The anatomical and physiological apparatus that receives the effects of stimuli from the external and internal environment and processes them into sensations is called the analyzer.

Everyone The analyzer consists of three parts:

1) receptor, go a sense organ that converts the energy of external influences into nerve signals;

2) conducting nerve pathways, through which nerve signals are transmitted to the brain;

3) brain center in the cortex hemispheres of the brain. Each receptor is adapted to receive only certain types of influence (light, sound), i.e., it has a specific excitability to certain physical and chemical agents.

Allocate three main classes of sensations:

1) external(exteroceptive ) - occur when exposed to external stimuli on receptors located on the surface of the body;

Exteroceptive sensations are divided into contact(in direct contact with objects) - tactile and gustatory and distant (receptors respond to stimuli emanating from a distant object) - visual, auditory, olfactory.

2) internal(interoreceptive ) - signal what is happening in the body (feeling of hunger, thirst, pain, etc.);

3) muscular(proprioceptive) - located in the muscles and tendons; with their help, the brain receives information about the movement and position of various parts of the body.

The most ancient is organic (primarily pain) sensitivity, then contact (primarily tactile, that is, tactile) forms appeared. And the most evolutionarily young should be considered auditory, and especially visual receptor systems. The most significant for the functioning of the human psyche are visual (85% of all information about the outside world), auditory, tactile, organic, olfactory and gustatory.

Properties of sensations

1. Thresholds of sensation. For the emergence sensations it is necessary that the irritation reach a certain strength, a certain magnitude.

The minimum value of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the lower absolute threshold sensitivity. The lower the threshold value, the higher the sensitivity. Upper sensitivity threshold is the greatest magnitude of the stimulus at which the sensation is still present.(Beyond this threshold, for example, the light is already blinding).

Discrimination Threshold(differential sensitivity threshold): the smallest difference between two stimuli that causes a subtle difference in sensation.

2. Compensation in the field of sensations and perceptions. This unity with the loss of individual sense organs is manifested in the phenomena of compensation: the preserved organs, as it were, partially take over the functions of the lost ones. In the blind, hearing, touch, and smell become more acute.

3. Adaptation. The sensitivity of analyzers is not constant. The change in the sensitivity of analyzers occurs under the influence of their fixtures to active stimuli. The general pattern is as follows: in the transition from strong to weak stimuli, sensitivity increases; when moving from weak to strong, it decreases. Strong adaptation is observed in tactile, temperature (thermal), olfactory, visual sensations. Weak adaptation in auditory; pain sensations.

2. PERCEPTION

Perception reflects the objects of the surrounding world in the aggregate of various properties and parts. The interaction of the system of analyzers can arise as a result of the action of a complex of stimuli of various analyzers: visual, auditory, motor, tactile.

Perception is the result of the activity of the system of analyzers.

Unlike sensations, in the processes of perception, an image of a holistic object is formed by reflecting the totality of its properties. However, the image of perception is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations, although it includes them in its composition.

If, as a result of sensation, a person receives knowledge about individual properties, qualities of objects (something hot burned, something bright flashed ahead, etc.), then perception gives a holistic image of an object or phenomenon.

Perception is the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena of reality. In total their various properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

Depending on the extent to which the activity of the individual will be purposeful, perception is divided into unintentional ( involuntary) and intentional ( arbitrary).

Types of perception.

involuntary perception can be caused by the characteristics of the surrounding objects(their brightness, unusualness) or the correspondence of these objects to the interests of the individual. There is no predetermined goal in unintentional perception. There is also no volitional activity in it, which is why it is called involuntary. Walking down the street, for example, we hear the noise of cars, people talking, we see shop windows, we perceive various smells, and much more.

Arbitrary perception from the very beginning It is regulated by the task - to perceive this or that object or phenomenon, to get acquainted with it. So, for example, intentional perception will be looking at the electrical circuit of the machine being studied, listening to a report, viewing a thematic exhibition, etc. It can be included in any activity (in a labor operation, in completing a training task, etc.), but can act as an independent activity - observation.

Observation is an arbitrary systematic perception which is carried out with a specific, clearly conscious goal with the help of voluntary attention. The most important requirements that observation must satisfy are the clarity of the observer's task and the planned and systematic conduct. A significant role is played by the fragmentation of the task, the setting of particular, more specific tasks.

Perception properties:

1. Integrity, i.e. there is always perception holistic image of the subject. Individual elements of the subject are combined into a single whole. However, the ability of a holistic visual perception of objects is not innate, this is evidenced by data on the perception of people who went blind in infancy and who regained their sight in adulthood: in the first days after the operation, they do not see the world of objects, but only blurry outlines, spots of varying brightness and magnitude, i.e., there were single sensations, but there was no perception, they did not see integral objects. Gradually, over several weeks, these people developed visual perception, but it remained limited to what they had previously learned through touch. Thus, perception is formed in the process of practice, i.e. perception- a system of perceptual actions that must be mastered.

2. Constancy perception. Thanks to the constancy, we we perceive the surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, color, size, etc. The constancy of perception is not an innate property, but an acquired one. Violation of the constancy of perception occurs when a person finds himself in an unfamiliar situation, for example, people, when they look down from the upper floors of a high-rise building, then cars and pedestrians seem small to them; at the same time, builders who constantly work at height report that they see objects located below without distorting their size.

3. Structure perception. Perception is not a simple sum of sensations. We we perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations. For example, when listening to music, we perceive not individual sounds, but a melody, and we recognize it if it is performed by an orchestra, or one piano, or a human voice, although individual sound sensations are different.

4. Meaningfulness perception. Perception is closely related to thinking., with an understanding of the essence of objects.

5. Selectivity perception manifests itself in preference for some objects over others.

Types of perception: perception of objects, time, perception of relationships, movements, space, perception of a person.

ATTENTION

For the perception of any phenomenon, it is necessary that it be able to cause a reaction, which will allow us to "tune" our senses to it. Such an arbitrary or involuntary orientation and concentration of mental activity on some object of perception is called attention.

The nature and essence of attention still cause serious controversy in psychological science. Some experts even doubt the existence of attention as a special independent function, they consider it only a side or a moment of other mental processes. But the discovery of attention neurons suggests that it is a psychic entity whose structures are anatomically and physiologically relatively independent of sensory processes. The complexity of explaining the phenomenon of attention is due to the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form; functionally, it is always “attention to something”.

Attention Properties.

The amount of attention is measured by the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously. Objects that are united in meaning are perceived in greater numbers than those that are not united. In an adult, the amount of attention is 4-6 objects. Attention Volume Formula: 5 + 2.

Concentration of attention there is the degree of concentration of consciousness on the object (objects). The smaller the circle of objects of attention, the smaller the area of ​​the perceived form, the more concentrated the attention.

Concentration of attention provides an in-depth study of cognizable objects and phenomena, brings clarity to a person's idea of ​​​​a particular subject, its purpose, design, form.

Concentration, focus of attention can be successfully developed under the influence of specially organized work on the development of these qualities.

The distribution of attention is expressed in the ability to simultaneously perform several actions or monitor several processes, objects. In some professions, the distribution of attention becomes especially important. Such professions are the professions of a driver, a pilot, a teacher. The teacher explains the lesson and at the same time monitors the class, often he also writes something on the blackboard.

From the point of view of physiology, the distribution of attention is explained by the fact that, in the presence of optimal excitability in the cerebral cortex, in some of its areas there is only partial inhibition, as a result of which these areas are able to control simultaneously performed actions.

The better a person has mastered actions, the easier it is for him to simultaneously perform them.

Sustainability of attention - general focus of attention in the process of activity. Interest has a significant influence on the stability of attention. A necessary condition for the stability of attention is the variety of impressions or actions performed. Repetitive actions reduce the stability of attention.

Physiologically, this is explained by the fact that under the influence of a prolonged action of the same stimulus, excitation, according to the law of negative induction, causes inhibition in the same area of ​​the cortex, which leads to a decrease in the stability of attention.

Affects the stability of attention and vigorous activity with the object of attention. Action further focuses attention on the object. Thus, attention, merging with action and mutually intertwining, creates a strong connection with the object.

The property opposite to stability is distractibility.

Distractibility of attention is expressed in fluctuations in attention, which are periodic weakening of attention to a particular object or activity. Fluctuations in attention are observed even during very concentrated and hard work, which is explained by the continuous change of excitation and inhibition in the cerebral cortex. However, after 15-20 minutes, fluctuations in attention can lead to involuntary distraction from the object, which once again proves the need to diversify human activity in one form or another.

The properties of attention include switching attention.

Switching attention consists in restructuring attention, in transferring it from one object to another. Distinguish between switching attention intentionally ( arbitrary) and unintentional ( involuntarily e). Arbitrary Switching attention is accompanied by the participation of human will efforts.

involuntary Switching attention usually proceeds easily, without much effort and volitional effort.

Distinguish three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

involuntary attention- involuntarily spontaneous attention, caused by the action of a strong, contrasting or new unexpected stimulus or a significant and emotionally responsive stimulus.

Involuntary attention is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to some of its features.

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1. The concept of the unconscious acquired a specific psychological meaning in the concept of ...
Z. Freud
G. Leibniz
K. Jung
A. Adler

2. The number of objects or their elements, simultaneously perceived with the same degree of clarity and distinctness, evaluates such an indicator of attention as ...
concentration
switching
distribution
volume

3. The concentration of consciousness on some object, phenomenon or experience provides ...
reflection
perception
Attention
memory

4. An assessment by a person of himself, his capabilities, personal qualities and place in the system of interpersonal relations is called ...
self-esteem
self-presentation
self-perception
sense of self

5. The degree of concentration of consciousness on an object is such an indicator of attention as ...
volume
concentration
distribution
switching

6. Attention is the focus of consciousness on a certain object, which is presented clearly and distinctly. This direction…
electoral
scattered
unconscious
distributed

7. The ability of the subject to direct and focus attention on several independent variables at the same time is evidenced by such an indicator of attention as ...
concentration
distribution
sustainability
selectivity

8. Unlike other cognitive processes, it has no special content ...
feeling
perception
memory
Attention

9. The technique of meditation is ...
concentration of the subject's attention
to narrow the field of extraverted consciousness
slowing down metabolism
all answers are correct

10. Focusing attention on an object due to some of its features is called attention ...
involuntary
arbitrary
post-voluntary
visual

11. The second stage in the development of the psyche is (in the concept of A.N. Leontiev) ...
stage of sensory development of the psyche
stage of perceptual development

consciousness

12. According to A.N. Leontiev, the criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of the psyche in living organisms is ...
search behavior
presence of sensitivity
ability to adapt to the environment
the ability to play actions in the internal plan

13. According to modern research, the volume of actual consciousness is estimated by the value
5±2
6±2
7 ± 2
8±2

14. The highest form of the psyche, a product of the historical development of man in labor and constant communication with other people, is ....
will
reflex
consciousness
emotions

15. The time parameters of the duration of mental activity without deviation from the initial qualitative level are such a characteristic of attention as ...
concentration
distribution
sustainability
selectivity

16. Self-awareness can be defined as...
increased attention to yourself
level of claims
personality orientation
self image

17. The psychological mechanism of self-consciousness is ...
empathy
reflection
identification
attribution

18. The concept of "I-concept" originated in line with ... psychology
humanistic
cognitive
gestalt
cultural and historical

19. The normal (ordinary) state of consciousness is characterized by ... the level of psychological activity.
low
medium
high
elevated

20. The level of development of the psyche inherent only in man is ...
sensory psyche
perceptual psyche
elemental intelligence
consciousness

21. The ability to selectively and specifically respond to vital environmental influences in accordance with the needs of metabolism and maintaining the integrity of the body is called ...
reaction
irritability
reflection
sensitivity

22. The reason for the emergence of voluntary attention to any object is ...
lack of purpose
goal setting
novelty of the stimulus
emotional significance of the stimulus

23. The first stage in the development of the psyche is (in the concept of A.N. Leontiev) ...
stage of sensory development of the psyche
stage of perceptual development
stage of elemental intelligence
consciousness

24. Currently, based on electroencephalography data, sleep is considered as a cyclic change in brain activity that occurs through ... stages
5
6
7
8

25. The first theoretical developments in the field of the Self-concept belong to ...
W. Wundt
K. Rogers
L.S. Vygotsky
W. James

Attention is a mental cognitive process aimed at reflecting the mental properties, states of an object, which ensures the concentration of consciousness. Such a focus on certain subjects has a selective focus and contributes to the formation of an individual attitude towards them.

As objects attention can be both other persons and inanimate objects. Phenomena of nature, objects of art and science are also often in the field of attention of the subject. It must be admitted that only those objects that arouse significant interest in him, or are due to the social need for study, fall into the zone of human attention. The development of attention directly depends on such factors as the age of a person, the purposefulness of his aspirations, interest in the subject or phenomenon being studied, the regularity of performing special exercises.

Types of attention

involuntary attention

It is characterized by the absence of a conscious choice of a person. It occurs when an influencing stimulus appears, which makes you momentarily distract from everyday affairs and switch your mental energy. This type of attention is difficult to manage, since it is directly related to the internal attitudes of the individual. In other words, we are always attracted only by what is of significant interest, what excites and makes the feelings, the emotional sphere “move”.

The objects of involuntary attention can be: unexpected noise on the street or in the room, a new person or a phenomenon that appeared before the eyes, any moving objects, the mental state of a person, individual mood.

Involuntary attention is valuable for its immediacy and naturalness of occurrence, which always provides a lively emotional response. But, at the same time, it can distract a person from performing urgent tasks, solving significant problems.

As a rule, in preschool children, involuntary attention predominates. Educators of children's institutions, of course, will agree that their attention can only be attracted by bright, interesting images and events. That is why classes in kindergarten are so replete with beautiful characters, attractive tasks, and a huge scope for imagination and creativity.

Arbitrary attention

It is characterized by conscious retention of concentration on the object. Arbitrary attention begins when motivation appears, that is, a person understands and consciously focuses his attention on something. Stability and perseverance are its essential attributes. In order for the necessary action to be performed, a person is required to make an effort of will, come into a state of tension, and activate mental activity.

For example, a student before an exam tries his best to focus on the material being studied. And even if he is not entirely interested in what he will have to tell the teacher, his attention is maintained due to serious motivation. The need to close the semester, to come home as soon as possible, sometimes adds a powerful incentive in order to stretch a little, put aside all entertainment and travel.

However, it should be remembered that prolonged concentration of voluntary attention leads to a state of fatigue, even severe overwork. Therefore, between serious intellectual work, it is recommended to take reasonable breaks: go outside to breathe fresh air, do simple physical exercises, exercises. But you don’t need to read books on abstract topics: the head will not have time to rest, in addition, the presence of excess information can provoke further unwillingness to return to business. It has been noticed that a strong interest induces activity, activates the work of the brain, and this can and should be strived for.

Post-voluntary attention

It is characterized by the absence of tension in the subject of activity when performing a task. In this case, the motivation and desire to achieve a specific goal is strong enough. This type of attention differs from the previous one in that internal motivation prevails over external. That is, a person, his consciousness is guided not by social necessity, but by an individual need for action. Such attention has a very productive effect on any activity, gives significant results.

Basic properties of attention

The properties of attention in psychology are a number of significant characteristics that are closely related to the components of the activity of the individual.

• Concentration- this is a deliberate focus on the object of activity. Attention retention occurs due to strong motivation and the desire of the subject to perform the action as best as possible. The intensity of concentration on the subject of interest is controlled by the consciousness of the individual. If the concentration is high enough, then the result will not be long in coming. On average, without a break, a person can focus attention for 30 to 40 minutes, but a lot can be done during this time. It should be remembered that when working at a computer, you should take short breaks of 5 to 10 minutes for yourself to rest your eyes.
• Volume is the number of objects that consciousness can hold simultaneously in its field of vision. In other words, the volume is measured in the mutual ratio of objects and the degree of stability of attention to them. If a person is able to maintain focus on objects for a sufficiently long time and their number is large, then we can talk about a high amount of attention.
• Sustainability. Stability is the ability to keep attention on one object for a long time and not switch to another. If there was a distraction, then they usually talk about lability. Sustainability of attention is characterized by the ability to discover new things in familiar things: to discover relationships and aspects that were not previously noticed and not studied, to see prospects for further development and movement.
• switchability. Switchability is a meaningful purposeful change in the direction of the focus of attention. This property is characterized by the conditionality of external circumstances or phenomena. If the switching of attention does not occur under the influence of a more significant object and does not differ in special intentionality, then one speaks of simple distractibility. It must be admitted that it is difficult to switch attention from one object to another due to strong concentration. Then it even happens that a person moves on to another activity, but mentally continues to concentrate on the previous one: he thinks over the details, analyzes, and emotionally worries. Switching attention is needed to relax after intense mental work, to be included in a new activity.
• Distribution. Distribution is the ability of consciousness to simultaneously focus attention on several objects that are approximately in the same position in terms of importance. The ratio of objects among themselves, of course, has an impact on how this distribution occurs: the transition from one object to another. At the same time, a person often experiences a state of fatigue, caused by the need to be in one focus point to constantly remember about other existing ones.

Features of the development of attention

The development of human attention is necessarily associated with the ability to focus on one or more objects for a certain period of time without any distraction. This is not as easy as it might seem at first glance. After all, in order to focus on something, you need to be sufficiently interested in your business. So, for the development of involuntary attention, only an interesting object is required, on which one could focus the gaze. Arbitrary attention, however, requires a serious approach: purposefulness of actions, strong-willed effort, the ability to control one's feelings in order to prevent distraction at the most inopportune moment are needed. Post-voluntary attention is the most productive of all, as it does not require overcoming and additional efforts.

Attention Development Methods

At the moment, there are a variety of techniques for developing attention that allow you to achieve high results and learn how to control attention.

Development of concentration

It is recommended to choose an object for observation, and for a certain period of time try to focus your attention on it. Moreover, the simpler this subject, the better. For example, you can put a book on the table and imagine what it is written about, what are the main characters. One can only think of a book as an object made of paper and cardboard, imagine how many trees it took to make it. In the end, you can just pay attention to its color and shape. Which direction to choose is up to you. This exercise perfectly trains the focus of attention itself, allows you to develop the duration of concentration on one object.

If you wish, you can try to practice holding two or more objects in your field of vision. Then, to all of the above, it is necessary to add the development of the ability to switch attention from one object to another, memorizing and noting the significant features of each of them.

Development of visual attention

Exercises should be aimed at expanding the ability of the individual to focus on the object. For example, you can put an object in front and set yourself the task of looking at it for 3 to 5 minutes, highlighting as many details as possible. First, you will begin to develop a general idea of ​​​​the subject: its color and shape, size and height. However, gradually, the more you concentrate, the more clearly new details will begin to appear: small details, minor adaptations, etc. They, too, must be seen and noted to yourself.

Development of auditory attention

To improve this type of attention, you need to set yourself the goal of concentrating on the sounding voice for no more than ten minutes. It is best if it is meaningful human speech, however, if you want to relax, you can include birdsong here or any melody that meets the requirements of relaxing music.

If human speech sounds, while listening, it is important to note the speed with which the lecturer speaks, the degree of emotionality of the presentation of the material, the subjective usefulness of the information. It is also quite acceptable to listen to fairy tales, stories in the recording, and then try to remember and reproduce their content. In the case of listening to music, it is important to capture the levels of vibration of the sound wave, try to "connect" to the reproduced emotions and imagine the details of something.

How to manage attention?

Many people who want to increase their level of attention face constant difficulties. Some may not be able to concentrate on the details, others have difficulty with when to perceive the subject as a whole. In this case, I would like to advise you to train at different facilities in all directions and do it every day. Agree, it’s not difficult to spend 5-10 minutes a day working on yourself.

Thus, the problems of developing attention are quite multifaceted and deep. It is impossible to consider this type of cognitive processes only as a component of activity. We must also remember that attention is always necessary for us in everyday life, therefore it is important to be able to focus on simple things, to notice even small details.

Attention- the process of focusing consciousness on an object or information.

There are three types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

Several synonyms are used in the psychological literature to refer to involuntary attention. In some studies it is called passive, in others emotional. Both synonyms help to reveal the features of involuntary attention. When they talk about passivity, they highlight the dependence of involuntary attention on the object that attracted it, and emphasize the lack of effort on the part of a person aimed at concentrating. When involuntary attention is called emotional, then the connection between the object of attention and emotions, interests, needs is distinguished. In this case, there are also no volitional efforts aimed at concentration: the object of attention is allocated due to its correspondence to the reasons that prompt a person to activity.

It is known that any stimulus, changing force action attracts attention. Novelty of the stimulus also causes involuntary attention.

Objects that cause a bright emotional tone in the process of cognition (saturated colors, melodic sounds, pleasant smells) cause involuntary concentration of attention. Even more important for the emergence of involuntary attention are intellectual, aesthetic and moral feelings. An object that has caused a person's surprise, admiration, delight, for a long time attracts his attention.

Interest, as a direct interest in something happening and as a selective attitude to the world, is usually associated with feelings and is one of the most important reasons for prolonged involuntary attention to objects.

Synonyms for the concept of arbitrary (attention) are the words active or strong-willed. All three terms emphasize the active position of the individual when focusing attention on the object.

Arbitrary attention– it is a consciously regulated focus on an object. A person focuses not on what is interesting or pleasant for him, but on what he should do. This kind of attention is closely related to the will. Arbitrarily concentrating on an object, a person applies willpower, which maintains attention throughout the entire process of activity. Voluntary attention owes its origin to labor. Voluntary attention occurs when a person puts before himself purpose of activity which requires concentration. Arbitrary attention requires volitional effort, which is experienced as tension, the mobilization of forces to solve the problem. Willpower is necessary to focus on the object of activity, not to be distracted, not to make mistakes in actions.

Human attention has five main properties: stability, focus, switchability, distribution and volume.

Sustainability attention is manifested in the ability for a long time to maintain a state of attention on any object, subject of activity, without being distracted and without weakening attention. Stability of attention can be determined by various reasons. Some of them are associated with the individual physiological characteristics of a person, in particular with the properties of his nervous system, the general state of the body at a given time; others - characterize mental states (excitation, lethargy, etc.), others - correlate with motivation (the presence or absence of interest in the subject of activity, its significance for the individual), fourth - with external circumstances of the activity.

People with a weak nervous system or overexcited can get tired quite quickly, become impulsive. A person who does not feel very well physically also tends to be characterized by intermittent attention. The lack of interest in the subject contributes to the frequent distraction of attention from it, and, on the contrary, the presence of interest keeps attention in an elevated state for a long period of time. In an environment that is characterized by the absence of outwardly distracting moments, attention is quite stable. In the presence of many highly distracting stimuli, it fluctuates, becomes insufficiently stable. In life, the characteristic of the general stability of attention is most often determined by a combination of all these factors taken together.

attention span(opposite quality - absent-mindedness) is manifested in the differences that exist in the degree of concentration of attention on some objects and its distraction from others. A person, for example, can focus his attention on reading some interesting book, on doing some exciting business and not notice anything that is happening around. At the same time, his attention can be concentrated on a certain part of the readable text, even on a single sentence or word, and also more or less distributed throughout the text. Attention focus is sometimes called concentration and these terms are treated as synonyms.

switchability attention is understood as its transfer from one object to another, from one type of activity to another. This characteristic of human attention is manifested in the speed with which he can transfer his attention from one object to another, and such a transfer can be both involuntary and arbitrary. In the first case, the individual involuntarily transfers his attention to something that accidentally interested him, and in the second - consciously, by an effort of will, forces himself to focus on some object that is not even very interesting in itself. Switching attention, if it occurs on an involuntary basis, may indicate its instability, but such instability cannot always be considered as a negative quality. It often contributes to the temporary rest of the body, the analyzer, the preservation and restoration of the working capacity of the nervous systems and the body as a whole.

Two multidirectional processes are functionally related to the switching of attention: inclusion and distraction. The first is characterized by how a person switches attention to something and completely focuses on it; the second - by how the process of distraction is carried out.

All three of the discussed characteristics of attention are associated, among other things, with special properties of the human nervous system, such as lability, excitability, and inhibition. The corresponding properties of the nervous system directly determine the qualities of attention, especially involuntary attention, and therefore they should be considered mainly as naturally conditioned.

Distribution attention is manifested in the ability to disperse attention over a large space, simultaneously perform several types of activities or perform several different actions. When it comes to the distribution of attention between different activities, this does not always mean that they are literally carried out in parallel. This happens rarely, and such an impression is created due to the ability of a person to quickly switch from one type of activity to another, having time to return to the continuation of the interrupted one before forgetting occurs. It is known that the memory for interrupted actions is able to persist for a certain time (the Zeigarnik effect). During this period, a person can easily return to continue interrupted activities. This is exactly what happens most often in cases of distribution of attention between several simultaneously performed tasks.

The distribution of attention depends on the psychological and physiological state of the person. With fatigue, in the process of performing complex activities that require increased concentration of attention, the area of ​​its distribution usually narrows.

attention span is determined by the amount of information that can simultaneously be stored in the sphere of increased attention (consciousness) of a person. Numerical characteristic of the average amount of attention of people 7 + 2 units of information. The amount of attention is usually established in the course of an experiment, during which a large amount of information is presented to a person for a very short time. What he manages to remember during this time characterizes his amount of attention. Since the experimental determination of the amount of attention is associated with short-term memorization, it is often identified with the amount of short-term memory.

Memory

Memory- the process of storing, fixing and reproducing information with the help of the senses.

Types of memory.

Instant, or iconic, memory is associated with the retention of an accurate and complete picture of what has just been perceived by the senses, without any processing of the information received. This memory is a direct reflection of information by the senses. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Instantaneous memory is the complete residual impression that arises from the direct perception of stimuli. This is a memory-image.

short-term memory is a way of storing information for a short period of time. The duration of retention of mnemonic traces here does not exceed several tens of seconds, on average about 20 (without repetition). In short-term memory, not a complete, but only a generalized image of the perceived, its most essential elements, is stored. This memory works without a preliminary conscious mindset for memorization, but instead with a mindset for the subsequent reproduction of the material. Short-term memory characterizes such an indicator as volume. It averages from 5 to 9 units of information and is determined by the number that a person is able to accurately reproduce after a few tens of seconds after a single presentation of this information to him.

long-term memory. Information that has fallen into the storage of long-term memory can be reproduced by a person as many times as desired without loss.

visual memory is associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. auditory memory is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, for example, musical, speech.

Motor memory - is the memorization and preservation, and reproduction with sufficient accuracy of diverse complex movements.

emotional memory is the memory of experiences. The strength of material memorization is directly based on emotional memory: what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a longer period.

Tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory do not play a special role in human life, and their capabilities are limited compared to visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory.

According to the nature of the participation of the will in the processes of memorization and reproduction of material, memory is divided into involuntary and arbitrary. In the first case, they mean such memorization and reproduction, which occurs automatically and without much effort on the part of a person, without setting a special mnemonic task for himself (for memorization, recognition, preservation or reproduction). In the second case, such a task is necessarily present, and the process of memorization or reproduction itself requires volitional efforts.

4.1. Attention

The concept of attention. The mental life of a person flows along a certain channel. This orderliness is achieved due to a special state of the psyche - attention.

Attention- this is a state of orientation and concentration of consciousness on any objects with a simultaneous distraction from everything else.

Under orientation the selective, selective nature of the course of cognitive activity is understood. Attention can be directed to objects of the surrounding world (externally directed attention) or to one's own thoughts, feelings, experiences (internal or self-directed attention).

Under concentration it means keeping attention on one object, ignoring other objects, more or less deepening into the content of mental activity.

The manifestation of attention is associated with characteristic external manifestations:

There are movements of an adaptive nature - a specific posture of peering, listening, if attention is directed to external objects. If it is directed at one's own thoughts and feelings, then a person has a so-called "missing look" - the eyes are "set to infinity", due to which the surrounding objects are perceived unclearly and do not distract attention;

All unnecessary movements are delayed - for intense attention, complete immobility is characteristic;

With intense attention, breathing becomes more shallow and rare; inhalation becomes shorter and exhalation lengthens;

When a person is surprised by something, this is clearly expressed in the facial expressions of attention: here it is revealed, as Charles Darwin wrote, “... with a slight raising of the eyebrows. When attention turns into a sense of surprise, the raising of the eyebrows becomes more energetic, the eyes and mouth open strongly ... The degree of opening of these two organs corresponds to the intensity of the feeling of surprise ”;

Based on two criteria - the ratio of external (behavioral) and internal pictures of attention - Professor I.V. Strakhov singled out four states of attentiveness: real and apparent attentiveness and inattention. With real attentiveness (inattention), there is a complete coincidence of the external and internal pictures of attention, with seeming - their inconsistency, divergence.

Physiological basis of attention. The physiological mechanism of attention is the interaction of nervous processes (excitation and inhibition) occurring in the cerebral cortex on the basis of the law of induction of nervous processes, according to which any excitation focus that occurs in the cerebral cortex causes inhibition of surrounding areas. These foci of excitation can be different in strength and size.

I.P. Pavlov identified in animals unconditioned exploratory reflex"What?". The biological significance of this reflex lies in the fact that the animal emits a new stimulus in the environment and reacts in accordance with its value. This reflex is also innate in humans; it clearly shows the dependence of attention on external stimuli.

This mechanism cannot explain the entire complexity of the voluntary attention of a person who has developed in the course of labor activity and acquired new conditioned reflex mechanisms.

Studying the physiological activity of the brain, the Russian physiologist A.A. Ukhtomsky (1875-1942) created the doctrine of the dominant. Dominant- this is the dominant focus of excitation, characterized by great strength, constancy, the ability to intensify at the expense of other foci, switching them to itself.

The presence of a dominant focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex makes it possible to understand such a degree of a person's concentration on any object or phenomenon, when extraneous stimuli are unable to cause distraction.

Open I.P. also helps to understand the physiological basis of attention. Pavlov's phenomenon focus of optimal excitation- a center of medium strength, very mobile, most favorable for the formation of new temporary connections, which ensures clear work of thought, arbitrary memorization.

Types of attention. It is customary to distinguish the following types of attention: involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary.

involuntary attention arises without any intention of a person, without a predetermined goal and does not require volitional efforts.

The word "involuntary" in this phrase has several synonyms: unintentional, passive, emotional. All of them help to reveal its features. When they talk about passivity, they mean the dependence of involuntary attention on the object that attracted it, they emphasize the lack of efforts to concentrate on the part of a person. Calling involuntary attention emotional, they emphasize the connection between the object of attention and emotions, interests, and human needs.

There are two groups of causes that cause involuntary attention. AT first group includes features of the stimulus, when the concentration of consciousness on the object occurs due to precisely this circumstance:

The degree of intensity, the strength of the stimulus (loud sound, pungent smell, bright light). In a number of cases, not absolute, but relative intensity is important (correlation in strength with other stimuli acting at the moment);

Contrast between stimuli (large object among small ones);

The novelty of the object is absolute and relative (an unusual combination of familiar stimuli);

Weakening or cessation of the action of the stimulus, periodicity in action (pause in speech, flickering beacon).

The listed features of the stimulus briefly turn it into an object of attention. A longer concentration on an object is associated with the personal characteristics of a person - needs, interests, emotional significance, etc. Therefore, during second group causes of involuntary attention, the correspondence of external stimuli to the needs of the individual is fixed.

Arbitrary Attention is a conscious, regulated focus on an object, attention that arises as a result of a consciously set goal and requires volitional efforts to maintain it.

Arbitrary attention does not depend on the characteristics of the object, but on the goal or task set by the individual. A person focuses not on what is interesting or pleasant for him, but on what he should make. Voluntary attention is a product of social development. The ability to arbitrarily direct and maintain attention has developed in a person in the process of labor, since without this it is impossible to carry out a long and systematic labor activity.

For the emergence and maintenance of voluntary attention, certain conditions must be met:

Awareness of duty and responsibility;

Understanding the specific task of the activity being performed;

Habitual working conditions;

The emergence of indirect interests - not to the process, but to the result of the activity;

Focusing attention on mental activity is facilitated if practical action is included in cognition;

An important condition for maintaining attention is the mental state of a person;

Creation of favorable conditions, exclusion of negatively acting extraneous stimuli. At the same time, it must be remembered that weak side stimuli do not reduce the efficiency of work, but increase it.

Post-voluntary attention is attention arising on the basis of an arbitrary, after it, when volitional efforts are no longer required to maintain it. In terms of psychological characteristics, post-voluntary attention is close to involuntary: it also arises on the basis of interest in the subject, but the nature of interest in this case is different - it manifests itself in the result of activity. This can be illustrated as follows: at first, the work does not captivate a person, he forces himself to do it, makes serious volitional efforts to maintain concentration, but gradually gets carried away, drawn in - he becomes interested.

In addition, there are also sensory attention associated with the perception of various stimuli (visual and auditory); attention, the object of which is the thoughts and memories of a person; individual and collective attention.

Attention Properties. Speaking about the development and education of attention, they mean the improvement of its properties, which can be divided into three groups: properties that characterize the strength, breadth, and dynamic properties of attention.

1. Properties that characterize the strength (intensity) of attention. These include focus and attention span.

Concentration (concentration)- this is the retention of attention on one object or activity, complete absorption in the phenomenon, thoughts. It provides an in-depth study of cognizable objects. An indicator of intensity is "noise immunity", the inability to divert attention from the subject of activity by extraneous stimuli.

Closely related to focus is the property sustainability- the time to maintain concentration, the duration of keeping attention on something, resistance to fatigue and distraction.

The opposite of stability is distractibility the cause of which is often excessive and excessively extensive activity. Interest has a significant influence on the stability of attention.

For example, when performing exercises of the same type, the student does the first of them carefully, with concentration, and then, when the material has already been sufficiently mastered, interest is lost, the child works mechanically, attention stability suffers.

2. Properties that characterize the breadth of attention. This is, first of all, the amount of attention, measured by the number of objects that can be simultaneously perceived with a sufficient degree of clarity.

Attention can move very quickly from one object to another, which creates the illusion of a large amount of attention. The attention span of an adult is equal to the "magic Miller number": 7±2. It depends on many circumstances: the degree of familiarity of objects, the relationship between them, their grouping.

The second group includes distribution attention, which is expressed in the ability to keep several objects in the spotlight, simultaneously perform two or more activities. The level of distribution depends on the nature of the combined activities, their complexity and familiarity.

3. Dynamic properties of attention. This is first of all hesitation- involuntary periodic short-term change in the intensity of attention, and switching - conscious transfer of attention from one object to another, a quick transition from one activity to another. Switching can be deliberate accompanied by the participation of strong-willed efforts (when changing the nature of the activity, setting new tasks), and unintentional flowing easily, without much effort and volitional effort. If attention "slips" from regular activities, this qualifies as abstraction.

One of the most common attention deficits is distraction. This term refers to completely different, in a sense, even opposite states. In particular, this so-called imaginary distraction as a result of excessive concentration, when a person does not notice anything around. It is observed in people who are passionate about work, covered by strong feelings - scientists, creative workers. True absent-mindedness is a frequent involuntary distractibility from the main activity, weakness of voluntary attention, impaired concentration. People of this type have a sliding, fluttering attention. True absent-mindedness can be caused by fatigue, a beginning illness, or it can also arise as a result of poor education, when the child is not accustomed to concentrated work, does not know how to complete the work he has begun.

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