on the exam.

Another type of "problem sentence" is an incoherent sentence, which consists of many simple sentences connected by coordinating conjunctions and (and, a), or (or), so (therefore).

· I usually get up at 6.30, even on weekends, but this morning my alarm clock, for some unknown reason, didn't ring so I was asleep when my boss called me at 11.00 to ask why I was not on my worksite, and I said that it was because of my alarm clock. I have to get ready quickly…(I usually get up at 6.30, even on weekends, but this morning my alarm didn't go off for some strange reason, so I was sleeping and my boss called me at 11 to ask why I wasn't at my desk and I replied that it was because of his alarm, and I had to quickly pack up ...).

· Although people from all over the world are forming different organizations to protect the environment from pollution, especially in big cities, it is still a problem, as scientists warn, because of the huge amount of factories…(Although people around the world are forming various organizations to protect the environment from pollution, especially in big cities, it is still a big problem, scientists warn, due to the huge number of factories ...)

Helpful Hint: An incoherent sentence is very easy to spot - it contains 3 or 4 conjunctions. If you start to choke when reading aloud, then you wrote a rambling sentence. Also, in the case where your sentence stretches over several lines, you are very likely to have written an incoherent sentence, which may also be "fused" - where you forgot to put the right punctuation mark.

You need to understand that an incoherent sentence, unlike “fused” and subordinate clauses (which you draw up like an independent one), is correct from a grammatical and punctuation point of view. Just to understand its meaning is extremely difficult. In addition, such a proposal eloquently indicates poor writing skills. You should try to avoid it.

And finally, the last useful tip: if you are not sure if your sentence is well written, ask your teacher for help. And remember that the more books you read in English, the better you can write. The fact is that reading good literature will provide you with examples of English sentence structure, and this will have a beneficial effect on your writing style in general.

Remember that a good letter contains more than just grammatically and punctuationally well-formed sentences that range from short to long. Sentences should also flow well from one to the other so that the written text gives the impression of "connectedness", "cohesion". In this case, readers will easily understand what you wanted to tell them.

Having learned a little (but quite enough) about nouns and verbs, let's move on to another extremely important topic - word order. Despite the fact that the lesson is relatively overview, please be careful when studying it - the theoretical information received today will be used in almost all future courses.

To begin with, remember that there are five (basic) members of the sentence:
subject, predicate, addition, definition And circumstance.

The members of a sentence can be expressed by different parts of speech: noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, numeral and others (of which we, of course, will speak in the future).

For translation, it is very important to find out, first of all, what member of the sentence this or that word is. And in this we are greatly helped by the word order of the English sentence.

But first, a few words about the members of the sentence. Their practical definition is no different from the definition in Russian.

Subject (The Subject)

Subject (The Subject) a member of a sentence is called, denoting the subject about which something is said in the sentence. It answers the question who? who? or what? what?.

Note!!! Very often, language learners mistakenly believe that the subject (especially, called The Subject in English) is expressed by a name (noun, numeral) or a pronoun. This is fundamentally wrong!

The subject can be expressed by: noun, pronoun, numeral, infinitive and gerund (one of the impersonal forms of the verb that we will talk about later. For now, just remember this).

Predicate (The Predicate)

Predicate (The Predicate) a member of a sentence is called, denoting what is being said about the subject. The predicate answers the questions: what does the subject do? what is done with the subject? who, what is he/she/it?

The predicate is of two types - simple and compound. In the next lessons we will consider a simple predicate, and we will talk about compound predicates later. Just remember that a simple predicate is expressed by a verb in a personal form in any tense, voice and mood.

Supplement (The Object)

Complement (The Object) a secondary member of a sentence is called, which denotes an object and answers questions corresponding in Russian to questions of indirect cases, both without a preposition and with a preposition: whom? whom? what? what? to whom? to whom? by whom? by whom? about what? about what? etc.

Note: There are two types of cases - direct and indirect.

direct case- nominative (answers the question who? what?). Accordingly, the genitive (whom? What?), Dative (to whom? What?), Accusative (whom? What?), Instrumental (by whom? What?) and Local (on whom? On what?) are indirect.

Let's just say a few words about definitions and circumstances to complete the overall picture. We will return to them in more detail, studying adjectives and adverbs.

Definition (The Attribute)

Definition (The Attribute) a secondary member of a sentence is called, which indicates a sign of an object and answers questions which? whose? which the? which? How many? A definition usually refers to a noun. Much less often it refers to noun pronouns.

Circumstance (The Adverbial Modifier)

Circumstances (The Adverbial Modifier) secondary members of the sentence are called, which indicate how or under what circumstances ( those. where, when, why, why, etc.) action is taken. Circumstances usually refer to the verb.

Now we have all the necessary information in order to deal with the word order in an English sentence.

Know that, unlike the Russian sentence with a free word order (which is possible due to the fact that, we recall, the Russian language is synthetic and, therefore, the connection between the words is "included" in the words themselves), an English sentence has a fixed (fixed) word order, which can be represented in the most general terms in the diagram.

circumstance subject+predicate+addition circumstance | | | | | | |____________________ definition____________________|

Subject And predicate are the "core" of the English sentence, that is, those members that are usually present in every sentence. Therefore, when analyzing a sentence, first of all, one should find the subject and predicate, and then determine the remaining members of the sentence relative to them.

Addition, if present, is after the predicate. So, having an English sentence of three words, not connected by any prepositions, we can say with confidence that the first word is the subject, the second is the predicate, and the third is the object.

Take, for example, the sentence

students face problems.

First word students- subject expressed by a noun in plural. number of students.

The subject is followed by the predicate, which means the word face- the verb to face (and not the noun a face - face), one of the meanings of which is to collide (face to face).

After the predicate, according to the solid word order, there is an addition problems.

So the sentence should be translated as follows: "Students face (many) problems".

And if we swapped the words students And problems, then you would receive an offer "Problems face students", and would then be forced to translate it as follows: "Problems Face Students" despite the fact that it sounds absurd.

Circumstance usually found at the end or at the beginning of a sentence, but it also occurs in the middle of a sentence (most often in the form of an adverb of indefinite tense). Adverbial nouns usually have a definite article.

Definition can define any member of the sentence and is usually located before or after the word being defined, therefore it can be in any part of the sentence. A definition often makes it difficult to understand the structure of a sentence, especially when it is expressed not in one word, but in a group of words or a subordinate clause. Therefore, during the initial analysis of the sentence, common definitions can be "isolated" in order to identify the main members - the subject and the predicate.

To summarize what we need to know:
but) in an English sentence, the location of the word determines which member of this sentence it is; changing the order of words in a sentence leads to a change in its meaning;
b) the same word, depending on the determiners (as well as on its place in the sentence), can denote different parts of speech.

What else do you need to know:

Despite the fixed word order in an English sentence, there are several cases of deviation from the direct word order, called inversion, which are caused by various reasons. Among them:

• formation of an interrogative form
• the need to emphasize one or another part of the proposal
• the need to improve the rhythm of the sentence

Naturally, all these cases will be considered in our lessons. Remember that the most common reason is the formation of an interrogative form, you will practically never meet the other two on the Web.

Word order in an English sentence is observed much more strictly than in Russian. The Russian language is rich in endings and therefore has a freer word order, because they show the function of each word in the sentence. English words cannot boast of an abundance of endings, and their relationship to each other is shown through the place in the sentence, and not the form. This is the reason for the fixed word order in English. Can't change locations various parts sentences, especially the subject and object. Let's, for a more illustrative example, try to make sentences in English and swap words.

Mr. Smith sent the boys to school. – The boys sent Mr. Smith to school.

In Russian, we would say in the second case - "Mr. Smith sent the boys to school" - the meaning of the sentence is clear. In the English version, however, it turned out that the boys sent Mr. Smith to school - this is no good anymore, we urgently need to learn how to build sentences in English!

English sentence structure

Let's take a look at the standard sentence structure and at the same time analyze the example already given above.

Subject (Mr. Smith) + predicate (sent) + object (the boys) + circumstance (to school).

Construction of an English sentence, scheme

Subject

The subject can be either a single word or a group of words that represent an animate or inanimate object that performs an action. It can be expressed as a noun, a pronoun, a substantiated adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, and a word form with the ending –ing.

Three of the parcels were from my uncle. Three parcels were from my uncle.

Knitting became her hobby. Knitting has become her passion.

Predicate

Thanks to the predicate, we learn what happens to the subject. It can also be represented by one (simple verbal) or several words - the latter group includes compound nominal and verbal predicates.

The nominal part of the compound predicate follows the linking verb and can be expressed by a noun, an adjective, a numeral, an infinitive, a pronoun, and the –ing form.

Second consecutive action

Often the sentence indicates the next action that occurs after the action of the predicate. The second action is expressed by the impersonal form of the verb - the infinitive, the –ing form and the gerund.

She turned her head to see him looking at her. (She turned her head and saw that he was looking at her.)

She walked in singing a song. (She came in and sang a song.)

Addition

Objects can be expressed by noun, pronoun, infinitive, substantivized adjective, and –ing.

• The addition can be direct or direct (answers the questions of whom? what?).

  I saw him yesterday. – I saw him yesterday.

  They were busy packaging. They were busy collecting things.

• Indirect or indirect without a preposition (to whom?).

  She offered Ashley a new position. She offered Ashley a new position.

• Indirect with prepositions to, for - Object of the Preposition (for whom? with whom? about what? about whom?).

  We have been waiting for you since morning. We have been waiting for you since morning.

  If the sentence has several additions, then the following scheme will help to place them correctly after the predicate.

• Indirect Object + Direct Object

  I gave Edward the car. I gave Edward the car. (First to whom, then to what.)

• Direct Object + Object of the Preposition

  I gave my car on rent. - I rented a car. (First what, and then where - with a pretext).

Circumstance

Circumstances show where, when, for what and other conditions under which an action could take place. Let's look at the types of circumstances and examples with them.

Please note: the place of the adverb in the English sentence corresponds to the place of the circumstance. When setting, follow the order in which the adverbial modifiers were listed above.

You may also encounter accompanying circumstances, circumstance descriptions, purposes, reasons, comparisons, sequences, concessions, conditions and reservations.

If there are several circumstances, then those that refer to the course of action should be used first, and then those indicating the place and time.

If there are several circumstances of one group, then you should first put the one whose meaning is more specific, and then the one that has a general concept.

My train is at 7 o'clock on Sunday.

Sentence constructions in English

Definition

The order of adjectives in an English sentence, as well as nouns, pronouns, the infinitive, the –ing form of the word, and sometimes adverbs, that act as a definition, depends on whether their connection with the noun being defined is close or not.

A large cat jumped on my bad. A big cat jumped on my bed. (Close connection).

He is not a friend to rely on. He's not the kind of friend you can rely on. (Close connection.)

Painted yellow, the boat looked like a lemon. – Painted in yellow, the boat looked like a lemon. (Free connection.)

Reverse word order

This is such an order (also called inversion) in which the subject is placed after the predicate.

Hasn't he any friends? Doesn't he have friends?

Inversion is required in certain types of sentences, we will consider them in more detail.

• Interrogative sentences.

  In most of them, the inversion is partial, because only part of the compound predicate is placed before the subject, namely the auxiliary or modal verb.

  Where did they eat yesterday? Where did they eat yesterday?

  The whole predicate is placed before the subject when it is expressed by the verbs to be and to have.

  Note that word order in a question is preserved when question word is the subject or subject definition: Who understands English here? What book are you reading?

• Offers are introduced there.

  There is nothing surprising in his behavior. There is nothing surprising in his behavior.

• Complex sentences.

  The second part of which starts with so or neither.

  She decided to learn English, so did her sister. She decided to learn English, her sister also.

• Simple exclamatory sentences.

  Expressing desire.

  Be it so!

  May you have the day filled with happiness and joy! May your day be filled with happiness and joy!

You can always repeat this topic with the help of a video lesson:

In English, as well as in Russian, speech consists of words that form phrases and sentences. Syntax studies the structure of a sentence, i.e., the rules for combining words and building sentences from these combinations. A combination of words that expresses a complete thought is called a sentence.
Each member of the sentence can be expressed in one word, phrase, group of words or sentence (subordinate clause).

Main and secondary members of the sentence

The offer differs main And secondary sentence members.

The main members of the proposal are:

• subject
• predicate

The secondary members of the proposal are:

• addition (object)
• definition (attribute)
• circumstance (adverbial modifiers)

The English language is very formalized and structured, so the relationship between the members of a sentence is actually completely determined by the word order. Word order in English is the main means of distinguishing the members of a sentence, due to the almost complete absence of endings and cases.

The word order of an English declarative sentence is built in a strict sequence.
The main members of the sentence, subject and predicate, form the basis of a complete thought and are inextricably linked. The subject always comes before the verb. Additions come immediately after the predicate. If the predicate is expressed by an intransitive verb, that is, it does not have an addition, then the circumstance of the place is placed after it.

Usually the sentence includes adverbial words. At the same time, the circumstances of the place come first, then the circumstances of the time.
In some cases, the adverb of time may precede the subject. If there is no adverb of time, then the adverb of place may be before the subject.

All proposals are divided into affirmative and negative.

Types of sentences in English

Semantically English sentences are of 4 types:

• narrative (declarative)
• exclamatory
• interrogative (interrogative)
• imperative (impelling) (imperative)

Offer types

Syntactically English sentences are divided into:

• simple
• compound (compound)
• complex

When two or more sentences are combined through intonation and special functional words (unions or allied words) into one complete statement, we are dealing with a complex sentence.

If two or more simple sentences are combined into one complex sentence as equivalent, this will be an essay ( Coordination), and such a complex sentence is called compound ( Compound Sentence).

If two or more sentences are connected together and one of them is the main one, and the others define it and are subordinate clauses, then this will be a subordination ( Subordination), and such a complex sentence is called a complex sentence ( Complex Sentence).

Compound sentence (Compound Sentence):

I wrote a letter, and he took it to the post office.
I wrote a letter and he took it to the post office.

Simple sentences are uncommon And common.

Uncommon simple sentences consist only of the main members of the proposal - subject And predicate:

The car (subject) stopped (predicate). The car stopped.

Part common simple sentence in addition to the main members, there are also secondary ones - definition, addition And circumstance. The secondary members of the sentence explain the main ones:

In this sentence, the minor member of the blue sentence (definition) explains the subject - the car, and the minor member at the gate (place circumstance) is the predicate stopped.

The minor member of the company (definition) explains the subject of the manager ; the minor member of the sentence a letter (addition) explains the predicate has received.

The subject with the secondary members of the sentence related to it constitutes the subject group (common subject). The predicate with the secondary members of the sentence related to it constitutes the group of the predicate (common predicate):

The secondary members of the sentence, in turn, can be explained by other secondary ones, making common members of the sentence with them:

In this sentence, the minor member of the sentence a message (complement) is explained by another minor member important (definition), forming with it a common object - an important message .

The minor term at the meeting (the circumstance of place) is explained by another minor member of the council (definition), forming with it the common adverb of place at the meeting of the council.

INTERESTING SENTENCES DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF QUESTION
№ p/n	QUESTION TYPE	RULE	EXAMPLE
	GENERAL (NON-PRONOUNAL)	General questions are those that can be answered yes or no. They start with an interrogative verb.	Do you know him? You know him? Is this bag clean? Is this bag clean?
	SPECIAL (PRONOMINAL)	Special questions are aimed at clarifying a fact or circumstance. They are relate not to the whole offer, but to one of its members. They begin with a question word. The verb is in the interrogative form only if the interrogative word is not the subject or the definition of the subject	Where is he? Where is he? Where do you study? Where are you studying? Who knows? What do you know? What do you know?
	ALTERNATIVE	Alternative questions suggest in response, a choice between two or more items, actions, or qualities, expressed homogeneous members sentences joined by or or	Do you study at the University or at college? You study at the university or in college?
	SEPARATING (DISTEMPTED)	Separating questions consist of in two parts: the first part is declarative sentence(affirmative or negative), and the second - short general question, consisting of an auxiliary (or modal) verb in the required form and a personal pronoun in the nominative case. Moreover, if the first part of the question is affirmative, then the auxiliary (modal) verb is used in the negative form, if the first part is negative, then the auxiliary (modal) verb is used in the affirmative form	You bought the tickets, didn't you? You bought tickets, didn't you? You had a good time in the country last week, didn't you? You had a good time out of town last week, didn't you? He hasn't come back from Moscow yet, has he? He hasn't returned from Moscow yet, has he?

INTERESTING NEGATIVE SENTENCES
№ p/n	RULE	EXAMPLE
	The negative form of special questions is formed using the negative particle not, which in colloquial speech often merges with the auxiliary verb before the subject	Why didn't you know your lesson? Why are you not ready for the lesson? Why isn't he coming to see us? Why won't he come to us?
	The negative form of the general question in English gives it a touch of surprise. Such sentences are translated into Russian as questions beginning with the words Is it really?	Didn't you know about the meeting? Did you not know about the meeting? Didn't you go to the library yesterday? Weren't you in the library yesterday?

MAIN MEMBERS OF THE PROPOSITION AND THEIR EXPRESSION

The subject is a member of the sentence, denoting the subject about which something is said in the sentence. It answers the question who? who? or what? what?

WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE SUBJECT
№ p/n	METHOD OF EXPRESSION	EXAMPLE
	noun	The train has arrived. The train has arrived. The meeting is over. The meeting is over.
	pronoun	Doesn't work at a factory. He works in a factory. Someone wants to speak to you. Someone wants to talk to you.
	infinitive	That swim is pleasant. It's nice to swim.
	gerund	Smoking is not allowed here. Smoking is not allowed here.
	numeral	Three were absent from the lecture. Three were absent from the lecture.
	Any word or phrase used as a noun	"Had" is the Past Tense of the verb "to have". "Had" is the past tense of the verb "to have".

An English sentence in its structure differs from a Russian one in that it always has a subject and a predicate (more precisely, they should). Therefore, in impersonal sentences, when there is no subject with a specific objective meaning, the pronoun it is used as a formal grammatical subject:

Impersonal sentences are divided into registered And verbal.

Nominal impersonal sentences are built according to the scheme:

(does not translate into Russian)	TO BE (linking verb in corresponding time)	NOMINAL PART OF THE PREDICIAL (adjective, noun or numeral)
		9 o "clock when we got home.
It was 9 o'clock when we came home.

When forming an interrogative form, the linking verb comes first:

Is it winter now in that part of the country? Is it winter in this part of the country?

In negative nominal impersonal sentences, the particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb:

It won't be cold in September, I hope. I hope it won't be cold in September.

Verbal impersonal sentences are built according to the following scheme:

	SIMPLE VERB PREDICT, Expressed by an impersonal verb like to rain go (about rain), to snow go (about snow)
	often rains in autumn.
It often rains in autumn.

There are no verbs in Russian that correspond to the verbs to rain and to snow (literally, they would look like: rain, snow), but in Russian there is also a category of impersonal verbs: get dark, get light etc., which are used to form impersonal sentences. At the same time, as in English, the verb is put in the 3rd person singular: darkens, shines:

It is getting dark. It's getting dark.

The interrogative and negative forms of verbal impersonal sentences are formed according to the same rules as for sentences with a regular verbal predicate:

Does it often rain in autumn? It often rains in autumn?

Is it raining now? It's raining now?

It didn't snow much last winter. It didn't snow much last winter.

It won't be raining tomorrow. It won't rain tomorrow.

The pronoun it is used as a formal subject in the following impersonal sentences:

When reporting about natural phenomena:

With verbs denoting weather conditions: to rain, to snow, to freeze, etc.:

With the designations time and distance:

The pronoun it in the function of the formal subject is used with some verbs in the passive voice. Such passive turns correspond in Russian to indefinite personal turns:

The pronoun it in the function of a formal subject is also used in the presence of a subject sentence expressed infinitive, gerund or subordinate clause and standing after the predicate:

One combined with modal verbs must, should is translated into Russian "need, follows", with the verb can - "can":

One can be used in the possessive form and in this case is translated own, own, own, own:

In dictionaries, the pronoun one in the possessive form usually indicates that in a particular sentence, instead of one, you need to use the corresponding possessive pronoun:

A sentence with an indefinite subject one or they is translated into Russian as an impersonal or indefinitely personal sentence.

Often in indefinitely personal sentences, the pronoun they is used, especially in the combination they say, corresponding to the Russian "say":

The pronoun you is used less often:

If you need to select an addition his sister, i.e., to emphasize that it was his sister that I met, and not someone else, then his sister placed between it was And that (whom):

If you need to highlight the circumstance of place in the park i.e. emphasize that I met his sister in the park and not elsewhere, then in the park placed between it was And that:

When translating this turnover, they often use the words exactly, this.

With the help of the turnover It is ... that, you can also highlight the subordinate clause. In this case, when translating into Russian, the word is often used only:

I told him the news after he had returned from Moscow. It was after he had returned from Moscow that I told him the news.

The predicate is a member of the sentence, denoting what is being said about the subject. The predicate answers the questions: what does the subject do? what does the subject do? what is done to the subject? what is done with the subject? or what is it like? what is it? what is it? what is it? who is it? who is that?

The predicate is simple (the Simple Predicate) and compound (the Compound Predicate). The compound predicate, in turn, is of two types - compound nominal And compound verb:

SIMPLE PREDICTION

A simple predicate is expressed by a verb in a personal form in any tense, voice and mood:

COMPOSITE NOMINAL PREDICT

The compound nominal predicate is expressed by the linking verb to be in personal form, in combination with the nominal part. The nominal part of the compound predicate expresses the main meaning of the predicate, telling what the subject (subject) is, what it is, what it is, who it is.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE NOMINAL PART OF THE PREDICT
№ p/n	METHOD OF EXPRESSION	EXAMPLE
	noun	I am a student They are workers.
	pronoun	It is she. That's her. This book is yours. This book is yours.
	Noun or pronoun with a preposition	The room is in disorder. The room is in disarray. She was in despair. She was desperate. Not is against it. He is against it.
	Adjective or participle	The morning was warm. The morning was warm. The glass is broken. The glass is broken.
	infinitive	Your duty is to help them immediately. Your duty is to help them immediately. My intention is to go to the Caucasus in June. I intend to go to the Caucasus in June.
	gerund	Her greatest pleasure was travelling. Traveling was her greatest pleasure.
N.B.	In Russian, the linking verb to be in the present tense is usually absent. In English, the presence of a linking verb is mandatory. Therefore, Russian sentences: He is a student. black pencil ny, etc. are translated into English using a linking verb: Not is a student. The pencil is black.

A combination of to be with an infinitive, which is a compound nominal predicate, should be distinguished from a compound verbal predicate that coincides with it in form, since the meaning of these combinations is different.

The verb to be in a compound nominal predicate is translated into Russian in words be to or consist in, and is often not translated in the present tense. The verb to be in a compound verbal predicate, expressing obligation, is translated into Russian through the words: should, should have.

In oral speech, after the verb to be, a pause is made in the nominal predicate; in the compound verbal predicate, there is no pause after to be:

In addition to the verb to be, verbs can serve as a linking verb to become, to grow, to get, to turn in the meaning of becoming, to seem to seem, to look to look, etc.: Did not become a doctor. He became a doctor. Not looks ill. He looks sick. They seemed tired. They seemed tired. It grew warmer. It got warmer (became warmer). Not getting old. He's getting old (getting old). She turned pale. She turned pale.

COMPOSITE VERB PREDICT

A compound verb predicate is a combination of a verb in the personal form with an infinitive or gerund. The infinitive or gerund expresses the main meaning of the predicate, indicating the action performed by the subject; the verb, in its personal form, plays the role of an auxiliary part.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING A COMPOSITE VERB PREDICT
№ p/n	WAY	EXAMPLE
	combination modal verbs (or their equivalents) with an infinitive	May return soon. He may be back soon. I have to go there. I must go there.
	combination with infinitive or gerund of many other verbs which alone do not make complete sense. Such verbs include to begin to begin, to continue to continue, to finish to finish, to like to love, to want to want, to intend to intend, to try to try, to avoid to avoid, to hope to hope, to promise to promise, etc.	She began to translate the article. She began to translate the article. Doesn't want to help me. He wants to help me. I have finished writing the exercise. I have finished writing the exercise. Not avoided sitting in the sun. He avoided sitting in the sun.
	combination adjective(with a preceding copula) with an infinitive, and sometimes with a gerund	I am glad to see you. I'm glad to see you . Is not ready to help her. He is ready to help her.
N.B.	In Russian, the compound verb predicate is also formed by combining the corresponding verbs and adjectives with the infinitive: He can do it. She started translating article. I'm glad to see you.

SECONDARY MEMBERS OF THE PROPOSITION AND THEIR EXPRESSION

An addition is a secondary member of a sentence that designates an object and answers questions that correspond in Russian to questions of oblique cases, both without a preposition and with a preposition: whom? whom? what? what? to whom? to whom? by whom? by whom? about what? about what? etc.

Complement is direct and indirect. Indirect addition can be unprepositional and prepositional:

DIRECT ADDITION (THE DIRECT OBJECT)

A direct object denotes a person or object to which the action expressed by the transitive verb, both in personal and in impersonal form, directly passes. It answers the question whom? whom? or what? what? and corresponds in Russian to an addition in the accusative case without a preposition. The direct object comes after the verb: I received a letter yesterday. I received a letter yesterday.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING DIRECT COMPLEMENT
№ p/n	WAY	EXAMPLE
	noun	I have bought a book. I bought a book.
	pronoun	I met him yesterday. I met him yesterday.
	numeral	How many books did you take the library? - I took three. How many books did you borrow from the library?- I took three.
	infinitive	Don't asked me to do it. He asked me to do it.
	gerund	I remember reading about it before. I remember reading about it before.

FREE INDIRECT ADDITION (THE INDIRECT OBJECT)

Some transitive verbs (to give to give, to send to send, to show to show, etc.) have, in addition to the direct object, a second non-prepositional object that answers the question to whom? to whom? and denoting the person to whom the action is addressed. Such an addition is called an unprepositional indirect addition and corresponds in Russian to an indirect addition in the dative case without a preposition. An unprepositional indirect object is expressed by a noun in the common case or by a pronoun in the objective case and stands between the verb and the direct object:

PREPOSITIONAL INDIRECT OBJECT (THE PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT)

The prepositional indirect object, that is, the object with a preposition, is used after many verbs and adjectives and answers various questions: about whom? about whom? about what? about what? with whom? with whom? for whom? for whom? etc.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING INDIRECT COMPLEMENT
№ p/n	METHOD OF EXPRESSION	EXAMPLE
	Noun with a preposition	We spoke about our work. We talked about our work. Doesn't live with his parents. with your parents lyami
	pronoun with preposition	Not spoke to me yesterday. He spoke to me yesterday. I agree with you. I agree with you.
	Gerund with preposition	I am fond of reading. I like to read. Not insists on doing it himself. He insists on doing it himself.
	Noun with a preposition after a direct object	I have received a letter from my sister. I received a letter from my sister. I spent a lot of money on books. I spent a lot of money on books.

FORMAL SUPPLEMENT IT

After a series of transitive verbs to find, to consider, to think, to deem, to feel etc., the pronoun it is often used, which is a formal object preceding the addition expressed by an infinitive turnover or a subordinate clause. The pronoun it in this case is not translated into Russian:

A definition is a secondary member of a sentence that denotes a sign of an object and answers the questions: what? what kind of? which? whose? whose? which? which the? which? how much? how many? How many?

The definition usually refers to a noun, but less often - to a noun pronoun (one and derivatives from some, any, every, no).

WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE DEFINITION
№ p/n	METHOD OF EXPRESSION	EXAMPLE
	adjective	I received an important letter yesterday. I received an important letter yesterday. I am going to tell you something interesting. I'll tell you something interesting.
	Communion	Didn't buy some illustrated magazines. He bought several illustrated magazines. The rising sun was hidden by the clouds. The rising sun was covered with clouds.
	Participle turnover	The student speaking to the teacher is my brother. student talkingwith the teacher, my brother. They sent us a list of goods sold at the auction. They sent us a list of items sold at the auction. cyone.
	numeral	Two thousand tons of sugar were loaded yesterday. Two thousand tons of sugar were loaded yesterday. The second lesson begins at 11 o' clock. The second lesson begins at 11.
	pronoun	Some magazines are lying on the table. There are several magazines on the table. This is my book. It's my book.
	Noun in common case	The town library is closed on Sundays. The city library is closed on Sundays. Poland and Germany have concluded a trade agreement. Poland and Germany signed a trade agreement.
	Noun in the possessive case	The teacher corrected the student's mistakes. The teacher corrected the student's mistakes. The expert's conclusion was enclosed in the letter. The expert opinion was attached to the letter.
	Noun with a preposition	The leg of the table is broken. The table leg is broken. I have lost the key to the en trance door. I lost my front door key.
	infinitive	Not had a great desire to travel. He had a great desire to travel.
	Gerund with preposition	They discussed different methods of teaching foreign languages. They discussed various methods of teaching foreign­ strange languages.

In English, as in Russian, there is special kind definition, which is expressed by a noun that gives the object being defined another name. Such a definition is called an application. The application can be distributed, have explanatory words with you:

The definition does not have a permanent place in the sentence. It can define any member of a sentence expressed by a noun:

A circumstance is a secondary member of a sentence, which denotes how or under what circumstances (i.e. where, when, why, why, etc.) an action is performed. Circumstances usually refer to the verb in both personal and impersonal forms.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES
№ p/n	MEANING	EXAMPLE
	Time	She will come soon. She will come soon. We reached the town the next morning. We reached the city the next morning.
	A place	I found him in the garden. I found it in the garden. We could see the river from the top of the hill. We saw the river from the top of the hill.
	Modus operandi	Not spoke slowly. He spoke slowly. Not copied the letter with great care. He rewrote the letter with great care.
	Cause	I came back because of the rain. I returned from the rain. The steamer could not leave the port owing to a severe storm . The steamer could not leave the port because of a strong storm.
	Target	The steamer called at Odessa to take on a fresh supply of coal. The steamer entered Odessa to take a fresh supply of coal. I have come to discuss the matter. I have come to discuss this matter.
	Degree Circumstances, expressing degree, can also apply to adjectives and adverbs	I quite agree with her. I quite agree with her. Has not changed much. He has changed a lot. This machine is very heavy. This car is very heavy. I know him rather well. I know him quite well.
	Related circumstances	Not sat at the table reading but newspaper. He was sitting at the table reading a newspaper.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING A CIRCUMSTANCE
№ p/n	WAY	EXAMPLE
	adverb	The meeting was held yesterday. The meeting took place yesterday. Not quickly opened the door and ran out of the room. He quickly opened the door and ran out of the room.
	Noun with a preposition	Not spent his vacation in the south . He spent his holidays in the south. Was not in New York during the war in Afghanistan. During the war in Afghanistan, he was in New York.
	Communion (corresponding to the Russian participle)	Didn't stand on the deck counting the boxes. He stood on deck, counting boxes. While reading the book I came across a number of interesting expressions. While reading this book, I came across a number of interesting expressions.
	infinitive	I called on him to discuss this matter. I went to him to discuss this matter. Is not clever enough to understand it. He is smart enough to understand this.
	Gerund with preposition	Not locked the door before leaving the office. He locked the door before leaving the office. On arriving at the station he went to the information bureau. Arriving at the station, he went to the information desk.

Circumstances usually come after additions. If there are two or more circumstances, they are placed in the following order:

Circumstance of course of action	Circumstance of place	circumstance of time
I met him by chance	at the theater	a few days ago.
I met him by chance	in the theatre	some days ago .

COMPLEX SENTENCE MEMBERS

The members of a sentence can be indivisible combinations of a noun or pronoun with non-personal forms of the verb - infinitive, participle or gerund. Such members of the sentence are called complex.

No. p / p	OFFER MEMBER	EXAMPLE
	DIFFICULT SUBJECT (THE COMPLEX SUBJECT)	The steamer is expected to arrive tomorrow. The ship is expected to arrive tomorrow. It is difficult for him to do it today. It's hard for him to do it today.
	COMPLEX NAME PART OF THE PREDICIAL (THE COMPLEX PREDICATIVE)	The only way out of the difficulty is for you to go there. The only way out of the difficulty- you must go there immediately. The inconvenience was my not knowing the language. The inconvenience was that I did not know the language.
	COMPLEX DIRECT COMPLEMENT (THE COMPLEX DIRECT OBJECT)	I saw her crossing the street. I saw her crossing the street. Do you mind my opening the window? Do you mind if I open the window?
	DIFFICULT PROPOSITIONAL ADDITION (THE COMPLEX PREPOSITIONAL OBJECT)	I count upon him to help me. I'm counting on him to help me. I was surprised at my brother's coming so early. I was surprised that my brother came so early.
	DIFFICULT DEFINITION (THE COMPLEX ATTRIBUTE)	The first thing for me to do is to find out the date of the arrival of the steamer. The first thing I must do is find out the date of the steamer's arrival.
	DIFFICULT CIRCUMSTANCE (THE COMPLEX ADVERBIAL MODIFIER)	The water was too cold for the children to bathe. The water was too cold for the children to swim. My brother having taken the key , I could not enter the house. Since my brother took the key, I could not enter the house.

A compound sentence consists of equal simple sentences that do not depend on each other. Simple sentences that are part of a compound sentence are connected by coordinating conjunctions: and and, but, but, or or, etc. They are usually separated by a comma.

Two or more simple sentences, as in Russian, can be combined into a compound sentence without conjunctions. In this case, between simple sentences, you can meaningfully insert the union and and, but. A semicolon is placed between the sentences that make up the non-union compound sentence:

COMPLEX SENTENCE (THE COMPLEX SENTENCE)

A complex sentence consists of unequal sentences, one sentence is dependent on the other. A clause that explains another clause is called the Subordinate Clause. A clause that is explained by a subordinate clause is called the Principal Clause. Sentences that are part of a complex sentence are connected by unions or allied words:

Subordinate clauses, in fact, answer the same questions as the members of a simple sentence, and are, as it were, its expanded members. That is why there are as many types of subordinate clauses as there are clauses.

TYPES OF RELATED SENTENCES
TYPE adnexal	UNIONS AND ALLIANCE WORDS INTRODUCING SUDDENDENT SENTENCES	EXAMPLE
Subject	that, if, whether, who, what what, which	That he understands his mistake is clear. It is clear that he understands his mistake.
Predicate (performs the function of the nominal part of the compound predicate)	that, if, whether, who, what what, which	The question is whether he knows about this meeting. The question is whether he knows about this meeting.
Additional	that, if, whether, who who, what what, which , when, where , how	We know where she lives. We know where she lives.
N.B.	If the verb is followed by a noun without a preposition (or a personal pronoun in the nominative case) followed by a personal verb, that noun is the subject of an additional subordinate clause that is attached to the main clause without a conjunction: He said they had returned. He said (that) they had returned.
definitive	who, whose which, that which the, where where, why why	People who can neither hear nor speak talk to each other with the help of their fingers. People who do not hear or speak communicate with each other using their fingers.
N.B.	If in a sentence two adjacent nouns with articles or possessive pronouns(or noun and pronoun) the verb is used in the personal form, the second noun (or pronoun) is usually the subject of the attributive clause, which is attached to the main clause without a conjunctive word: The students studied the machines they had to use on the farm. The students studied the machines they were to use on the collective farm. Therefore, at the junction of two nouns or a noun and a pronoun, the allied word can be omitted: Give me the book you are speaking about. Give me the book you are talking about.
Circumstances time	when when, after after, before before, before, till until, whilewhile	When babies laugh, we know that they are happy. When children laugh, we know they are happy.
Circumstances places	where where, wherever wherever, wherever	Wherever you go you must remember about it. Wherever you go, you must remember this.
Circumstances causes	because because, as,sincebecause	He cannot go to the cinema because he is busy. He cannot go to the cinema because he is busy.
Circumstances of the course of action	as how, that what, as if, as thoughtas if	She speaks so loudly that everybody can hear her. She speaks so loudly that everyone can hear her.
Circumstances goals	that to, so that,in order that to, in order to, lest not to	She must speak louder so that everybody can hear her well. She should speak louder so that everyone can hear her well.
Circumstances terms	if if, provided that, on condition that provided that, unless if not	If he is free today, he must be at the conference. If he's free today, he should be at the conference.