Chapter 19. About the Second Coming of Christ § 529. After consolation - consolation and after joy - inexpressible joy follows the chosen ones of God. Having put on the robe of immortality and glory, they will appear in joyful hearts to the King of glory, Whom here in this world they served with faith and truth and with faith

Conversation with the disciples about the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Coming Having left the temple, the Lord left Jerusalem and silently climbed the Mount of Olives with the apostles. The Jerusalem Temple in all its beauty and grandeur stood before their eyes. One of the apostles pointing to the splendor

Prophecy of the Day of the Lord, Pentecost and the Second Coming Blow the trumpet in Zion and sound the alarm on My holy mountain; let all the inhabitants of the earth tremble, for the day of the Lord is coming, for it is near -2 A day of darkness and darkness, a cloudy and misty day: like the morning dawn,

Prophecies about the first and second coming of Christ Behold, I send My angel, and he will prepare the way before Me, and suddenly the Lord, whom you seek, and the Angel of the covenant, whom you desire, will come to His temple; Behold, He comes, says the Lord of hosts. 2 And whoever endures the day of coming

1st millennium BC e. 5th century BC e. IV century BC e. III century BC e. 2nd century BC e. 1st century BC e. 300 BC e. 309 ... Wikipedia

Around 220. End of the Han Dynasty. The collapse of China into 3 kingdoms Wei, Han or Shu, Wu. 220 265. The period of the “Three Kingdoms” in the history of China. 218 222. The reign of the Roman emperor Avitus Bassan (Elagabalus). 222 235. The reign of the Roman Emperor Alexander... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

III Roman numeral 3. III century century, lasting from 201 to 300. III century BC. e. century, lasting from 300 to 201 BC. e.. III album of the group Boombox III Augustan Legion III Gallic Legion III... ... Wikipedia

This term has other meanings, see Century (meanings). A century (century) is a unit of time equal to 100 (number) years. Ten centuries make a thousand years. In a narrower sense, a century is not generally called a century-long interval of time, but... Wikipedia

I m. 1. A period of time of one hundred years; century. 2. Historical period in the development of nature and society, characterized by a certain way of life, living conditions, etc. 3. transfer decomposition Very long time; eternity. II m. 1. Life,... ... Modern Dictionary Russian language Efremova

V millennium BC e. IV millennium BC e. III millennium BC e. II millennium BC e. I millennium BC e. XXX century BC e. XXIX century... ... Wikipedia

III. RUSSIA. THE USSR. CIS- 1) Ukraine and Belarus. Neolithic. OK. 5500 4000 BC Bugo Dniester culture. OK. 4000 2300 Trypillian culture (Western Ukraine). OK. 4000 2600 Dnieper Donetsk culture (Eastern Ukraine). Bronze Age. OK. 2200 1300 Middle Dnieper... ... Rulers of the World

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This term has other meanings, see Century of Translation. A Century of Translation Cover of Issue 2

Legion III "Parthica" Legio III Parthica Years of existence 197 V century Country Ancient Rome Type Infantry supported by cavalry Number On average 5000 infantry and 300 cavalry Disposition Resen, Apadna ... Wikipedia

Books

• , Khudyakov Yuliy Sergeevich, Erdene-Ochir Nasan-Ochir. The monograph is devoted to the study of the military affairs of the ancient nomadic peoples who lived on the territory of Mongolia and the adjacent regions of Sayan-Altai and Transbaikalia in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages...
• Military affairs of the ancient nomads of Mongolia (2nd millennium - 3rd century BC), Yu. S. Khudyakov, N. Erdene-Ochir. The monograph is devoted to the study of the military affairs of the ancient nomadic peoples who lived on the territory of Mongolia and the adjacent regions of Sayan-Altai and Transbaikalia in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages...

With the death of Emperor Commodus, internal strife began, wars between contenders for the throne, relying on certain legions stationed in the provinces, or on the Praetorian Guard in the capital. The political balance between individual competing social forces that reigned in Rome during the era of Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius became a thing of the past. Septimius Severus, who won victory over other contenders for power, led at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 3rd century. a policy hostile to the Senate, counting exclusively on support from the army. By dissolving the old Praetorian Guard, which consisted of full-fledged Roman citizens, and creating a new one, recruited from soldiers of the Danube and Syrian legions, and also making the officer rank available to anyone from the province, Septimius Severus deepened the process of barbarization of the army that had begun under Hadrian. The same political course - weakening the position of the Senate and relying on the army - was continued by the emperor's son, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Caracalla. The famous Edict of Caracalla in 212, which granted the rights of Roman citizenship to the entire free population of the empire, was the completion of the long historical development of the Roman state from a small closed Italian polis to a universalist cosmopolitan empire.

The murder of Caracalla by the conspirators was followed by a short period of chaos and decay during the reign of the young but corrupt and hated Emperor Bassian, nicknamed Heliogabalus for his adherence to the cult of the Sun, which he wanted to officially introduce in Rome instead of the traditional Roman religion. Heliogabalus also died at the hands of the conspirators, and only under his cousin, Alexander Severus, did there come - however, an equally short-lived - calm: the new emperor tried to reach an agreement with the Senate, strengthen discipline in the army and at the same time reduce the cost of its maintenance in order to generally weaken its role in the life of the state. It is clear that the dissatisfaction of the army led to a new conspiracy: in 235, Alexander Severus was killed, and from that moment began a half-century period of political chaos, marked by a struggle for power between various contenders who came from ordinary soldiers, relying only on their support.

“Soldier emperors succeeded each other on the throne with dizzying speed and usually died violent deaths, despite the fact that some of them, such as Decius, Valerian and Gallienus, sought to somehow normalize the situation. At the same time, they, as a rule, appealed to the old state and religious traditions of Rome, which led, in particular, to outbreaks of persecution of Christians. The domestic and foreign political situation remained extremely difficult: the emperors had to not only repel the German tribes of the Franks, Alemanni, and Goths, but also fight the usurpers who appeared here and there in the provinces, where legions loyal to the usurpers proclaimed them emperors. During the 3rd century. many provinces for a long time completely broke all ties with Rome and became virtually independent. Only in the early 70s of the 3rd century. Emperor Aurelian managed to once again subjugate the fallen provinces of Gaul and Egypt to the rule of Rome.

Having coped with this task, Aurelian began to call himself “the restorer of the world,” and later ordered to call him “sovereign and god,” which his predecessors did not dare to do, fearing to encroach on the republican, anti-monarchical traditions that were still strong in Rome. On the Field of Mars, under Aurelian, a temple to the Invincible Sun was erected as the highest deity and supreme patron of the state. But even having assigned himself the title of “sovereign and god,” the emperor did not escape the common fate of the Roman rulers of that century - in 275 he was killed by conspirators, and political chaos once again reigned throughout the empire.

The collapse of the state system, internal strife, attacks by Germanic tribes and long unsuccessful wars with the Persians, who created in the 3rd century. the powerful Sassanid state - all this aggravated the acute economic and social crisis of Roman society, which became obvious at the end of the previous century. Communications in the empire became unreliable, which undermined trade between the provinces, which now strived for greater economic independence and isolation, limiting the scale of production to those sufficient only to satisfy the needs of their population.

The central government experienced a chronic lack of funds, because the costs of maintaining the imperial court, officials, and army depleted the treasury, while income from the provinces arrived irregularly. In the provinces, as already mentioned, usurpers, and not representatives of the Roman authorities, were often in charge. To cope with financial difficulties, the state often resorted to depreciation of money: for example, already under Septimius Severus, the silver content in the denarius was reduced by half, under Caracalla it decreased even more, and by the end of the 3rd century. The silver denarius was essentially a copper coin, only slightly silvered. Inflation and the depreciation of money caused increased thesaurization of the old, full-fledged coin, that is, its accumulation in treasures, many of which were later excavated by archaeologists. The size of such treasures can be evidenced by a find made in Cologne: more than 100 gold coins and over 20 thousand silver coins. Inflation was accompanied by an increase in cash investments in the acquisition of land holdings. Land rents increased, which led to the ruin of the colones, which increasingly displaced slaves from agriculture; Now the colonists had a very difficult time, and many of them left the village. The Edict of Caracalla, which granted the rights of Roman citizenship to the entire free population of the empire, undoubtedly had fiscal goals, namely to cover all the emperor’s subjects with a single tax system. The debt burden grew, prices rose rapidly, and the number of workers decreased, because there was nowhere to supply more slaves. In addition, the increased exploitation of slaves and colons caused stubborn resistance on their part. In the second half of the 3rd century. A wave of uprisings of the oppressed and impoverished lower classes swept across all provinces of the empire, especially in Africa and Gaul. These uprisings were the most striking symptom of the crisis of slave society.

Culture ancient Rome 3rd century AD

While tending to decline, the ancient world managed, however, to create at that time the last original philosophical concept - Neoplatonism, which was, as it were, a synthesis of the idealistic Greek philosophy of previous centuries. The founder of Neoplatonism is Plotinus from the Egyptian city of Lycopolis. Although he called himself only an interpreter, a commentator on Plato, in reality the system developed by Plotinus, which he later taught in Rome, was a significant development of Platonic idealism, enriched with elements of Stoicism and Pythagoreanism, Eastern mysticism and the syncretic philosophy of Philo of Alexandria. Plotinus recognized as the only thing existing a certain transcendental absolute - the “one”, from which, like light from the sun, emanate all less perfect forms of being - the so-called hypostases: the world of ideas, the world of souls and, finally, the world of bodies. The goal of life is the return of the human soul to its source, that is, its knowledge of the “one”, merging with it, which is achieved not through reasoning, but through ecstasy; Plotinus himself, according to him, experienced such ecstasy several times in his life. The philosophy of Plotinus and his Neoplatonist followers is imbued with the spirit of exaltation of the ascetic, abstract, spiritualistic and denial of the corporeal, worldly. This teaching perfectly reflected the atmosphere of ideological and social crisis and immediately became widespread throughout the empire, having, in particular, a strong influence on early Christianity. Along with the Neoplatonists who remained pagans, like Plotinus’s student Porphyry or Iamblichus, the founder and leader of the Neoplatonist school in Syria, we also find numerous Neoplatonists among Christian writers. The most prominent of them are the tireless and prolific Origen of Alexandria, who identified the eternal Logos, or Word, with the image of the Gospel son of God Jesus Christ, and Origen’s disciple Dionysius the Great of Alexandria.

Throughout the 3rd century. Christianity continued to grow stronger, and the brutal repressions that the emperors of the mid-3rd century inflicted on adherents of the new religion could not stop its spread. Along with Origen, who wrote in Greek and was the author of countless works on Christian philosophy, the first Latin Christian writers appeared. All of them: the passionate, frantic polemicist, apologist for Christianity Tertullian, and the refined Minucius Felix, who also wrote an apology for Christianity in the form of a dialogue entitled “Octavius,” and the Carthaginian Bishop Kilrian, who tirelessly fought against heretics for the unity of the Christian Church and the maintenance of church discipline, all they were natives of Roman Africa, where an important ecclesiastical center arose in Carthage and where Christian philosophy and literature developed rapidly. The Alexandrian school was also famous, producing such famous Christian theologians as Clement of Alexandria and Origen, who wrote almost 6 thousand books on theology, philosophy, and philology.

At the same time, among the pagan authors of those years, outstanding talents became very rare. In historiography, one can only name the Greek historian Dio Cassius Cocceianus from Bithynia, an active political figure of the late 2nd - early 3rd centuries, who compiled an extensive “Roman History” in 80 books, which became for the Greek reader the same comprehensive body of knowledge about the past of Rome as it was once "History" of Titus Livy dm reader of the Latin. The work of Dio Cassius is entirely colored by rhetoric: a dramatic presentation of events, often embellished, stereotyped descriptions of battles, lengthy speeches of historical characters, etc. A much less gifted historian was the Greek Herodian from Syria, who conscientiously and in detail, but without special literary skill, outlined the events that took place in the empire after the death of Marcus Aurelius and until 238. The contribution of Latin writers to the historiography of the 3rd century. was completely insignificant: we do not know in the Roman literature of those decades a single work similar to at least “The Lives of the Twelve Caesars” by Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus.

The same was true in other areas of cultural activity. The Greek “second sophistry,” which flourished, as already mentioned, in the era of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius, had as its last representative a rhetorician and writer of the early 3rd century. Philostratus the Younger. He seemed to sum up this direction of intellectual life by compiling “Lives of the Sophists” - from this book we learn about many of them. Philostratus also left an interesting sophistic treatise “On Gymnastics.” No matter how modest his achievements in philosophy and rhetoric were, it is worth remembering that in Roman literature of the 3rd century. there wasn’t even a Philostratus of his own. The drought also struck the fields of Latin poetry, and Greek poetry was then enriched almost exclusively by Oppian’s poems about fishing and hunting, written under Caracalla.

We will find just as few glorious names at this time in science, if we do not take jurisprudence, where in the 3rd century. The outstanding jurists Emilius Papinian, a native of Syria, who did a lot to systematize the concepts of Roman law, and his fellow countryman Ulpian, who sought to bring together the interpretations of a wide variety of legal issues accumulated by ancient jurists, shone. In the same era, an extensive compilation work by the Greek Diogenes Laertius (or Laertius) “On the Life, Teachings and Sayings of Famous Philosophers” appeared - a most valuable source for the history of Greek ancient philosophy. In the field of philology, noteworthy are the commentaries on Horace's poetry compiled by Akron and Porphyrion.

The decline in the artistic level also marked the development of the fine arts. Numerous bas-reliefs representing scenes of battles on the Arch of Septimius Severus are not organically connected with the architecture of the arch and do not have great artistic merit; the sculptural technique is rigid, without nuances. Among plastic monuments, the most common are marble sarcophagi and funeral urns, which depict mythological scenes and funeral symbols. What is remarkable, however, is the realism of the sculptural portraits of that time. One of the most expressive is the marble bust of Caracalla: the sculptor masterfully depicted the energy and determination, but at the same time the cruelty and rudeness of the depraved ruler. The short-term flourishing of the plastic arts in the middle of the 3rd century. also appeared in the portraits of Gallienus and Plotinus.

The architecture shows a desire for monumentality, as evidenced by the ruins of the spacious baths built under Caracalla on the southern slope of the Aventine Hill. Wars, coups, and the financial crisis did not contribute to active construction activity. The defensive walls of Rome, erected by Emperor Aurelian in 271 and stretching around the capital for 19 km, became a symbol of overcoming yet another internal crisis, but at the same time the continuing instability that engulfed the entire empire. Also characteristic of that period are the majestic architecture and sculpture of the provincial city of Palmyra in Syria, which combined the features of Roman provincial art with the features of oriental art with its lush, even excessive ornamentation, special expression in the depiction of faces and stylized rendering of clothing.

In its turn. The East remained a source of religious influences. Long before the official adoption of Christianity, the ruling elite of the empire began to strive for the reorganization of cults and the introduction of a single state religion. Heliogabalus undoubtedly thought about this, trying to establish in Rome the cult of the Syrian god Baal, revered as the Invincible Sun. The emperor wanted to subordinate all other deities to this god, which was expressed, in particular, in the transfer to the temple of Baal not only of the sacred stone of the Great Mother of the Gods, but also of various shrines of traditional Roman religion, such as the shield of the Salian brothers or the fire of the goddess Vesta. A symbol of Baal's victory over Jupiter was the fact that in the title of Heliogabalus the words “priest of the invincible sun god” preceded the words “supreme pontiff.” The empire became orientalized, and although after the murder of Heliogabalus the cult of Baal was abolished, several decades later the same tendency to establish a single religion for all prevailed in Rome, when Emperor Aurelian reintroduced the cult of Baal as the cult of the Invincible Sun - the supreme patron of the state.

This period is characterized further development such large states as the Roman Empire, the Parthian and Kushan kingdoms, and the Han Empire. There are renewed attempts to create a large centralized state in India as well. The expansion of Rome obviously reaches its natural boundaries, beyond which it no longer extends. More and more, the empire goes on the defensive from the Parthians in the east, from the Germanic tribes in the north. Huge historical meaning had the birth of Christianity - the second world religion after Buddhism. Everywhere in the countries of the Ancient World, there are growing signs of a crisis in slaveholding economies; slavery, as a socio-economic structure, is beginning to become obsolete.

The Roman Empire of the Principate. After defeating his opponents, Octavian Augustus began organizing the internal affairs of the huge state. The essence of his reforms was that while real power was concentrated in his own hands, all the external official attributes of a republic were preserved, hence the name of the state “Roman Empire” is to some extent arbitrary; officially at that time it continued to be called a republic. According to one of the positions - the princeps, the first among the senators, such a system is called the principate. Under Octavian's successors, it is fully preserved.

The heyday of Roman literature coincided with the time of Augustus, and it was under him that many Roman poets: Ovid, Horace, Virgil, enjoyed the support of the rich Maecenas, whose name became a household name.

The lack of legal means to limit the arbitrariness of emperors made it possible for people like Caligula and Nero to appear on the throne, dissatisfaction with whose actions caused uprisings both in the legions stationed on the borders of the empire and in the Praetorian Guard stationed in Rome itself. Over time, the fate of the throne began to be decided in the praetorian barracks and in the army. This is how the first representative of the Flavian dynasty, Vespasian (69 - 79 AD), came to power, who was supported by the legions that suppressed the uprising in Judea in 68 - 69 AD. AD

Rome carried out its last major conquests under Emperor Trajan (98 -117 AD) from the Antonine dynasty: Dacia and Mesopotamia were subordinate to him. Subsequently, Rome was increasingly forced to defend its possessions from the onslaught of barbarian tribes: Germans, Sarmatians and others. Along the borders of the empire, a whole system of border fortifications, called limes, was erected. As long as the Roman army retained its basic qualities - discipline and organization, the limes was a very effective means of repelling barbarian invasions. The unlimited power of the emperor, the enormous size of the state (in the 2nd century AD, Rome united under its rule the entire Mediterranean, half of Western Europe, the entire Middle East, the entire Balkan Peninsula and North Africa, the population of the empire is 120 million people), the sharply increased difficulties of administrative management, the dependence of the emperors on the army caused a crisis of the empire, which manifested itself with particular force with the end of the Severan dynasty in 217 AD. The economy, in which slave labor played a significant role, needed a constant influx of slaves, and with the cessation major wars the most significant source of labor supply has dried up. To maintain a huge army and the administrative apparatus of the empire, more and more taxes were required, and the old control system, which retained the previous republican forms of power and other attributes, did not meet these needs. Externally, the crisis manifested itself in the constant change of emperors on the throne; at times, several emperors coexisted in the empire at the same time. This time was called the era of “soldier emperors,” since almost all of them were enthroned by legions. The empire emerged from a period of protracted crisis only with the beginning of the reign of Emperor Diocletian (284 - 305 AD).

The emergence of Christianity. At first new era A new religious movement emerges in Judea, named Christianity after its founder. Modern historical science fully admits the real existence of such a person as Jesus Christ, and the reliability of much of the information in the Gospels. The discoveries of manuscripts from the Dead Sea region, the so-called Qumran, clearly showed that the ideas contained in the sermons of Christ and his apostles were by no means completely new and peculiar only to this sect. Similar thoughts were expressed by many prophets and preachers. The general pessimism that gripped many nations after all the unsuccessful attempts to overthrow Roman power made it possible for the ideas of non-resistance and submission to earthly power to take hold in people’s minds, i.e. Roman Caesar, and retribution in the next world for torment and suffering in this world.

With the development of the tax apparatus of the empire and the strengthening of other duties, Christianity increasingly acquired the character of a religion of the oppressed. The absolute indifference of the new cult to the social and property status of the neophytes and their ethnicity made Christianity the most acceptable religion in the multinational empire. Moreover, the persecution of Christians and the courage and humility with which Christians accepted these persecutions aroused interest and sympathy for them among the masses. The new teaching became especially popular in the cities of the empire, not excluding the capital itself. Gradually, the ascetic life of the first Christian communities and the almost complete lack of organization are replaced by a developed and fairly centralized system of community management, the Christian church acquires property, and monasteries emerge, also possessing significant wealth. By the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 4th centuries. AD Christianity becomes one of the most powerful and influential faiths.

Kushan Empire and Parthia. After the defeat of the army of the Persian king Darius III at Gaugamela by the troops of Alexander the Great, the peoples showed the most stubborn resistance to the invaders Central Asia: Bactria and Sogd. Already at this time there was a tendency towards their separation, but in 329 - 327. BC. Alexander managed to suppress all resistance. After the death of the great commander, the territories of Central Asia became part of the Seleucid power, but their power was alien to the majority of the local population and around 250 BC. Bactrian satrap Diodotus declared himself an independent ruler. From this moment begins the hundred-year history of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, one of the most interesting states Ancient world. In the politics, history and culture of this state, the most character traits Hellenism: organic compound and the creative interaction of Hellenic and Eastern principles. During the era of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, the region began to transform from a rich agricultural region with separate urban centers into a country with developed trade and handicraft production. The rulers of the kingdom paid special attention to the construction of cities, which became centers of trade and craft activity. The development of trade is evidenced by a large number of Greco-Bactrian coins. It is thanks to this source that we know the names of more than 40 rulers of the kingdom, while only 8 are mentioned in written sources. The process of spreading Greek culture affected mainly cities, in which this was manifested in a variety of areas, but primarily in architecture.

Between 140 and 130 BC. Nomadic tribes invading from the north destroyed the kingdom. The tradition of government was preserved, the minting of coins with the Greek names of kings continued, but they did not have much power.

On the ruins of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, one of the largest state formations of the Ancient World - the Kushan state - gradually emerged. Its basis was the territory of Bactria, where small associations of nomads who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian kingdom coexisted and the possessions of small Greek dynasts - the heirs of the former rulers of the state. The founder of the Kushan state was Kadphises I, who presumably in the 1st century. AD united all of Bactria under his rule, taking the title “king of kings.”

Under his son Kadphises II, a significant part of Northwestern India went to the Kushans. As a result, the Kushan state includes most of Central Asia, the territory modern Afghanistan, most of Pakistan and northern India. At the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd centuries. AD The Kushans encounter China in East Turkestan, where they ultimately manage to stop the expansion eastern neighbor. Under the ruler Kanishka (presumably the first third of the 2nd century AD), the center of the state shifted from Bactria to the Indian regions, and the penetration of Buddhism into the territory of the state may have been associated with this. The Kushan Empire was a centralized state led by the “king of kings,” whose personality was often deified. The central government relied on a developed administrative apparatus, in which there were many ranks and gradations. The state retained its power until the 3rd century AD, when the Kushans were defeated in a clash with the Sasanian state, which replaced Parthia. Some revival of the Kushan state was noted in the 4th century, but it no longer reached its former power.

Simultaneously with the secession from the Seleucid Empire of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, Parthia also sought independence, which in 247 BC. headed by the leader of one of the nomadic tribes Arshak, his name becomes the throne name of the subsequent rulers of Parthia. The first decades of the existence of the new state were filled with the struggle for independence with the Seleucid power. It passed with varying degrees of success, but in the end Parthia managed to defend its independence. Moreover, under Mithridates I (171 -138 BC), Media and Mesopotamia became part of Parthia. End of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st centuries. BC. characterized by an intense struggle with nomadic tribes that defeated the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. After establishing peace on the eastern borders, Parthia resumes its movement to the West, where its interests collide with the interests of the Roman state. These contradictions manifested themselves with particular force in the middle of the 1st century BC, when the Parthians in 53 BC. managed to completely defeat the army of the Roman commander Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in Northern Mesopotamia. As a result, the Parthians moved their capital to Ctesiphon and temporarily subjugated Syria, Asia Minor and Palestine, but they were unable to retain these territories. The Roman army marched into Media in 38 AD. ultimately also ended in failure. Subsequently, the struggle takes place with varying success, periodically Rome achieves some dominance. Under the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, the Roman army took the Parthian capital Ctesiphon, and Mesopotamia even became a province of the Roman Empire, but the Romans failed to establish themselves completely here, just as they failed to inflict a final defeat on the Parthians. In general, the struggle between the two rivals lasted more than two centuries and ended in vain.

Military defeats weakened Parthia. In the 20s 3rd century AD the king of one of the vassal kingdoms - Persia - Artashir Sassanid subjugated Parthia. One of the reasons for the internal weakness of the Parthian state was the lack of centralized power, similar to the power of its neighbors - the Kashans and the Romans. There was no unified system of governing the entire territory, just as there were no clear rules for inheriting power, which sometimes led to long-term civil strife among the ruling Arsacid family. The Parthians never managed to unite all the disparate parts of their power into a single organism.

Ancient China in I - III centuries. AD At the end of the 1st century BC. Social contradictions sharply aggravated in the country, which Wang Mang, a relative of the overthrown ruler on the female line, tried to soften by usurping the throne of the emperor. As a result of Wang Mang's reforms, all layers of society were dissatisfied with the innovations, the situation worsened natural disasters 14 AD: drought and locust invasion. As a result, an uprising broke out, which went down in history as the “red-browed” uprising (18 - 25 AD). Government troops were defeated in several battles and one of the leaders of the uprising, Liu Xiu, established himself on the throne in 25 AD. declared himself emperor and moved the capital to Luoyang. This is how the Later, or Eastern, Han Dynasty arises.

The new emperor, who took the title Guan Wu-di (25 - 57 AD), reduces taxes and sharply limits slavery, which contributes to the growth of the country's productive forces. In foreign policy This period is characterized by the struggle to restore control over the Western Region, which was lost during the period of unrest. The struggle ended with the defeat of the nomadic Xiongnu tribes at the end of the 1st century. AD, and the borders of China again reached East Turkestan. The Han Empire established close contacts with Parthia and other states of the Middle East. But on the northern borders of the empire, new dangerous nomadic neighbors appear: the proto-Mongol Xianbi tribes. In the 2nd century AD, Qiang tribes appeared on the northwestern borders, the struggle against which ended with decisive success only in the 60s of this century.

The policy of concessions to the common people at the turn of the 1st - 2nd centuries was replaced by other trends: the dispossession of the mass of small landowners, their growing dependence on large landowners, whose holdings became practically independent and self-sufficient, in which one cannot help but see manifestations of elements of emerging feudalism. By the end of the 2nd century, the empire was gripped by a socio-economic and political crisis, in which the rivalry of various court factions played a significant role. In this situation, in 184, in the 17th year of the reign of Emperor Lingdi, the “Yellow Turban” uprising broke out, led by Zhang Jiao. The spiritual banner of the movement was Taoism, over the past centuries from philosophical teaching transformed into a religious-mystical system. In the same year, Zhang Jiao died, but in 185 the uprising broke out with renewed vigor, and it was again suppressed with extreme cruelty. Scattered uprisings continue until 207, but are inevitably put down by government forces. However, the uprising has shaken all the foundations of a single empire to the limit; it provokes a new round of struggle for power between representatives ruling class. In the third century, civil strife led to the death of a single empire and on its remains three independent states emerged - Wei, Shu and Wu. The era of the Three Kingdoms began, which is usually attributed to the early Middle Ages

202
The North returns to Rome.

203
Consulate of R. Fulvius Plautianus and P. Septimius Rhaetus. Opening of the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome. Origen succeeds Clement at the head of the catechetic school. "Passion" by Perpetva.

203-204
North in Africa.

205
Consulate of Caracalla and Reta. Murder of Plautianus. Plotinus was born in Egypt.

208
An uprising began (from 208 to 211) in Northern Britain.

208
North heads from Rome to Britain.

211
The reign of Emperor Caracalla (from 211 to 217), son of Septimius Severus, began.

212
Caracalla kills Geta and becomes sole emperor (February). "Antoninian Constitution". Accession to the throne of Artaban V.

212
Edict of Caracalla granting the rights of Roman citizenship to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire, except for the dedits.

213
War with Germanic and Danube tribes. Caracalla wins victories over the Alemanni.

214
Edessa becomes a Roman colony.

215
Caracalla spends the winter in Antioch, and then advances to the western borders of Adiabene.

215
A war began (from 215 to 217) with Parthia.

216
Mani is born.

217
The murder of Caracalla near Carr (April 8), an interregnum began - a change of rulers in a short period of time (from 217 to 222). Macrinus becomes emperor, he is defeated near Nisibinus (summer).

218
Opilius Markinus (not Severus), who replaced Caracalla in 217, was killed and was replaced by Diadumenian (not Severus), and then by Heliogobalus (Elagabalus), who ruled from 218 to 222.

218
Elagabalus was proclaimed emperor at Rathanaea (May 16) after his supporters defeated Macroone, who was killed. Elagabalus spends the winter in Nicomedia.

219
Elagabalus arrives in Rome (late summer).

220
Consulate of Elagabalus and Comazona.

222
Zlagabal adopts his cousin Alexian as Caesar under the name of Marcus Aurelius Alexander. Murder

222
The reign of Emperor Alexander Severus began (from 222 to 235) under the regents of his mother, Julia Mammea, grandmother, Julia Maesa, and lawyer Ulpian. Relations with the Senate improved, measures were taken to strengthen large land ownership.

223
The prefect of the Praetorian Guard and lawyer Ulpian is killed by his soldiers.

226
Artashir is crowned and becomes the King of Kings of Iran.

229
Consulate of Alexander Severus and Cassius Dio.

230
The Persians invade Mesopotamia and lay siege to Nisibinus.

231
Alexander Severus leaves Rome for the East (spring).

232
Unsuccessful Roman offensive against Persia. Origen, expelled from Alexandria, settled in Caesarea.

233
Alexander returns to Rome.

234
War against the Alamanni. Maximinus, a Thracian, is proclaimed emperor by the troops of Pannonia.

235
Alexander Severus was killed, the Severian dynasty ended. The period of reign of the “soldier emperors” began (from 235 to 284). The first was Maximin the Thracian (from 135 to 238).

235
Maximin, confirmed as emperor by the Senate, defeats the Alemanni. Passing regulations against Christians.

236
Military operations against the Sarmatians and Dacians.

238
The Gordians came to power. Within a year, Gordian I, Gordian II, Balbinus, and Puppienus replaced each other, until Gordian III strengthened (from 138 to 244). Colonies rebelled in Africa.

238
M. Antony Gordian, proconsul of Africa, is proclaimed emperor and rules with his son. They are killed by the Numidian legate Capellian. The Senate appoints two new emperors - M. Clodius Pupienus Maximus to command the legions and D. Caelius Balbinus to manage civil affairs (April 16). Maximinus is killed during the siege of Aquileia (10 May). The Praetorians kill Pupienus and Balbinus and place thirteen-year-old Gordian III on the throne. Invasion of the Goths across the Danube and attack of the Dacian carps. M. Tullius Menophilus - ruler of Moesia Inferior until 241.

240
Mani begins preaching in Iran. Shapur I succeeds Ardashir on the Iranian throne.

242
The ceremonial opening of military operations against the Persians by the prefect of the Praetorian Guard Timosthenes. The first war between Sasanian Iran and Rome began (from 242 to 244). With the death of Emperor Gordian III in 244, Rome was defeated.

243
Timosthenes' victories over the Persians

244
Assassination of Gordian III in Mesopotamia. Philip the Arabian is recognized as emperor. Philip makes peace with the Persians and goes to Rome.

244
The reign of Philip the Arabian began (from 244 to 247)

245
Wars on the Danube border until 247

247
Philip, son of the emperor, was given the title of Augustus, Celebration of the Millennium of Rome.

247
Philip the Arabian was killed (from 244 to 247) - Philip the Younger began to rule (from 247 to 249)

248
Decius restores order in Moesia and Pannonia. "Against Celsus" by Origen.

249
Troops force Decius to accept the imperial purple (June). The reign of Decius began (from 249 to 251). Philip and his son were killed in a battle with Decius near Verona (September). Resumption of attacks is ready. Persecution of Christians by Decius until 251

250
Edict against Christians and persecution of Christians.

251
Defeat and death of Decius and his son Herennius Etruscus on the Danube. Decius Trajan was killed in battle with the Goths (from 249 to 251), he was succeeded by Decius the Younger, and then in the same year by Gerenius and Hostilian (two sons of Decius) (May). Trebonian Gall is proclaimed emperor along with Decius's second son, the little child Hostilian, who soon dies.

251
"On Errors" and "On the Unity of the Universal Church" by Cyprian. Volusian, son of Gallus, was proclaimed Augustus.

252
The European provinces are subject to invasion by the Goths and other barbarians. The Persians overthrow Tiridates from the throne of Armenia and continue to attack Mesopotamia.

253
Aemilianus is proclaimed emperor, but three or four months later he is killed by his own soldiers upon receiving news that the Rhine legions in Moesia have declared Valeriaius emperor. Valerian arrives in Rome, and his son Gallienus is appointed by the Senate on the second August. The first sea voyage to Asia Minor is ready. Origen died in Tire.

254
The Marcomanni penetrate Pannenia and raid as far as Ravenna. The Goths devastate Thrace. Shapur takes possession of Niribin.

255
The second war between Sasanian Iran and Rome began (from 255 to 260).

256
The sea voyage to Asia Minor is ready.

257
Valerian begins new persecution of Christians - Another Edict against Christians and persecution of Christians. The Persian invasion resumes.

258
Gaul, Britain, and Spain fell away from the empire. The Gallic Empire was formed, led by Postunus, a Roman commander who usurped power and was killed by soldiers in 268.

258
Cyprian accepts martyrdom (September 14). Gallio defeats the Alemanni (or in 259).

259
Dionysius I, Bishop of Rome.

260
The Romans were defeated at Edessa during the war with Sasanian Iran (from 255 to 260), Emperor Valerian was captured, where he died.

260
The reign of Gallienus (from 260 to 268), son and co-ruler of Valerian, began.

260 or 259
Gallienus ends the persecution of Christians. Marcianus and Quietus were proclaimed emperors in the East by the army, Postumus - in Gaul (or in 258?). Revolts of Ingenva and later Regalian in Pannonia.

261
Marcianus is killed in battle with Avreol. Quietus is executed in Emesa.

262
Odaenathus, king of Palmyra, wins victories over Shapur and the Persians. Opening of the Arch of Gallienus.

267
The Goths invade Asia Minor. Odaenathus, king of Palmyra, killed; his widow Xenovia seizes power on behalf of her infant son Vaballatha.

268
Large forces of Goths on land and sea are fighting in Thrace, Greece and other places. Gallienus wins a victory at Naissa in Moesia. Gallienus is killed at the siege of Milan (August). Claudius becomes emperor and kills Lereola. The Synod of Antioch declares Paul of Samosata a heretic.

268
Gallienus (reigned 260 to 268) was killed. Claudius the Gothic (ruled from 268 to 270), the first of the Illyrians, became emperor. The Palmyra kingdom was formed.

268\9
Posthumus is killed.

269
The Romans defeated the Goths at Naissus. The advance of the Danube tribes was stopped, and the movement of the Bagauds began.

270
Claudius dies of plague in Sirmium, Pannonia (January). Quintillus, his brother, is elected emperor by the Senate, but Aurelian successfully rebels against him. Aurelian's victories over the Jutungs. Palmyra troops enter Alexandria. Plotinus died.

271
Aurelian begins the construction of new walls around Rome. Organized resettlement of the Romans from Dacia to the southern bank of the Danube. Aurelian goes on the offensive against Xenovia.

272?
Shapur I died and was succeeded by Hormizd I.

273
Aurelian destroys Palmyra. Hormizd I died and was succeeded by Varahran I.

274
Aurelian subdues Tetricus and recaptures Gaul. Aurelian celebrates triumph in Rome and reforms the monetary system. Temple of Aurelian, dedicated to the Sun God in Rome.

275
Aurelian is killed in Thrace. Tacitus declared emperor (September).

276
Tacitus dies in Tyana; his brother Florian seizes power; Florian is killed at Tarsus and is succeeded by Probus. Varahran II ascends the throne of Iran.

277
Probus frees Gaul from the Germans and is ready.

278
Probus is engaged in pacification in Asia Minor.

282
Murder of Probus, who is replaced by Kar (beginning of autumn).

282
Reign of Emperor Kara (283 years each)

283
War of the Romans with the Persians. After the invasion of Kara, peace was concluded in Mesopotamia. Kar died from a lightning strike; he is succeeded by his sons Karin - in the west and Numerian - in the East.

283
Varahran II makes peace with Rome. "Cynegetia" ("Hunting Art") Nemesian.

284
The reign of Emperor Diocletian began (from 284 to 305). Establishment of dominance. Carrying out military reform, increase in the army to 450,000 people, coinage, tax reforms, the size of the provinces was reduced.

285
Diocles defeats Carinus at the Battle of Marga; Karin is killed by one of his officers. Diocles takes the name Diocletian.

286
Maximian was awarded the title of Augustus after defeating the Bagaudae in Gaul.

286
Peasant uprisings began in Gaul and Africa (from 286 to 390), which were suppressed.

286-287
Arise Carausia.

288
Diocletian concludes an agreement with Varahran II and places Tiridates III on the throne of Armenia. Diocletian suppresses an uprising in Egypt.

289
Diocletian fights against the Sarmatians. Maximian is defeated by Carausius.

292
Diocletian fights against the Sarmatians.

293
Constantius and Galerius were appointed Caesars in the West and East, respectively. Constantius recaptures Boulogne from Carausius, who is killed by his advisor Allectus, who continues to rule Britain. Varahran II died. Varahran III, king of Iran, succeeds Narseh I.

293
A tetrarchy was established in the empire - the rule of four.

296
Constantius recaptures Vritapia from Allectus. Agreement between Galerius and Narseh.

296
A war began with the Persians, which ended in 298 with the victory of the Romans. Rome's influence in Iran strengthened

297
Decree of Diocletian against the Manichaeans (March 31), Revolt of Domitius Domitian in Egypt. Galerius' war against Iran.

298
Diocletian in Egypt.