· 129 BC e.

Events

Roman Republic

Born

• Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo - Roman statesman and military leader, father of Pompey the Great.

Died

• Attalus III is the last king of the Kingdom of Pergamon.
• Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus - killed by senators.

see also

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Excerpt characterizing 133 BC. e.

“Well, great,” he said, “we’ll talk later.” Oh, how glad I am for you! - he added.
- Well, why didn’t you cheat on Boris? - asked the brother.
- This is nonsense! – Natasha shouted laughing. “I don’t think about him or anyone else and I don’t want to know.”
- That's how it is! So what are you doing?
- I? – Natasha asked again, and a happy smile lit up her face. -Have you seen Duport?
- No.
– Have you seen the famous Duport the dancer? Well, you won't understand. That's what I am. – Natasha took her skirt, rounding her arms, as they dance, ran a few steps, turned over, made an entreche, kicked her leg against the leg and, standing on the very tips of her socks, walked a few steps.
- Am I standing? after all, she said; but couldn’t help herself on her tiptoes. - So that’s what I am! I will never marry anyone, but will become a dancer. But do not tell anyone.
Rostov laughed so loudly and cheerfully that Denisov from his room became envious, and Natasha could not resist laughing with him. - No, it’s good, isn’t it? – she kept saying.
- Okay, don’t you want to marry Boris anymore?
Natasha flushed. - I don’t want to marry anyone. I'll tell him the same thing when I see him.
- That's how it is! - said Rostov.
“Well, yes, it’s all nothing,” Natasha continued to chatter. - Why is Denisov good? – she asked.
- Good.
- Well, goodbye, get dressed. Is he scary, Denisov?
- Why is it scary? – asked Nicholas. - No. Vaska is nice.
- You call him Vaska - strange. And that he is very good?
- Very good.
- Well, come quickly and drink tea. Together.
And Natasha stood on tiptoe and walked out of the room the way dancers do, but smiling the way only happy 15-year-old girls smile. Having met Sonya in the living room, Rostov blushed. He didn't know how to deal with her. Yesterday they kissed in the first minute of the joy of their date, but today they felt that it was impossible to do this; he felt that everyone, his mother and sisters, looked at him questioningly and expected from him how he would behave with her. He kissed her hand and called her you - Sonya. But their eyes, having met, said “you” to each other and kissed tenderly. With her gaze she asked him for forgiveness for the fact that at Natasha’s embassy she dared to remind him of his promise and thanked him for his love. With his gaze he thanked her for the offer of freedom and said that one way or another, he would never stop loving her, because it was impossible not to love her.

Annexation of Pergamum (133 BC)

In the second half of the 2nd century. BC. Rome, not having sufficient forces and means for the direct capture and occupation of Hellenistic states that were experiencing an internal crisis, such as the Seleucid Empire, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Kingdom of Pergamon, successfully pursued a policy in the East of provoking internal political conflicts, interfering in the struggle for power and pitting some states against others with the aim of further weakening them. Roman diplomacy, as best it could, contributed to the final collapse of the Seleucid state. Weakened by endless dynastic strife, Egypt became dependent on Rome. Finally, the kings of Pergamon, valuing the alliance with the Roman Republic, strictly adhered to the Iroroman political orientation, despite the fact that after the defeat of Macedonia, the Romans took a number of actions aimed at weakening Pergamum. The country was flooded with Roman businessmen, merchants and moneylenders, who, together with the Pergamon elite, robbed the local population. Dissatisfaction with the pro-Roman policies of the kings of the Attalid dynasty was brewing among broad sections of the population.

The last legitimate ruler of Pergamon was Attalus III Philometor Euergetes (138-133 BC). In ancient historiography, an extremely negative image of this ruler developed: a cantankerous neurasthenic, unable to rule the country, he withdrew from government affairs, devoting himself entirely to botany and pharmacology, sculpture and the art of bronze casting. Attalus behaved rather extravagantly, appearing in public in rags and unshaven. By cultivating poisonous plants, the king created a variety of poisonous potions, the effects of which, as they said, he tested on his associates. In addition, ancient authors reproached Attalus III in the murder of his friends and executions of relatives.

In 133 BC. Attalus III died suddenly at the age of 38 (presumably due to a stroke), leaving no direct heir. Simultaneously with the news of the king's death, his subjects learned that Attalus had bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. The Senate hastened to pass a resolution on the annexation of the territory of the former Kingdom of Pergamon to the Roman Republic. However, not all former subjects of the Pergamon kings agreed with this turn of events, not to mention doubts about the authenticity of the royal will. Aristonicus took advantage of anti-Roman sentiments among the local population, son of a loyal ally of the Romans, King Eumenes II by a concubine and half-brother of Attalus III. Leading the movement of slaves and the poor, Aristonicus tried to restore the political independence of Pergamon. He declared himself king under the name Eumenes III (132-129 BC).

Aristonicus managed to keep iodine under control over a fairly large territory for two years. In the fight against insurgents, the Romans attracted the coastal greek cities, as well as the rulers of Bithynia, Pontus, Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. Aristonicus, who gathered a large army, in 131 BC. defeated the army of the consul Publius Licinius Crassus Mucianus in a battle near the city of Leucas (the consul himself was captured and killed). The following year, Aristonicus was defeated by the troops of the consul Marcus Perperna, and a year later he was locked up by the Romans in the Carian city of Stratonicea. Forced to capitulate, Aristonicus was captured and sent to Rome, where he was paraded in the triumph of Manius Aquilius and then strangled in prison (128 BC). The uprising after the death of Perperna was finally suppressed by the consul Manius Aquilius, who ordered the poisoning of all springs and wells in Mysia in order to force the rebellious cities to surrender. In 129-126. BC. on the territory of the former kingdom of Pergamon, by decree of the Senate, the province of Asia was created (it also included Caria, which the Romans took from the Rhodians). Since then, the richest province of Asia for a long time became the object of the greedy desires of the Roman promagistrates and publican tax-farmers (it was not for nothing that Cicero called Asia a “corrupt province,” meaning the detrimental influence of Asian luxury on the morals of not only the local population, but also the Roman administrators who operated here and businessmen).

• The Attalid dynasty, founded by the Macedonian Phileteros, son of Attalus, ruled Pergamum in 283-133. BC.
• In addition, Attalus III wrote treatises on viticulture and olive growing, studied birds, fish and insects, and also invented a plaster for healing wounds and ulcers on the skin.
• IN modern historiography There is an opinion, based, in particular, on epigraphic data, that this repulsive image of a tyrant, psychopath and sadist is hardly true. Apparently, Attalus III’s attempt to pursue an independent political course aimed at strengthening the Kingdom of Pergamon caused irritation in Rome. Most likely, the consequence of the negative attitude towards Attalus of the “people dressed in togas” was the creation of a “black stereotype” in the Greco-Roman historical tradition in the face of the last legitimate king of Pergamon.
• By that time, there was a precedent for a royal will in favor of Rome: in 155 BC. Ptolemy Euergetes bequeathed the kingdom of Cyrene to the Roman Republic in the event that he died childless. In 96 BC. According to the will of King Ptolemy Apion, Kyreia still went to Rome.
• 0 The very fact of the existence of the royal will is confirmed by the presence of a resolution of the national assembly in Pergamum, dating back to the same 133 BC. Nowadays, researchers believe that Attalus III bequeathed only a royal domain to Rome, and granted freedom to the cities of the Kingdom of Pergamon.
• Since the end of the 19th century. In historiography, the theme of social utopia turned out to be closely associated with the Aristonicus uprising. Information about the founding of Heliopolis by Aristonik, i.e. the City of the Sun, was interpreted by some researchers in the spirit of the popular at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. socialist teachings. Thus, the theory of creation by Aristonik of a state of universal equality and social justice arose. In “heliopolitans”, i.e. The citizens of the “State of the Sun” saw supporters of the mentioned theory as ideological fighters for freedom against slavery and oppression. It is currently believed that Aristonicus did not have any utopian ideology. Archaeological data indicate that the actions of Aristonicus - the founding of Heliopolis and the endowment of its citizens (apparently former slaves) with a number of privileges - are fully consistent with the traditional policy of the Pergamon kings, who founded and renamed cities, settling mercenaries there.
• The rulers of the kingdoms allied to Rome in Asia Minor took an active part in suppressing the Aristonicus uprising. All of them were generously rewarded: the Pontic king Mithridates V Evergetes took possession of Great Phrygia, the sons of the Cappadocian king Ariaratus V Eusebus Philopator received Lycaoia and part of Cilicia, and Bithynia received part of Phrygia.

The history of Ancient Rome begins with the emergence of the city and traditionally dates back to 753 BC.

The site where the settlement was founded had a favorable landscape. A nearby ford made it easy to cross the nearby Tiber. The Palatine and neighboring hills provided natural defensive fortifications for the surrounding wide, fertile plain.

Over time, thanks to trade, Rome began to grow and strengthen. A convenient shipping route near the city ensured a constant flow of goods in both directions.

Rome's interaction with the Greek colonies provided the ancient Romans with the opportunity to take Hellenic culture as a model to build their own. From the Greeks they adopted literacy, architecture and religion - the Roman divine pantheon is almost identical to the Greek. The Romans also took a lot from the Etruscans. Etruria, located north of Rome, also had an advantageous position for trade, and the ancient Romans learned trading skills directly from the Etruscan example.

Royal period (mid-8th century - 510 BC)

The royal period was characterized by a monarchical form of government. Since there is practically no written evidence of that era, very little is known about this period. Ancient historians based their works on oral histories and legends, since many documents were destroyed by the Gauls during the sack of Rome (after the Battle of Allia in the 4th century BC). Therefore, it is likely that there will be a serious distortion of events that actually occurred.

The traditional version of Roman history, as told by Livy, Plutarch and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, tells of seven kings who ruled Rome in the first centuries after its founding. The total chronology of their reign is 243 years, that is, an average of almost 35 years each. The kings, with the exception of Romulus, who founded the city, were elected by the people of Rome for life, and none of them used military force to win or retain the throne. The main distinctive sign of the king was a purple toga.

The king was vested with the highest military, executive and judicial powers, officially granted to him by the comitia curiata (an assembly of patricians of the 30 curiae) after the passing of the Lex curiata de imperio (special law) at the beginning of each reign.

Early Republic (509-287 BC)

Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC. Rome rapidly grew from the ordinary trading city to a thriving metropolis. In 509 BC. The seventh king of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown by his rival for power, Lucius Junius Brutus, who reformed the system of government and became the founder of the Roman Republic.

Rome originally owed its prosperity to trade, but war made it a powerful force in the ancient world. Rivalry with North African Carthage united the powers of Rome and helped increase the latter's wealth and prestige. The cities were constant trading competitors in the Western Mediterranean, and after Carthage was defeated in the Third Punic War, Rome gained almost absolute dominance in the region.

The plebes were outraged by the rule of the patricians: the latter, thanks to their dominance over the courts, interpreted customs in their own interests, allowing the rich and noble to be harsh in relation to their dependent debtors. However, unlike some Greek city-states, the plebeians of Rome did not call for land redistribution, attack the patricians, or try to seize power. Instead, a kind of “strike”—secessio plebis—was declared. In effect, the plebeians temporarily “seceded” from the state under the leadership of their elected leaders (tribunes) and refused to pay taxes or fight in the army.

Twelve tables

Things remained in this state for several years before the patricians decided to make some concessions, agreeing to lay down the laws in in writing. A commission composed of plebeians and patricians duly prepared the Twelve Tables of Laws, which were exhibited in the city forum (around 450 BC). These Twelve Tables formulated a rather harsh set of laws, but the Romans of all classes were aware of their justice, thanks to which it was possible to defuse social tensions in society. The laws of the Twelve Tables formed the basis of all subsequent Roman law, perhaps greatest contribution into history made by the Romans.

Middle Republic (287-133 BC)

The influx of booty and tribute from conquest led to the emergence of a class of extremely wealthy Romans - senators, who fought as generals and governors, and businessmen - the equites (or equestrians), who levied taxes in the new provinces and supplied the army. Each new victory led to an influx of more and more slaves: during the last two centuries BC. the Mediterranean slave trade became a huge business, with Rome and Italy being the main destination markets.

Most slaves had to work on the land of senators and other rich people, who began to develop and improve their estates using new techniques. Ordinary farmers could not compete with these then modern holdings. More and more small farmers lost their lands to the ruin of their rich neighbors. The gap between classes widened as more and more farmers left their land and headed to Rome, where they joined the ranks of the growing class of landless and rootless people.

The juxtaposition of great wealth and mass poverty in Rome itself poisoned the political climate—Roman politics was dominated by warring factions. These were not modern political parties representing completely different ideologies, but rather ideas around which different factions grouped. Supporters of the idea of ​​land redistribution, who had a minority in the Senate, advocated for the division and distribution land resources among the landless poor. The supporters of the opposite idea, representing the majority, wanted to keep the interests intact " the best people”, that is, themselves.

Late Republic (133-27 BC)

In the 2nd century BC. Two Roman tribunes, the Gracchi brothers, tried to carry out land and a number of political reforms. Despite the fact that the brothers were killed defending their position, thanks to their efforts, legislative reform was carried out, and rampant corruption in the Senate became less obvious.

Army reform

The decline in the number of small property owners in the Italian countryside had profound consequences on Roman politics. It was farmers who were the traditional basis of the Roman army, buying their own weapons and equipment. This system of recruiting had long become problematic as Rome's armies spent long years abroad on military campaigns. The absence of men in the home undermined the small family's ability to maintain their farm. Thanks to Rome's expanding overseas military expansion and the decrease in the number of small landowners, recruitment into the army from this class became more and more difficult.

In 112 BC year, the Romans faced a new enemy - the tribes of the Cimbri and Teutons, who decided to move to another area. Tribes invaded territories that the Romans had occupied a couple of decades earlier. The Roman armies directed against the barbarians were destroyed, culminating in the greatest defeat at the Battle of Arausio (105 BC) in which, according to some sources, about 80 thousand Roman soldiers were killed. Fortunately for the Romans, the barbarians did not invade Italy at that time, but continued on their way through modern France and Spain.

The defeat at Arausio caused shock and panic in Rome. Commander Gaius Marius conducts military reform, requiring landless citizens to undergo compulsory military service. The structure of the army itself was also reformed.

The recruitment of landless Romans, as well as the improvement of conditions of service in the Roman legions, had an extremely important result. This closely linked the interests of the soldiers and their generals, which was explained by the commanders’ guarantee that each legionnaire would receive a land plot upon completion of his service. Land was the only commodity in the pre-industrial world that provided economic security to a family.

The commanders, in turn, could count on the personal loyalty of their legionnaires. The Roman legions of that time became more and more like private armies. Considering that the generals were also leading politicians in the Senate, the situation became even more complicated. Opponents of the commanders tried to block the latter’s efforts to distribute land in favor of their people, which led to quite predictable results - the commanders and soldiers became even closer together. It is not surprising that in some cases, generals at the head of their armies tried to achieve their goals through unconstitutional means.

First triumvirate

By the time the first triumvirate was created, the Roman Republic had reached its peak. Rival politicians in the Senate Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, together with the young commander Gaius Julius Caesar, created a triple alliance to achieve their own goals. The rivalry for power and ambition of all three helped keep each other in check, ensuring Rome's prosperity.

The richest citizen of Rome, Crassus was corrupt to such an extent that he forced wealthy fellow citizens to pay him for security. If the citizen paid, everything was in order, but if no money was received, the obstinate’s property was set on fire and Crassus charged a fee for his people to put out the fire. And although the motives for the emergence of these fire brigades can hardly be called noble, Crassus in fact created the first fire brigade, which in the future served the city well more than once.

Pompey and Caesar are famous commanders, thanks to whose conquests Rome significantly increased its wealth and expanded its sphere of influence. Envying the leadership talents of his comrades, Crassus organized a military campaign in Parthia.

In September '54 BC. Caesar's daughter Julia, who was Pompey's wife, died giving birth to a girl, who also died a few days later. This news created factional divisions and unrest in Rome, as many felt that the death of Julia and the child ended the family ties between Caesar and Pompey.

Crassus' campaign against Parthia was disastrous. Shortly after the death of Julia, Crassus died in the battle of Carrhae (in May 53 BC). While Crassus was alive, there was some parity in the relationship between Pompey and Caesar, but after his death, friction between the two commanders resulted in civil war. Pompey tried to get rid of his rival by legal means and ordered him to appear in Rome for the trial of the Senate, which deprived Caesar of all powers. Instead of arriving in the city and humbly appearing before the Senate, in January 49 BC. e. Caesar, returning from Gaul, crossed the Rubicon with his army and entered Rome.

He did not accept any accusations, but concentrated all his efforts on eliminating Pompey. The opponents met in Greece in 48 BC, where Caesar's numerically inferior army defeated Pompey's superior forces at the Battle of Pharsalus. Pompey himself fled to Egypt, hoping to find refuge there, but was deceived and killed. The news of Caesar's victory spread quickly - many of Pompey's former friends and allies quickly went over to the side of the winner, believing that he was supported by the gods.

Rise of the Roman Empire (27 BC)

After defeating Pompey, Julius Caesar became the most powerful man in Rome. The Senate declared him a dictator, and this actually marked the beginning of the decline of the Republic. Caesar was extremely popular among the people, and for good reason: his efforts to create a strong and stable government increased the prosperity of the city of Rome.

Many changes were carried out, the most significant of which was the reform of the calendar. A police force was created and officials were appointed to carry out land reforms, and changes were made to tax laws.

Caesar's plans included the construction of an unprecedented temple dedicated to the god Mars, a huge theater and a library based on the prototype of the Alexandrian one. He ordered the restoration of Corinth and Carthage, wanted to turn Ostia into a large port and dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth. Caesar was going to conquer the Dacians and Parthians, as well as avenge the defeat at Carrhae.

However, Caesar's achievements led to his death as a result of a conspiracy in 44 BC. A group of senators led by Brutus and Cassius feared that Caesar was becoming too powerful and could eventually simply abolish the Senate.

After the death of the dictator, his relative and comrade-in-arms Mark Antony joined forces with Caesar's nephew and heir Gaius Octavius ​​Furinus and his friend Mark Aemilius Lepidus. Their combined army defeated the forces of Brutus and Cassius in the two battles of Philippi in 42 BC. Both of the dictator's killers committed suicide; soldiers and officers, except those who took a direct part in the conspiracy against Caesar, received forgiveness and an offer to join the army of the winners.

Octavius, Antony and Lepidus formed the second triumvirate of Rome. However, the members of this triumvirate turned out to be too ambitious. Lepidus was given control of Spain and Africa, which effectively neutralized him from political claims in Rome. It was decided that Octavius ​​would rule the Roman dominions in the west, and Antony in the east.

However, Anthony's love affair with the Queen of Egypt Cleopatra VII destroyed delicate balance, which Octavius ​​sought to preserve, and led to war. The armies of Antony and Cleopatra were defeated at the Battle of Cape Actium in 31 BC. e., after which the lovers later committed suicide.

Octavius ​​remained the only ruler of Rome. In 27 BC. e. he receives emergency powers from the Senate, the name of Octavian Augustus and becomes the first emperor of Rome. It is at this moment that the history of ancient Rome ends and the history of the Roman Empire begins.

Reign of Augustus (31 BC-14 AD)

Now Emperor Octavian Augustus carried out a military reform, retaining 28 legions out of 60, thanks to which he came to power. The rest were demobilized and settled in the colonies. Thus, 150 thousand were created. regular army. The length of service was set at sixteen years and later increased to twenty.

The active legions were stationed far from Rome and from each other - the proximity of the border directed the energy of the military outward, towards external enemies. At the same time, being far from each other, ambitious commanders did not have the opportunity to unite into a force capable of threatening the throne. Such caution of Augustus immediately after the civil war was quite understandable and characterized him as a far-sighted politician.

All provinces were divided into senatorial and imperial. In their domains, senators had civil power, but did not have military powers - the troops were only under the control of the emperor and were stationed in the regions under his control.

The republican structure of Rome became more and more a formality every year. Senate, comitia and some others state institutions gradually lost political significance, leaving real power in the hands of the emperor. However, formally he continued to consult with the Senate, which often voiced the emperor’s decisions as a result of its debates. This form of monarchy with republican features received the conventional name “principate.”

Augustus was one of the most talented, energetic and skillful administrators the world has ever known. The enormous work of reorganizing every branch of his vast empire created a prosperous new Roman world.

Following in the footsteps of Caesar, he earned genuine popularity by organizing games and spectacles for the people, constructing new buildings, roads and other measures for the common good. The emperor himself claimed that he restored 82 temples in one year.

Augustus was not a talented commander, but he had enough common sense admit it. And therefore, in military affairs, he relied on his faithful friend Agrippa, who had a military vocation. The most important achievement was the conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. e. Then in 20 BC. managed to return the banners and prisoners captured by the Parthians at the Battle of Carrha in 53 BC. Also during the reign of Augustus, the Danube became the border of the empire in eastern Europe, after the conquest of the Alpine tribes and the occupation of the Balkans.

Julio-Claudian Dynasty (14-69 AD)

Since Augustus and his wife Livia had no sons together, his stepson from his first marriage, Tiberius, became the emperor's heir. In Augustus's will he was the sole heir, and after the death of the emperor in 14 AD. the succession of power passed peacefully.

Tiberius

As under Augustus, the empire as a whole enjoyed peace and prosperity. Tiberius did not seek to conquer new territories, but continued to strengthen the power of Rome over the entire vast empire.

Distinguished by his stinginess, the new emperor practically stopped funding the construction of temples, roads and other structures. However, the consequences natural Disasters or fires were eliminated with funds from the state treasury, and in such situations Tiberius was not greedy. The main result of Tiberius's reign was the strengthening of imperial power, since the principate of the reign of Augustus still existed in Tiberius's empire.

Caligula

After the death of Tiberius in 37. power passed to Caligula, who was the son of the nephew of the deceased emperor. The beginning of his reign was very promising, since the young heir was popular among the people and generous. Caligula celebrated his rise to power with a large-scale amnesty. However, an incomprehensible illness that happened to the emperor a few months later turned the man on whom Rome pinned its bright hopes into a crazy monster, making his name a household name. In the fifth year of his mad reign, in 41 AD, Caligula was killed by one of his Praetorian officers.

Claudius

Caligula was succeeded by his uncle Claudius, who was fifty years old when he came to power. Throughout his reign the empire prospered and there were virtually no complaints from the provinces. But the main achievement of Claudius's reign was the organized conquest of the south of England.

Nero

He succeeded Claudia in 54. AD his stepson Nero, distinguished by his outstanding cruelty, despotism and viciousness. On a whim, the emperor burned half the city in 64 and then tried to regain popularity among the people by lighting up its gardens with a public display of burning Christians. As a result of the Praetorian uprising in 68, Nero committed suicide, and with his death the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.

Flavian Dynasty (69-96)

For a year after Nero's death, the struggle for the throne continued, resulting in a civil war. And only the coming to power of the new Flavian dynasty in the person of Emperor Vespasian put an end to the civil strife.

During the 9 years of his reign, the uprisings that broke out in the provinces were suppressed, and the state economy was restored.

After Vespasian's death, his own son became the heir - this was the first time that power in Rome passed from father to son. The reign was short, and his successor after his death younger brother Domitian was not distinguished by any special virtues and died as a result of a conspiracy.

Antonina (90-180)

After his death, the Senate proclaimed Nerva emperor, who ruled for only two years, but gave Rome one of the best rulers - the outstanding commander Ulpius Trajan. Under him, the Roman Empire reached its maximum size. Expanding the borders of the empire, Trajan wanted to move the nomadic barbarian tribes as far as possible from Rome. Three subsequent emperors - Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius - acted for the benefit of Rome and made the 2nd century AD. the best era of the empire.

Severan Dynasty (193-235)

The son of Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, did not have the virtues of his father and his predecessors, but he had many vices. As a result of a conspiracy, he was strangled in 192, and the empire again entered a period of interregnum.

In 193, a new Severan dynasty came to power. During the reign of Carcalla, the second emperor of this dynasty, the inhabitants of all provinces received the right to Roman citizenship. All the emperors of the dynasty (except for the founder Septimius Severus) died a violent death.

Crisis of the 3rd century

From 235 By 284, the empire was experiencing a crisis of state power, which resulted in a period of instability, economic decline and the temporary loss of some territories. From 235 to 268g. 29 emperors claimed the throne, of whom only one died a natural death. Only with the proclamation of Emperor Diocletian in 284 did the period of upheaval end.

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy

It was under Diocletian that the principate finally ceased to exist, giving way to the dominant - the unlimited power of the emperor. During his reign, a number of reforms were carried out, in particular the formal division of the empire, first into two and then into four regions, each of which was ruled by its own “tetrarch”. Although the tetrarchy lasted only until 313, it was the original idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe division into west and east that led to the future division into two independent empires.

Constantine I and the decline of the empire

By 324, Constantine became the sole ruler of the empire, under whom Christianity acquired the status of a state religion. The capital is transferred from Rome to Constantinople, built on the site ancient greek city Byzantium. After his death, the process of decline of the empire becomes irreversible - civil strife and the invasion of barbarians gradually led to the decline of the once most powerful empire in the world. Theodosius I can be considered the last autocratic ruler of the Roman world, but he remained so for only about a year. In 395 power passes to his sons. The division into Western and Eastern empires becomes final.

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• (88 – 82 BC) – between Marius and Sulla
• (72 – 70 BC) – between Sertorius and Pompey
• (49 – 45 BC) – between Pompey and Caesar
• (43, 32 and 30 BC) – between Antony and Octavius

As is known, power in the Roman state belonged to the mobilite (nobility), whose stronghold was the Senate. In the II century. BC. the political struggle in Rome, in fact, was between supporters and opponents of the Senate.

Gradually, two hostile political parties emerged in Rome:

• Party of Optimates(from the word “optimus” - “best”) reflected the interests of the ruling senatorial oligarchy. It was headed by a noble patrician Cornelius Sulla.
• Populators Party(from the word “populus” - “people”) reflected the interests of broad sections of the population. It was headed by a man from the bottom Guy Mari.

Sulla and Marius were excellent commanders who became famous on the battlefields. Guy Mari carried out a military reform as a result of which the army began to depend not on the government, but on the commander. For some time, power in Rome passed from one party to another. In 82 BC. A real civil war broke out.

In 82 BC. BC. Sulla's army occupied Rome by force of arms and mercilessly dealt with the popular people. After Maria's death Sulla established his dictatorial power in Rome and carried out anti-democratic reforms. The tribunes of the people were deprived of power. Sulla ruled Rome indefinitely for three years, until, unexpectedly for everyone, he resigned as dictator and retired into private life.

1. The crisis of the republic in the 70-50s. BC. I triumvirate. Caesar's dictatorship.

In 60 BC e. Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey the Great and Marcus Licinius Crassus pooled resources to seize power, forming the First Triumvirate. It lasted until the death of Crassus in 53 BC. e.

The possibility of one man's rule in a democratic society has shown that The Roman Republic entered a period of crisis. For some time, Rome lived under the harsh laws of Sulla, where no one dared to raise a voice against. However, in the Roman Republic an outbreak of unprecedented magnitude broke out. slave revolt led by Spartacus (74 -71 BC). Since the time of Hannibal, the Eternal City has never experienced such anxiety. The best commanders were called from the provinces to fight Spartacus, including Gnaeus Pompey, who became famous for his conquests in the East. From Rome itself, praetor Marcus Crassus moved with an army to suppress the uprising. In a fierce battle, Spartak's army was defeated, and he himself was killed. In Rome, Crassus and Pompey were greeted with triumph and were immediately elected consuls.

The organizer of the triumvirate was Caesar, who had just returned from Further Spain as propraetor. At the walls of Rome he had to choose between the triumph for which he had hoped and the consulate. A man who entered Rome could no longer claim triumph, and remaining outside the walls of Rome, Caesar could not stand as a candidate for consul. Although Caesar asked the Senate to make an exception for him and allow his friends to nominate him, Cato sharply opposed this. But many senators were still ready to support Caesar, and therefore Cato obstructed him by making a speech that took up the entire session. After this, Caesar abandoned attempts to obtain both a triumph and a consulate at once, and entered Rome to nominate his candidacy for consul. Soon after, Caesar, dissatisfied with the Senate, entered into an alliance with Pompey, who was also dissatisfied with the policies of the senators, who canceled many of his decisions made during the war in Asia and thereby belittled his achievements. In addition, Caesar needed the support of a famous person in Rome in the election of consul. However, Caesar understood that by entering into an alliance with Pompey, he would automatically make the no less powerful Crassus his enemy, and he soon managed to reconcile Crassus and Pompey, convincing them that the differences between them only strengthened the senators, that is, giving the alliance a pronounced anti-senate orientation. Despite the known circumstances of the conclusion of the triumvirate, the question of the exact time of its creation is unclear due to the initially secret nature of the agreement - whether it was the summer of 60, the autumn, or even 59.

Thanks to the support of the most famous commander of that time, Pompey, and the richest of the Romans, Crassus, Caesar was elected consul for the year 59. At the same time, his colleague was the Senate protege Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, with whom Caesar entered into a conflict that continued until the end of their joint consulate. Caesar managed to pass a law on the division of land among the poor and on the withdrawal of the colonies, and the second consul Bibulus was not even allowed into the forum - supporters of Caesar and Pompey first turned a basket of manure on his head, and broke the fasces of his lictors, after which they threw Bibulus and his supporters stones. Also in addition to this law, a resolution was passed according to which all senators were required to take an oath to comply with the law. Then a law was passed on the division of lands in the Campaign of Cato, who strongly protested against the adoption of this law, Caesar ordered to be sent to prison, but soon he himself released him. Caesar also approved the orders made by Pompey in Asia, which the Senate had previously refused to approve. Despite the traditional principle of collegiality, Caesar actually usurped power and stopped convening the Senate, so that some even began to call 59 “the year of Julius and Caesar” instead of the traditional norm. However, Caesar's political weight was still insignificant at that time, and it was believed that he was carrying out his radical laws in the interests of Pompey. For example, Cicero is known to have spoken in May 60 of Pompey's intention to establish tyranny as a widely held opinion.

Caesar ensured that he, with the rank of proconsul, was entrusted with the administration of Cisalpine Gaul, Narbonese Gaul and Illyricum for 5 years. In 56, at a joint meeting of the triumvirs in Lucca, it was decided to extend Caesar's proconsulate for another 5 years.

In 53, Marcus Licinius Crassus, having gone to war with Parthia, died, and the triumvirate ceased to exist.

The Civil War (January 10, 49 - 45 BC) was a war between two great generals and politicians of Rome, Caesar and Pompey. At this time, Pompey had a huge advantage, since he was in Rome and won over the Senate, including Cicero(106 - 43 BC, senator, former consul and greatest orator of his time) and Katona. In addition to the Senate, Pompey was also supported by the eastern provinces and part of the legions. On Caesar's side were ordinary Romans and his faithful and devoted legions, who went through with him all the hardships of the Gallic wars. Caesar's military glory, combined with political connections, wealth and a superbly trained and loyal army, made Caesar very dangerous to his enemies and rivals.

When Caesar's proconsulship expired, the Senate presented him with an ultimatum: disband his legions and return to Rome unarmed, otherwise he would be declared an enemy of the fatherland. Caesar proposed a compromise, but the senators, frightened by his military power, did not accept it. Then Caesar took a step amazing in courage and determination - January 10, 49 BC He sent his legions across the Rubicon(a small river in the area of ​​Rome) to Italy, starting the crossing with the words that went down in history: "Die is cast!" The Senate entrusted the defense of Rome to Pompey, who, in fear of the Gallic legions, fled to the east, leaving the capital to the mercy of fate. It should be noted that by this time Pompey, once a great triumphant, had turned into an indecisive politician and a rather weak commander. He fled to Greece, with senators and troops loyal to him, hoping that he would defeat Caesar.

Caesar entered Rome almost without a fight and took possession of Italy. However, the civil war had just begun, so the first thing Caesar did was defeat the generals of Pompey in Spain, then on August 9, 48 BC. he defeated the army of Pompey himself in the battle near the city of Pharsala (Greece), where he defeated an army twice as large as his own. Pompey fled again, but to Egypt, where he was killed by order of the Egyptian king Ptolemy XIII. After this, Pompey's supporters resisted Caesar in different provinces for more than two years. In 46 - 45 years. BC. Caesar defeated the sons of Pompey in North Africa and in Spain. Caesar completely defeated his opponents. He refrained from revenge and declared pardon to all supporters of Pompey and members of the Senate who had betrayed him.

In 45 BC. The Senate awarded Julius Caesar the title of dictator for life, as well as the title “Father of the Fatherland,” i.e. Caesar became a ruler with unlimited power who was not required to account for his actions. People's Assembly lost its political significance.

Caesar behaved like a real monarch. For the first time in the history of Rome, Caesar's profile began to be printed on Roman coins, which previously only depicted gods. He carried out many reforms, including the introduction of the Julian calendar. All those dissatisfied with his power rallied against Caesar, primarily the senators who were supporters of Pompey and fought under his banner, who were pardoned by Caesar. Among them were Brutus, Cassius and many senators who plotted to assassinate Caesar. On the Ides of March 44 BC.(Ides among the Romans - the 15th day of each month), during a meeting of the Senate in the Curia of Pompey (a hall built by Pompey) The conspirators surrounded Caesar with a tight ring and struck him 23 times with their daggers. So after Crassus and Pompey the last triumvir was killed.

After the assassination of Caesar, a new outbreak of struggle began between the Republicans and supporters of the dictatorship. The conspirators believed that the murder of the “tyrant” would cause widespread rejoicing. They went up to Capitol Hill and announced the restoration of the Republic. However, Rome remained silent, shocked by the brazen murder of its ruler and idol. Most Romans had long been disillusioned with the republican system of government because they were tired of the bloody unrest caused by clashes between parties fighting for power, and hoped for a “strong hand” that could restore order and restore peace to them. In their minds, Caesar was just such a hand.

1. Civil wars of the 40-30s. BC. II triumvirate. Fall of the Roman Republic.

Triumvirate - during the fall of the Roman Republic, power twice passed from the Senate and magistrates to a trio of people (where each time the third participant was weaker than the two main rivals).

In October 43 BC. e. Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, united against the murderers of Julius Caesar - Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Longinus Cassius, accompanied by troops, met on the Reno River near the city of Bononia in Northern Italy and concluded an agreement known as second triumvirate.

This union lasted from 43-36 (formally until 31 BC), and, unlike the First Triumvirate, was approved by the comitia, and the triumvirs received emergency powers “for the organization of public affairs.” Thus, the second triumvirate was not just an agreement of private individuals (like the first), but a public legal body (usually classified as an extraordinary magistracy). They used their power to distribute provinces among themselves and organize proscriptions against political opponents. After the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), Lepidus received only Africa during the division of the provinces, and in 36 BC, after Octavian’s victory over Sextus Pompey, he was completely removed from state affairs.

The union collapsed as a result of contradictions between the triumvirs, mainly between Octavian and Mark Antony, which led in 31 BC. e. to a new bloody civil war. In the battle of Cape Actium on September 2, 31 BC. Octavian's commander Agrippa inflicted a decisive defeat on Antony. In 30 BC, after the suicide of Antony and his last wife, Egyptian queen Cleopatra VII Octavian remained the sole ruler of the Roman Empire.