How often do we look enchanted into the sky, amazed by the beauty of twinkling stars! They seem to be scattered across the sky and beckon us with their mysterious glow. Many questions arise in this case, but one thing is clear: the stars are very far away. But what is behind the word "very"? How far are the stars from us? How can you measure the distance to them?

But first, let's deal with the very concept of a "star".

What does the word "star" mean?

The star is heavenly body(material object naturally formed in outer space) in which thermonuclear reactions take place. thermonuclear reaction- is a variety nuclear reaction, in which the lungs atomic nuclei are combined into heavier ones due to the kinetic energy of their thermal motion.

Our Sun is a typical star..

Simply put, stars are huge luminous gas (plasma) balls. They are formed mainly from hydrogen and helium by interaction - gravitational compression. The temperature in the depths of the stars is huge, it is measured in millions of kelvins. If you like, you can convert this temperature to degrees Celsius, where °C = K−273.15. On the surface, it is, of course, lower and amounts to thousands of kelvins.

Stars are the main bodies of the Universe, because they contain the bulk of the luminous matter in nature.

With the naked eye, we can see about 6,000 stars. All of these visible stars (including those visible with telescopes) are in the local group of galaxies (ie the Milky Way, Andromeda, and Triangulum galaxies).

Closest to the Sun is the star Proxima Centauri. It is located at 4.2 light year from the center solar system. If this distance is converted into kilometers, then it will be 39 trillion kilometers (3.9 10 13 km). Light year equal to the distance, traveled by light in one year - 9,460,730,472,580,800 meters (or 200,000 km / s.).

How is the distance to stars measured?

As we have already seen, the stars are very far from us, so these huge glowing balls appear to us as small luminous points, although many of them can be many times larger than our Sun. It is very inconvenient to operate with such huge numbers, so scientists have chosen a different, relatively simple way to measure the distance to stars, but less accurate. To do this, they observe a certain star from two poles of the Earth: south and north. In such an observation, the star is shifted a small distance for the opposite observation. This change is called parallax. So, parallax is a change in the apparent position of an object relative to a distant background, depending on the position of the observer.

We see this in the diagram.

The photo shows the phenomenon of parallax: the reflection of the lantern in the water is significantly shifted relative to the practically unshifted Sun.

Knowing the distance between observation points D ( base) and offset angle α in radians, you can determine the distance to the object:

For small angles:

To measure the distance to stars, it is more convenient to use the annual parallax. annual parallax- the angle at which the semi-major axis of the earth's orbit is visible from the star, perpendicular to the direction to the star.

Annual parallaxes are indicators of distances to stars. Distances to stars are conveniently expressed in parsecs. (ps). A distance whose annual parallax is 1 arcsecond is called parsec(1 parsec = 3.085678 10 16 m). The nearest star, Proxima Centauri, has a parallax of 0.77″, so the distance to it is 1.298 pc. The distance to the star α Centauri is 4/3 ps.

Even Galileo Galilei suggested that if the Earth revolves around the Sun, then this can be seen from the variability of parallax for distant stars. But the instruments that existed then could not detect the parallactic displacement of stars and determine the distances to them. And the radius of the Earth is too small to serve as a basis for measuring the parallactic displacement.

The first successful attempts to observe the annual parallax of stars were made by an outstanding Russian astronomer V. Ya. Struve for the star Vega (α Lyra), these results were published in 1837. However, scientifically reliable measurements of the annual parallax were first carried out by a German mathematician and astronomer F. V. Bessel in 1838 for the star 61 Cygnus. Therefore, the priority of discovering the annual parallax of stars is given to Bessel.

By measuring the annual parallax, one can reliably determine the distances to stars that are no further than 100 ps, or 300 light years. Distances to more distant stars are currently determined by other methods.

Each star system has clearly defined boundaries of the energy cocoon in which it is located. Our solar system works exactly the same way. The entire starry sky that we observe on the border of this cocoon is a holographic projection of exactly the same star systems located in our 3-dimensional space. The image of each star system in our sky has strictly individual parameters.

They are transmitted constantly and endlessly. The source of transmission and storage of information in space is absolutely pure and original light. It does not contain a single atom or photon of an impurity that distorts its purity. Because of this, endless myriads of stars are available to us for contemplation. All star systems have their strictly specified coordinates, written in the code of the primordial light.

The principle of operation is similar to the transmission of signals over a fiber optic cable, only with the help of coded-light information. Each star system has its own code, with the help of which it receives a personal dedicated channel for transmitting and receiving information in the form of atoms and photons of light. This is the light in which all the information emanating from the original source is contained. It has all its characteristics and qualities, as it is its integral part.

Star systems in our space have two entry-exit points for transmitting and receiving light information about themselves and about the planets located in their gravitational zone.

(Fig. 1)
Passing through the energy channels, through the gateway points (white balls in Fig. 2), their light and information about them enters the zone of comparison and decoding of the orientation matrix. As a result of this, the light information already processed inside the stars at the atomic level is relayed further into our space, in the form of a finished holographic image. The figure showed how information enters the Sun through light channels, after which it is relayed in the form of a holographic image of all star systems at the borders of the energy cocoon.


(Fig. 2)
The fewer gateway points between star systems, the further they are spaced from the entry-exit channel in our sky.

The codes of star systems cannot yet be expressed with the help of existing terrestrial technologies. Because of this, we have an absolutely wrong and distorted idea of ​​the galaxy, the universe and the cosmos as a whole.
We consider the cosmos to be an endless abyss, expanding into different sides after the explosion. BRED, BRED AND AGAIN BRED.
The cosmos and our 3-dimensional space are very compact. It's hard to believe, but even harder to imagine. The main reason why we are not aware of this is due to a distorted perception of what we see in the firmament.
The infinity and depth of space that we observe now should be perceived as an image in a cinema, and nothing more. We always see only a flat image, relayed to the boundaries of our solar system. (See Fig. 1) Such a picture of events is not objective at all, and it completely distorts the real structure and structure of the cosmos as a whole.

The main purpose of this entire system is to visually receive information from a holographically relayed image, read atomic-light codes, decode them and further enable physical movement between stars along light channels. (See Fig. 3) Earthlings do not yet have these technologies .

Any star system can be located from each other at a distance not exceeding its own diameter, which will be equal to the distance between the gateway points + the radius of the neighboring star system. The figure roughly showed how the cosmos works if you look at it from the outside, and not from the inside, as we are used to seeing it.


(Fig. 3)
Here's an example for you. The diameter of our solar system, according to our own scientists, is about 1921.56 AU. This means that the star systems closest to us will be located at a distance of this radius, i.e. 960.78 AU + the radius of the neighboring star system to the common gateway point. You feel how in fact everything is very compact and rationally arranged. Everything is much closer than we can imagine.

Now catch the difference in numbers. The closest star to us according to existing technologies for calculating distances is Alpha Centauri. The distance to it was determined as 15,000 ± 700 AU. e. against 960.78 AU + half the diameter of the star system Alpha Centauri itself. In terms of numbers, they were wrong by 15.625 times. Isn't it too much? After all, these are completely different orders of distances that do not reflect objective reality.

How do they do it, I do not understand at all? Measure the distance to an object using a holographic image located on the screen of a huge cinema. Just tin!!! In addition to a sad smile, this personally does not cause anything else for me.

This is how a delusional, unreliable, absolutely erroneous view of the cosmos and the entire universe as a whole develops.

The definition of distance in astronomy usually depends on how far away the celestial body is. Some methods can only be applied to relatively close objects, such as neighboring planets. Others are for more distant ones, such as stars or even galaxies. However, these methods are generally less accurate.

How to determine the distance to an object in space

Method for determining the distance to neighboring planets

In the solar system, this is relatively simple: the motion of the planets here is calculated according to Kepler's laws, and it is possible to calculate the distance of nearby planets and asteroids using radar measurements. In this way, it is very easy to set the distance.

Kepler's laws apply inside the solar system

How is the distance to stars measured?

For stars relatively close to us, the so-called parallax can be determined. In this case, it is necessary to observe how the position of the star changes as a result of the revolution of the Earth around our luminary relative to stars that are much more distant from us. Depending on the accuracy of the measurement, quite accurate and direct definition distance.

Calculating Distances from the Parallax of Stars

If this is not suitable, one can try to determine the type of star from the spectrum in order to infer the distance from the true brightness. This is already an indirect method, since certain assumptions must be made about the star.

Measuring distances from the spectrum of stars

If it is impossible to apply this method, then scientists try to get by with a "scale of distances". At the same time, they are looking for stars whose brightness is precisely known from observations in our Galaxy. Such objects are called "standard candles". They are, for example, Cepheid stars, whose brightness changes periodically. According to the theory, the rate of these changes depends on the maximum brightness of the star.

Calculating distances from Cepheids

If such Cepheids are found in another galaxy and you can observe how the brightness of a star changes, then its maximum brightness is determined, and then the distance from us. Another example of a standard candle is a certain kind of supernova explosion, which astronomers believe always has the same maximum brightness.

A standard candle could be a supernova explosion

However, even this method has its limitations. Then astronomers use the redshift in the spectra of galaxies.

Increasing the wavelength of light coming from a galaxy makes it appear redder in the spectrum, called redshift.

Based on it, the removal rate of a galaxy can be calculated, which is directly related - according to Hubble's law - to the distance to this galaxy from the Earth.

Now we, knowing this simple inverse relationshipobject distances and sizes, let's try to take a swing at the “basics of the foundations” and calculate exemplary distance to nearby stars.

Skeptics will immediately say that these optical laws may not work at cosmic distances, so first let's start with checking known facts: The sun bigger moon- 400 times. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is also well known - about 150 million km. Because in our sky, the Sun and the Moon are visually the same (this is perfectly noticeable in full sun or lunar eclipse), it turns out that the Moon should be closer to us than the Sun by 400 times. And this is also confirmed! Yandex to help us: from the Earth to the Moon 384,467 km! Let's check if the dependence formula works, for this we divide 150 million km by 384467 and get 390 times! Those. it turns out that celestial mechanics works absolutely exactly and the optical law is perfectly observed inverse relationship the apparent size of an object from a distance.

Now we need to find a worthy object to study. Of course, it will be our Sun. First, we know the distance to the Sun. Secondly, as scientists tell us, our Sun is just an “ordinary” yellow dwarf and similar G2 class stars in the sky great amount- about 10% of all stars. And .

Now the most important thing: it turns out that if we have stars in the sky (and they are there), which, according to scientists, are approximately equal to the size of our Sun - now let's drop the conventions, the exact parameters are not so important to us, the important thing is that the star in its own approximately the same size as the Sun - i.e. if we know how many times the sun visually larger than this star, we will be able to calculate the real distance to this star! Everything is simple! Complete analogy with the Moon and the Sun.

Now we take a star that has (according to scientists) very close parameters to our Sun: for example, 18 Scorpio (18 Scorpii) - single in the constellation , which is at a distance of about 45,7 from the earth. The object is remarkable in that its characteristics are very similar to .

So, "By the star belongs to the category and is a doppelgänger : mass - 1.01 solar masses, radius - 1.02 solar radii, luminosity - 1.05 solar luminosities”...

Let me explain, this star 18 Scorpio can be seen in the sky with the naked eye. In any case, if scientists were able to describe the star - apparently by the spectrum - then we will have no doubts - this star is the “double” of our Sun.

There are many more stars that are comparable in size to our daylight. For example, Alpha Centauri, Zeta Reticuli, etc. It is important to understand the main thing: in the sky there are many visible stars, whose dimensions, according to astronomers, are close to those of the Sun.

Now for the thought experiment itself:

We must compare the disk of the Sun and the disk of a star, which, as we know from its size, is its close analogue. How many times the disk of the sun more stars, so many times the star is farther than the sun (tested by the Moon)!

Let's take a day when the Sun is at its zenith (this is our visual perception) and try to "estimate" how many times the sun will be larger than its "namesake" (which is visible only at night).

So, suppose that on the visible disk of the Sun at the zenith, 1000 stars can be deposited (from one edge of the disk to the other). In fact, there may be more, but I will assume that because Wiki claims that the vast majority of stars are much smaller than the Sun, which means that among the bright night lights in the night sky there can be quite a few “babies”, and this automatically reduces the distance to them - for example, not by 1000 times, but only by 100 or even less!

Now let's calculate the distance to the star. 150 million * 1000. We get: 150.000.000.000 km. =150 billion km. Now let's calculate how much light it takes to cover this distance. After all, we are told about a minimum of light years !!! So, we know that the speed of light is 300,000 km/sec. So we just divide 150,000,000,000 km by 300,000 km/sec and get the time in seconds: 500,000 sec. It's only 5.787 ordinary days! Those. the light from such a star will reach us for only a few days ...

Now let's calculate how much you have to fly on a rocket at a speed of, for example, 10 km / s. The answer will be 15 billion seconds. If translated into years, then this is: 475.64 Earth years! Of course, the figure is amazing, but it's still not a light year! This is a light week maximum! Those. the light of the stars that we see in the sky is the most "fresh" that neither is. Otherwise, we would see a black empty sky. But, if we still see it in the stars, then the stars are much closer. If we assume that no more than a hundred stars along the diameter fit in the sun, then flying to the nearest star is only about 50 years!

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Neglect the effects of supernova explosions stars.For example, about the collisions of the Earth ... only in how much long away in the past there was the last ... "hairy" or "shaggy" ( star). Meanwhile, this word... did not enter...So which at US it's a millennium now...

When we imagine distant stars, we usually think of distances of tens, hundreds, or thousands of light years. All these luminaries belong to our Galaxy - Milky Way. Modern telescopes are able to resolve stars in the nearest galaxies - the distance to them can reach tens of millions of light years. But how far do the possibilities of observational technology extend, especially when nature helps it? Recent amazing discovery Icarus - the most distant star in the Universe known today - testifies to the possibility of observing extremely distant cosmic phenomena.

Help of nature

There is a phenomenon due to which astronomers can observe the most distant objects of the Universe. It is called one of the consequences general theory relativity and is associated with the deflection of a light beam in a gravitational field.

The effect of lensing lies in the fact that if between the observer and the light source on the line of sight there is some massive object, then , bending in its gravitational field, create a distorted or multiple image of the source. Strictly speaking, the rays are deflected in the gravitational field of any body, but the most noticeable effect, of course, is given by the most massive formations in the Universe - clusters of galaxies.

In cases where a small cosmic body, such as a single star, acts as a lens, it is practically impossible to fix the visual distortion of the source, but its brightness can increase significantly. This event is called microlensing. Both types of gravitational lensing have played a role in the history of the discovery of the most distant star from Earth.

How did the discovery happen

The discovery of Icarus was facilitated by a happy accident. Astronomers have been observing one of the distant MACS J1149.5+2223, located approximately five billion light-years away. It is interesting as a gravitational lens, due to the special configuration of which light rays are bent in different ways and eventually travel different distances to the observer. As a result, the individual elements of the lensed image of the light source must be delayed.

In 2015, astronomers were waiting for the Refsdal supernova predicted by this effect in a very distant galaxy, the light from which reaches the Earth in 9.34 billion years. The expected event actually happened. But in the 2016-2017 images taken by the Hubble telescope, in addition to the supernova, something else was found that was no less interesting, namely the image of a star belonging to the same distant galaxy. By the nature of the brilliance, it was determined that this is not a supernova, not a gamma-ray burst, but an ordinary star.

It became possible to see a single star at such a huge distance thanks to a microlensing event in the galaxy itself. Randomly, an object passed in front of the star - most likely another star - with a mass of the order of the sun. He himself, of course, remained invisible, but his gravitational field increased the brilliance of the light source. In combination with the lensing effect of the MACS J1149.5+2223 cluster, this phenomenon resulted in an increase in the brightness of the most distant visible star 2000 times!

A star named Icarus

The newly discovered luminary was given the official name MACS J1149.5+2223 LS1 (Lensed Star 1) and given name- Icarus. The previous record holder, who held the proud title of the most distant star that could be observed, is located a hundred times closer.

Icarus is extremely bright and hot. This is a blue supergiant of spectral class B. Astronomers have been able to determine the main characteristics of the star, such as:

• mass - not less than 33 solar masses;
• luminosity - exceeds the solar approximately 850,000 times;
• temperature - from 11 to 14 thousand kelvin;
• metallicity (content chemical elements heavier than helium) - about 0.006 solar.

The fate of the most distant star

The microlensing event that made it possible to see Icarus occurred, as we already know, 9.34 billion years ago. The universe was then only about 4.4 billion years old. A snapshot of this star is a kind of small-scale freeze-frame of that distant era.

In the time that light emitted more than 9 billion years ago traveled the distance to Earth, the cosmological expansion of the universe pushed the galaxy in which the most distant star lived to a distance of 14.4 billion light years.

Icarus himself, according to modern ideas about the evolution of stars, ceased to exist long ago, because the more massive the star, the shorter should be its lifetime. It is possible that part of the substance of Icarus served as a building material for new luminaries and, quite possibly, their planets.

Will we see him again

Despite the fact that a random microlensing event is a very short-term event, scientists have a chance to see Icarus again, and even with greater brightness, since in the large lensing cluster MACS J1149.5+2223 many stars should be near the line of sight of Icarus - Earth, and cross this beam can be any of them. Of course, it is possible to see other distant stars in the same way.

Or maybe someday astronomers will be lucky to record a grandiose explosion - a supernova explosion, with which the most distant star ended its life.