Lifting machine described by Herodotus (engraving of the 18th century)

The construction of the pyramids according to Herodotus.
18th century engraving

Usually all theories begin to consider the Great Pyramid of Cheops, believing that if the found method explains how this pyramid was created, then it will be possible to explain how all other pyramids in Egypt were created. However, there is no evidence that the same method was used by the Egyptians to build all the pyramids, of different sizes and in different historical eras. Also, interest in the construction of the pyramids is kindled by the numerous bans by the Egyptian government on visiting and studying many of the premises of these pyramids.

Lifting machines of Herodotus

Such assumptions allows them to make the following features of the pyramids:

• The size and quality of processing and laying blocks of natural limestone or hard rocks (granite, basalt), weighing from several tons to several tens, less often hundreds of tons, from which some pyramids (Great Pyramids), their parts, as well as other buildings ( temple of Osirion at Obidos) or parts of them (some mastabas).

• The presence on the blocks of pyramids, temples, parts of sarcophagi made of solid rocks, traces similar to traces of tools working on technologies similar to modern ones. With such a comparison, some traces testify to the parameters of instruments that are several times superior to modern ones. This is evidenced by some traces similar to saw cuts and traces of drilling.

• High quality processing of gray granite on a large surface in the Aswan quarries, from where material was presumably extracted for the construction of the pyramids. Deep and narrow pits in the same quarries.

• The presence of several technologies that differ sharply in terms of the level of processing of materials in the construction of buildings whose construction time refers to the same period of time (for example, the satellite pyramid of the pyramid of Cheops, built for the pharaoh's wife, is made of rough-cut stones of a much smaller size, compared with the pyramid of the pharaoh himself).

• The combination of several construction technologies in one building, which differ sharply in the level of material processing (many pyramids have a base of large blocks built without gaps and mortars and a superstructure of poorly processed, incomparably smaller blocks of limestone, clay bricks or sand).

• Traces of water erosion on the body and head of the Great Sphinx, as well as on the walls of the trench surrounding it.

• The Cairo, British and Petri Museums have vessels dating from the era ancient egypt from calcite and other hard crystalline rocks with thin walls. The shape of some vessels has a pronounced axial longitudinal symmetry, without detecting significant errors in the circumferences of the cross section. Some of these vessels, like jugs, have a large internal volume and a long, narrow neck, so that it is difficult to imagine how they were made, even using modern technologies.

• The similarity of technologies for the construction of megalithic structures in Egypt and other parts of the world (buildings in Peru, Mexico, Bolivia).

• Presence of ancient pyramids in Mexico, Namibia and China.

• Finds that are similar to the remains of megalithic structures in Nakhodka, Bulgaria, Yakutia and Japan.

• Museum exhibits of unknown purpose, related to the era of Ancient Egypt (for example, until recently in the Cairo Museum there was an exhibit very similar to a ship propeller made of solid rock, its wall thickness is about three millimeters).

• Legends about the construction of pyramids and other megalithic structures by civilizations of the so-called "Gods".

• Ornaments and sculptures that resemble high-tech devices (circular saws, lasers, tanks, aircraft). Traditions of local peoples telling about the use of such devices.

• High-precision astronomical knowledge (Mayan Calendar, Aztec Calendar), preserved in the culture of local peoples, which requires astronomical observations over a period of time exceeding the time of existence of local peoples. So are the legends of local peoples, telling that this knowledge was transferred to them by other civilizations.

Monolithic theory

There is also a theory that the blocks themselves that make up the pyramid were made using formwork. A rectangular formwork was installed on a pyramid, into which, subsequently, a mortar-like composition was poured. In the upper levels of the pyramid, the imprints of the mat (formwork material) are clearly visible on the outer stones. Modern methods studies prove the artificial origin of stones. For the manufacture of concrete, components were used: activated ash, soda, crushed granite, silt from the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians used the method of formwork monolithic construction. Concreting took place within one grip, with compaction of the poured mixture. After the concrete had dried, upon reaching a strength of 3-4 MPa, the next layer was laid, which adjoined the underlying layer very tightly, so that now even the blade of a knife cannot be inserted into the seam. This technology did not require sawing machines, heavy stone lifting mechanisms, or modern cement production technologies. Devices were needed to constantly lift the concrete components in small portions in bags. Today, due to physical and chemical processes in concrete structures, after more than 4000 years from the construction of the pyramids, blocks reach the strength of granite (M250-300). But there are places where the work was done with marriage, and it is on them that erosion is clearly visible. The first scientist to put forward the concrete theory of the construction of the pyramids was Joseph Davidovits. In our country, the development of this theory is carried out by G.V. Nosovsky together with I. Davydenko. In addition to the technological problem of construction, there is also a qualitative side of construction. Today, the mathematical accuracy of the faces of the pyramids is admirable. Apparently, the priests possessed the most powerful mathematical apparatus, which they used in geodesy during the construction of these structures, and unfortunately, this knowledge did not reach us due to the closeness of the Egyptian priesthood.

Notes

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Why did the ancient Egyptians build pyramids, how were these grandiose and mysterious creations of human hands created. Many mysteries have not yet been revealed, and there are more questions than answers. Perhaps the rulers of those times wanted to emphasize the majesty of the era, to confirm the constancy of their power, to show proximity to the gods.

In contact with

First buildings

From the end of the 4th millennium BC. pharaohs were buried in truncated structures - medium-sized stone buildings (mastabs), for fastening which a solution of clay was used. Today, such structures look like shapeless piles of stones that do not carry any architectural value.

The history of the pyramids - the most unusual buildings of ancient Egypt - began in 2780-2760 BC, during the reign of Pharaoh Djoser, who completely changed the architectural style of the tombs. His new tomb consisted of as many as 6 mastabas erected on top of each other. The narrowest was at the top, the widest at the bottom. Such a building was a stepped building. Its height was just over 60 meters, and the perimeter was 115 by 125 meters.

The construction of the pyramids in ancient Egypt was carried out in a special architectural style that reigned for two hundred years. Its developer and designer was the famous vizier Imhotep. They built pyramids in a different form. For example, the period of the reign of Pharaoh Snefru was marked by the creation of two unique pyramids of ancient Egypt - broken and pink:

1. At the first, the angle of inclination of the walls from the base of the building to its middle is 54° 31', and then it changes to 43° 21'. There are many versions explaining such a strange form of construction. The main one is that the death of the pharaoh was sudden, so the workers made the slope steeper to speed up the construction process. There are other opinions on this matter. For example, that it was a trial version created for the sake of "experiment".
2. The second got its name due to the color of the blocks that were used for construction. The stone was a pale pink hue, and at sunset it turned bright pink. Initially, the outer cladding was white, but over time, the coating gradually peeled off, and pink limestone, the material from which the structure was laid out, came out.

But still, the most famous are those structures that proudly rise on the Giza plateau. These three majestic pyramids of impressive size are famous all over the world.

The largest pyramid

Its other name is the Pyramid of Khufu. This is one of the most famous and largest buildings in the world. Let's make it short description. When was the pyramid of Cheops built? It was erected near the city of Giza (at the moment - a suburb of Cairo). The largest pyramid began to be built on August 23, 2480 BC. For its construction, the forces of 100 thousand people were used. The first 10 years were required in order to build a road along which giant blocks of stones were delivered. It took another 20 years to build the structure itself.

Attention! The Pyramid of Cheops is striking in its scale. Today, its height is 137 meters, but this was not always the case, because over time the cladding was worn out and part of the base was covered with sand. Initially, it was 10 meters higher.

147 meters is the length of the side of the base, made in the form of a square. According to studies, more than 2 million limestone blocks were used for construction, the average weight of one of them is 2.5 tons. Each block fits perfectly to the next one and is raised to a certain height. The entrance can be found on the north side of the building, at a height of just over 15 meters. Stone slabs resembling an arch are laid out around.

It is still unknown how exactly the Egyptians managed to cope not only with the lifting of the blocks, but also with their perfect fit to each other. There are no gaps between blocks. Some are sure that they were not engaged in raising the blocks - they just crushed the limestone, brought it to a powdery state, and then removed the moisture, and so it turned into cement, which was poured into pre-created formwork. After that, water, crushed stone and stone were added - in this way monolithic blocks arose.

The stepped structure served several purposes: it was used as a sundial, a seasonal calendar, and a reference point for geodetic measurements.

Little is known about who built the largest Egyptian pyramid. The architect was the vizier of the pharaoh named Cheops Hemiun. He was engaged in design, was the head of the work, but he did not have time to see his offspring, as he died shortly before the completion of construction.

Attention! Today there is no exact information that the tomb of Cheops is located inside. However, it is believed that such buildings were part of ritual burial complexes.

Chamber inside Khufu's pyramid

Inside there are three chambers: the upper one is the royal burial chamber and is lined with granite blocks, each one weighs 60 tons. This chamber is located at a height of 43 meters from the base. There is also an ascending corridor and the queen's chambers. In the burial pit at the beginning of the 20th century, two engineers dug a well, where, in their opinion, a hidden burial chamber should have been located.

However, their efforts were in vain: it later turned out that the construction of the chamber was not completed. Instead, the burial chambers were arranged in the center, they are located one above the other.

More recently, using muon radiography technology, it was possible to find a room that was not known before.. It was calculated that its length is 30 meters, and its width is 2 meters, it is located right in the center of the building. Scientists are trying to drill a small 3-centimeter hole in order to launch a mini-robot inside and explore the room they found, since it is still unknown what is in it and for what purposes it serves.

Today, there is almost nothing left of the cladding - the inhabitants of Cairo decided that it would be “more necessary” for the construction of their houses, and they took it to their homes. However, there are remains of white limestone on the nearby Pyramid of Khafre, which is somewhat smaller.

Second largest building

Its height is 143.5 meters. If you believe the legends, then it was crowned with a granite pyramidion, decorated with gold. There is no data on why what is no longer there, and where it is now. Khafre spent 40 years building a tomb for himself. It was built using the same technology as the previous one, but it is located on a higher hill, and its slope is steeper, which makes the structure impregnable and difficult even for professional climbers. At the moment, climbing to the top is prohibited in order to preserve the remains of the old cladding.

The protective material granite was used inside and outside the pyramid, but it was not used in the burial chamber. At the moment, the condition of the building is assessed as good, despite the fact that its size has slightly decreased. The blocks, made of limestone and weighing a couple of tons each, are attached to each other so tightly that not a piece of paper or even a hair can be inserted between them.

The youngest of the three, the height is 62 meters. At the same time, in some pictures, tourists manage to choose the angle so that it looks the highest. ancient building well preserved and open to the public. Starting from this building, large tombs were no longer erected. Scientists believe that by that time the decline of the era of great buildings began.

Attention! An interesting feature of the Menkaure pyramid is that the largest stone block in it weighs at least 200 tons.

Other architectural elements

Later, the pharaohs stopped creating grandiose structures. Thus, Pharaoh Userkaf ordered the construction of a building in Saqqara, the height of which is 44.5 meters. At the moment, it looks like a pile of stones that has nothing to do with an architectural structure. The same goes for the rest of the buildings. In total, about 100 pyramids were erected in Egypt. Their appearance is the same - only the height and volume change.

Great Sphinx

A monolithic limestone rock was used to make this famous sculpture. The Great Sphinx is considered one of the elements of the architectural complex in Giza. The length of the sphinx is 73 meters, and it “stretched” up to 20 meters in height. For all the time of its existence, the sculpture turned out to be almost completely covered with sand. It was cleared only in 1925 - then they learned about the actual dimensions of the architectural object.

Output

Some believe that the multi-stage pyramids in ancient Egypt were born as a result of the actions of a mysterious and powerful civilization or alien beings. Different concepts of how the ancient Egyptians built their structures are attractive and more than once formed the basis of works of literature and cinema.

The first wonder of the world of all time, one of the main structures of our planet, a place full of secrets and mysteries, a point of constant pilgrimage for tourists - the Egyptian pyramids and in particular the pyramid of Cheops.

The construction of giant pyramids, of course, was far from an easy task. Huge effort a large number people were attached to deliver stone blocks to the Giza or Saqqara plateau, and later to the Valley of the Kings, which became the new necropolis of the pharaohs.

At the moment, there are about a hundred found pyramids in Egypt, but the finds continue, and their number is constantly increasing. At different times, different pyramids were understood as one of the 7 wonders of the world. Someone meant all the pyramids of Egypt as a whole, someone pyramids near Memphis, someone three large pyramids of Giza, and the critics recognized only the largest pyramid of Cheops.

The afterlife of ancient Egypt

One of the central moments in the life of the ancient Egyptians was religion, which formed the whole culture as a whole. Particular attention was paid to the afterlife, perceived as a clear continuation of earthly life. That is why preparation for life after death began long before it, it was set as one of the main life tasks.

According to the ancient Egyptian belief, a person had several souls. The soul of Ka acted as a double of the Egyptian, whom he was to meet in afterlife. The soul of Ba contacted the person himself, and left his body after death.

The religious life of the Egyptians and the god Anubis

At first it was believed that only the pharaoh had the right to life after death, but he could bestow this “immortality” on his associates, who were usually buried next to the tomb of the ruler. Ordinary people were not destined to get into the world of the dead, the only exception was slaves and servants, whom the pharaoh “took” with him, and who were depicted on the walls of the great tomb.

But for a comfortable life after the death of the deceased, it was necessary to provide everything necessary: ​​food, household utensils, servants, slaves, and much more needed for the average pharaoh. They also tried to preserve the human body so that the soul of Ba could later unite with him again. Therefore, in matters of body preservation, embalming and the creation of complex pyramid tombs were born.

The first pyramid in Egypt. Pyramid of Djoser

Speaking about the construction of the pyramids in Ancient Egypt in general, it is worth mentioning the beginning of their history. The very first pyramid in Egypt was built about five thousand years ago at the initiative of Pharaoh Djoser. It is in these 5 millennia that the age of the pyramids in Egypt is estimated. The erection of the pyramid of Djoser was led by the famous and legendary Imhotep, who was even deified in later centuries.

Pyramid of Djoser

The entire complex of the building under construction occupied an area of ​​545 by 278 meters. Along the perimeter, it was surrounded by a 10-meter wall with 14 gates, only one of which was real. In the center of the complex was the pyramid of Djoser with sides 118 by 140 meters. The height of the pyramid of Djoser is 60 meters. Almost at a depth of 30 meters there was a burial chamber, to which corridors with many branches led. Utensils and sacrifices were kept in the branch rooms. Here, archaeologists found three bas-reliefs of Pharaoh Djoser himself. Near the eastern wall of the pyramid of Djoser, 11 small burial chambers intended for the royal family were discovered.

Unlike the famous great pyramids of Giza, the pyramid of Djoser had a stepped shape, as if intended for the ascension of the pharaoh to heaven. Of course, this pyramid is inferior in popularity and size to the pyramid of Cheops, but still the contribution of the very first stone pyramid to the culture of Egypt is difficult to overestimate.

The Pyramid of Cheops. History and brief description

But still, the most famous for the ordinary population of our planet are the three pyramids of Egypt located nearby - Khafre, Mekerin and the largest and high pyramid in Egypt - Cheops (Khufu)

Pyramids of Giza

The Pyramid of Pharaoh Cheops was built near the city of Giza, currently a suburb of Cairo. When the pyramid of Cheops was built, it is currently impossible to say for sure, and research gives a strong scatter. In Egypt, for example, the date of the beginning of the construction of this pyramid is officially celebrated - August 23, 2480 BC.

Pyramid of Cheops and Sphinx

About 100,000 people were simultaneously involved in the construction of the wonder of the world pyramid of Cheops. During the first ten years of work, a road was built, along which huge stone blocks were delivered to the river and underground structures of the pyramid. Work on the construction of the monument itself continued for about 20 years.

The size of the pyramid of Cheops at Giza is amazing. The height of the pyramid of Cheops initially reached 147 meters. Over time, due to falling asleep with sand and the loss of lining, it decreased to 137 meters. But even this figure allowed her to remain the most tall building person in the world. The pyramid has a square base with a side of 147 meters. The construction of this giant is estimated to have required 2,300,000 limestone blocks weighing an average of 2.5 tons.

How were the pyramids built in Egypt?

The technology of building the pyramids is controversial in our time. Versions vary from the invention of concrete in ancient Egypt to the construction of pyramids by aliens. But still it is believed that the pyramids were built by man solely by his strength. So for the extraction of stone blocks, first a shape was outlined in the rock, grooves were hollowed out and a dry tree was inserted into them. Later, the tree was doused with water, it expanded, a crack formed in the rock, and the block was separated. Then it was processed to the desired shape with tools and sent along the river to the construction site.

The construction of the Egyptian pyramids to this day remains one of the most mysterious topics for mankind. There is a lot of controversy about who and how built these beautiful structures. So, on the issue of the origin of objects, several assumptions can be distinguished at once:

1. The first and most common version is based on the thesis that numerous slaves were involved in the construction of the pyramids. They were forced to lift the blocks to the top along specially constructed ramps. At the same time, according to the theory, the stones were processed with copper tools, and lifts were also used for transportation;
2. The second version, like all subsequent theories, is an assumption with a fantastic bias. We are talking about the fact that the pyramids are the result of the influence of the energy of the Atlanteans, who forced the stones to move only by the power of thought;
3. The third hypothesis is connected, of course, with the activities of aliens who, in ancient times, built pyramids for their specific purposes;
4. They also say that during the construction of the pyramids there was a special human civilization in which all people were at least 2.5 m tall.

These are far from all existing assumptions, but the essence of the rest is not much different from those given above.

As you can see, one can almost endlessly talk about the origin of the pyramids, since no specific evidence in favor of any one theory has yet been presented. However, no less interesting and controversial is the question of the construction technology of the Egyptian pyramids. There is also a certain discussion here, but all hypotheses are justified solely from a technical point of view, which makes it possible, at least, not to doubt the possibility of their real existence.

In this article, we will consider the main technologies for building pyramids in Ancient Egypt, noting the arguments in their favor, as well as the existing shortcomings. But first, we note the main features common to the vast majority of assumptions about a particular technology:

• It is an indisputable fact that the technology of the Egyptians improved over time. This is confirmed real facts obtained during the study of the pyramids of various years of construction. It has been established that later designs are characterized by a different, improved technology;
• The bulk of theories are based on the fact that the Egyptians cut blocks in quarries for construction. In this case, mainly copper tools were used, for example, chisels, chisels, punches, etc.

In view of the latter circumstance, significant differences between theories are observed in matters of transportation of blocks and methods of their installation.

Now let us consider in detail the specific technologies, in accordance with which, perhaps, the pyramids of Egypt were built.

From Herodotus to the present day

The only source that contains at least some information about the construction of the pyramids in Ancient Egypt are the descriptions of Herodotus. Actually, the first theory is based on these descriptions. So, the main provisions of this technology:

1. Stones for construction were quarried, where they were hollowed out with tools;
2. The transportation of stones to the construction site was carried out with the help of the manual power of slaves, having previously laid a wide, solid road to the destination;
3. The actual construction of the pyramid was carried out in stages, with ledges. Initially, the lowest stones were laid, which could be done without any additional devices. For all subsequent steps of the pyramid, wooden platforms were used. Moreover, the same platform, upon completion of the construction of one stage, was simply transferred to the next stage.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the stages of construction. First of all, let's talk about the material used.

About stones

So, in accordance with the most common opinion about the technology of building pyramids, stones mined in quarries served as the material. By their composition, the blocks were predominantly limestone, and, consequently, were quite soft. This allowed them to be processed with copper tools.

Simultaneously with limestone materials, harder stones were also used: from basalt, quartzite, granite. They were processed by more powerful tools. So, the sawing of such stones and their drilling were carried out using abrasives (for example, quartz sand). And the hieroglyphs were applied by using quartz cutters. Interestingly, granite, which is the most durable, was split using thermal shock. This happened as follows: a natural crack was found in the rock, the area around which was heated, and then abruptly cooled. As a result, the breed split.

In favor of this theory, its supporters refer to the mass of stones from which the pyramids are built. The fact is that their weight, as a rule, is no more than a few tons. And this allows us to talk about a high level of their transportability.

By the way, adherents of the classical theory also substantiate the reasons for choosing the shape and size of the blocks for the pyramids. In their opinion, reducing the size would significantly complicate the processing process.
However, the assumption about this technology also has a significant drawback: if we agree that the construction of the pyramids was carried out in this way, then it is impossible to imagine how laborious the whole process was. However, the timing of the construction of the Egyptian pyramids was really impressive: according to the same Herodotus, only the road for transporting stone blocks was built over 10 years.

About delivery

The fact of the incredible difficulty of delivering building material directly to the site of the future pyramid is generally recognized. And it is precisely according to the methods of delivering stones that separate areas of the classical theory of construction technology differ from each other:

1. The first assumption is based on frescoes, often found in ancient Egyptian temples. They usually depict people dragging huge statues of various rulers behind them. In accordance with this, some researchers have calculated the possibility of moving stone blocks in this way. The essence of this method is as follows: several people (the number depended on the mass of the stone) pull a large sled behind them, on which a block (or several blocks) is placed. It is believed that the Egyptians poured water on the runners of such sledges to ensure sufficient glide.

In parallel with this, according to the followers of the hypothesis, a technique based on the use of rollers was also used. In Egypt, paved brick roads were quite developed, along which it was more convenient not to drag a sled with blocks, but to roll the blocks themselves on rollers.

In principle, such assumptions are quite real and feasible from the point of view of physics. However, there is one nuance that researchers do not take into account: in some pyramids there are huge, powerful and massive stones, the mass of which reaches 300 tons. It is absolutely impossible to move them by dragging;

2. The following block delivery method was proposed relatively recently. It is based on cradle mechanisms found during excavations of some later sanctuaries. It has been experimentally proved that it is possible to move a block placed on four mechanisms by rolling.

However, no concrete evidence has yet been found that the Egyptians used cradle mechanisms specifically for blocks. In addition, this hypothesis is characterized by the same drawback as the previous one: blocks that are large in mass cannot be moved using such mechanisms. In addition, even the lightest (compared to other stones) block cannot be rolled over the sand, and, meanwhile, the road did not lead directly to the construction sites;

3. Finally, there is another point of view on one of the components of the process of building the pyramids - the delivery of materials. So, a number of experts believe that the stone blocks were moved by means of special platforms from which the road was built. These scaffolds were a quarter of a circle, due to which the center of gravity of the block is kept at the same level. This design makes it easy to transport even fairly heavy stones, especially if we are talking about their descent from a slope, for example, from a quarry.

About construction

How did the pyramids of Egypt appear: was the construction carried out exclusively at the expense of slaves or not? How did the Egyptians raise the blocks to such a height? And in these issues today there is no unity, even within the framework of the classical approach.

Taking into account the fact that the people of Ancient Egypt did not possess all modern means for lifting stones to the appropriate height, the most optimal way, according to most researchers, was the manufacture of a ramp. Of course, objectively this was not the easiest method, since the ramp needed to be long and high.

However, a few years ago, a different option for building a ramp was proposed - inside the pyramid, which caused lively discussions. The essence of this method lies in the fact that during the construction of the pyramid, an internal ramp was used, installed along its edges and gently sloping enough to allow the blocks to be lifted. The internal design of the pyramids is such that such a method could well be used, but a number of important reservations should be made:

• only one ramp can be made inside, which means that the construction time of the pyramids should have been simply huge, because the blocks would have to be lifted sequentially one after another, in a chain;
• the use of an internal ramp makes it impossible to push the block from behind, only by pulling behind you, and this is very difficult when cornering;
• the ramp creates the so-called tunnel effect, that is, in the event of an emergency, all the people inside the pyramid would be doomed to certain death;
• such a design requires sufficient lighting, and for this either windows were needed, or torches were required. But there are no windows in the Egyptian pyramids, and the use of torches in the absence of proper ventilation is impossible in practice;
• finally, a significant drawback of the theory of the internal ramp is that it cannot be done at the very top, therefore, last blocks raised in some other way.

Taking into account these shortcomings, the already mentioned technology for the use of semicircular platforms was proposed. In accordance with it, to lift the block, it was enough just to pull it up on a rope, and he himself, rolling along the platform, rose to the required height. After completing one level, the platforms were moved to the next and so on to the very top.

It was concrete!

But we have considered only one hypothetical construction technology. It is not by chance that it is called classical, since it prevails among researchers. But we were able to make sure that the classical hypothesis about the construction of the pyramids in itself is not holistic, it consists of many divergent theories and ideas.

In contrast to the first technology, about 40 years ago, another hypothesis was put forward, the main thesis of which was the statement about a completely different composition of stones: it was assumed that they consist of concrete (made on the basis of limestone) and stone chips.

With this in mind, the construction technology changes significantly: for example, on the very first tier, a rectangular formwork is constructed, into which a kind of concrete is poured. The frozen blocks of the lower row act as formwork for the blocks of the upper row.

Such a theory actually demonstrates the possibility of creating pyramids of such dimensions, and also explains why the individual blocks fit so perfectly to each other.

However, this theory has many weaknesses:

• first of all, the very fact of the possibility of making concrete by the Egyptians is called into question, since they knew mainly gypsum mortar;
• quarries have been discovered in which traces of block cutting work have been preserved;
• Finally, in the very structure of the pyramid, there are still only external flaws that are unacceptable when using concrete.

Conclusion

Of course, there are numerous other assumptions, but they mainly concern certain aspects of construction, for example, issues of stone finishing or masonry features. In relation to the whole process, today there are two main and competing technologies, each of which explains some secrets of the construction of the pyramids, but does not correlate with others at all. Whether a third technology will appear or whether one of the existing ones will be finally proven is a matter of time.

Pyramid construction techniques have changed from pyramid to

Pyramid, but there is no reliable data on the construction process at the moment.

There are many hypotheses that are based on information about the instruments,

Which were used for stone processing, about transporting stones to the construction site and quarries, where they took materials for blocks.

Most of the hypotheses are based on the fact that the blocks were cut down

In quarries with the help of chisels, chisels, picks, punches. Tools were made of copper, wood and stone.

The discrepancies between the hypotheses relate to the methods of delivery of blocks to the construction site and, directly, their installation, timing and amount of labor.

Herodotus' mechanisms for lifting blocks.

Ancient Greek historian Herodotus visited Egypt around 450

BC At this time, the country had already been under the rule of the Persians for more than one century. Herodotus did not understand the language of the native Egyptians, so he had to turn to translators and Greek settlers for help. In addition, more than two thousand years have passed since the construction of ancient monuments, it is difficult to imagine what kind of knowledge about technologies could have been preserved at that time.

From the book of Herodotus "History. Book Two"

The size and transportation of the stone. “Some of them (i.e. builders) had to drag stone blocks all the way to the Nile from the quarries of the Arabian mountains, where they were cut; others were tasked with obtaining these stones and transporting them by ship to the other side, where they were delivered to the Libyan ridge. One hundred thousand people worked continuously, changing every three months."

The construction of the pyramid. “This is how this pyramid is built: it is a system of successive steps, which are sometimes called “ledges” and sometimes “tiers” or “platforms”. However, when the first of these platforms was completed, workers used wooden logs as levers to lifting the rest of the stones, in this way they lifted blocks from the earth to the first tier. When the stone was raised, it was installed on the second lever, which was on the first tier, and raised from this level to the next. It could be that on each tier new levers, or perhaps only one such device, quite portable, was used, which in turn was carried from level to level.It is not possible to determine this, since both of these possibilities were mentioned. upper part pyramid, then the next below it, and the last to complete the construction of the base and lower part.

And, anyway, in the book of Herodotus there is no detailed data on the methods of erecting the pyramids. He says only that it was built in the form "Systems of successive steps".

And for laying facing stone (or according to the description of Herodotus "other stones") some lifting mechanisms were used, the action of which was to use a system of wooden levers.

View of Diodorus Siculus - "ramps"

Another ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (I century BC) is not the first,

Who put forward the theory of "ramps and sledges". He only stated that "stone blocks are said to have been laid by means of ramps [...] of salt and saltpeter, which were then dissolved in the waters of the Nile."

Unfortunately, there is no description of the ramps or sleds themselves. There is, perhaps, the very word "ramp".

"As I was told, the stone was transported a great distance from Arabia, and these buildings were erected with earthen ramps, since machines for lifting were not yet invented in those days; and the most amazing thing is that, although such large structures were built among the sand , there are no traces of either the ramps themselves or the stone garters, so it seems as if it was not the result of the hard work of many people, but rather, the entire complex was once installed on the shore among the sand surrounding it by some god. they try to present it as a miracle, claiming that the ramps were made of salt and saltpeter, and that when the river turned against them, they dissolved in its waters, and all traces of human labor were destroyed.But in reality, of course, everything happened not It is most likely that the same multitude of laborers involved in the construction of these mounds again returned their entire mass to their original place, since they (i.e. the Egyptians) say that 360,000 people were obviously busy doing their job until the whole building was completed in almost 20 years."

The description of Diodorus Siculus about the shipment of building stone from Arabia is reliable, since the term "Arabia" in those days, the lands between the Nile and the Red Sea were designated, from where limestone blocks were transported along the river to the site of the construction of the pyramids.

Despite all the works of Herodotus and Diodorus, their descriptions contain many gross errors. In addition, Diodorus constantly quotes Herodotus. That is why it is impossible to single out a specific construction technique from their records.

Mining blocks for construction

At present, thanks to historians, we have very accurate information about where the quarries for the extraction of materials for the construction of the pyramids were located.

When working with limestone, which is relatively

With soft stone, the workers used copper and bronze picks, drills, saws, chisels. Suitable, even stone tools. There are opinions that iron tools existed during the Old Kingdom, but there is no confirmation of this theory by reliable finds of such tools.

Harder stone: quartzite, granite, basalt and others - could be processed by beating with dolerite tools (diabase - full-crystalline fine-grained volcanic rocks). They drilled and sawed with bronze tubes, toothless saws, using abrasives (quartz sand). Hieroglyphs and images were knocked out with flint chisels.

Granite blocks were broken out of the rock mass using wooden wedges that swelled in the water. Perhaps the use of fire.

By the way, the bulk of the stones used for construction does not exceed 1.5 - 2.5 tons, which makes them quite transportable.

The problem of the hypothesis is the enormous complexity of the process.

There is another theory put forward by the French chemist Joseph Davidovits. He suggested that the blocks were produced directly at the construction site. For this, a mixture of stone chips and “gepolymer concrete” based on limestone was used. According to him, he found a recipe for making concrete in hieroglyphs on one of the walls of the pyramid. But his hypothesis did not achieve popularity, because scientists who studied the structure of the blocks noted that they were processed blocks of natural sedimentary deposits.

Block types

• The main mass of the pyramid is massive limestone stones. Very uneven, weighed several tons, the distance between the blocks can reach up to 10 cm. They are clearly visible at the entrance to the Great Pyramid (Al-Mamun Pass)
• The limestone blocks of the outer layer, which have the correct shape, fit tightly to each other, but of different heights (steps on all faces of the pyramid). Weight 2-2.5 tons.
• External lining - perfectly even blocks (completely absent on the pyramid of Cheops). Only a few have survived in their original location. Imported from the quarries in Tours
• Thin decorative blocks in all corridors of the Cheops pyramid (or in the "Great Gallery") of limestone or granite. Carefully matched to each other.
• Blocks-megaliths. Reach a mass of tens of tons. For example, 52 monolithic slabs of syenite (granite without quartz) in the burial chamber of King Cheops. Delivered from remote quarries such as Aswan. Weighing from 25 to 40 tons. Or the huge rafters in the chambers of the Cheops pyramid.

An example of methods and tools that

Used to cut megalithic blocks, may serve as an unfinished obelisk still in the quarries of Aswan.

movingblocks

The need to move large volumes of stone is one of the most difficult tasks. A method of pulling blocks on a sled, the runners were sprinkled with water as a lubricant. Even the Egyptians were aware of the use of rollers for rolling large blocks on them along brick-paved roads.

A similar method was used in Russia to move the Thunder-stone, weighing 1500 tons. However, this method of transportation was not widely used.

Rolling method using a cradle mechanism. It was proposed after the discovery of such mechanisms during excavations of the sanctuaries of the "New Kingdom". By placing four devices around the block, it could be easily rolled. Even Vitruvius in his treatise "Ten Books on Architecture" described similar methods of moving non-standard cargo.

There is no evidence that the Egyptians used this particular method. But experiments show the possibility of working with blocks of this size.

disadvantages Scientists recognize the possibility of such technology for 2.5