Penetration into the depths of a particular problem facing a person, consideration of the properties of the elements that make up this problem, finding a solution to a problem is carried out by a person with the help of mental operations. In psychology, there are such operations of thinking as:
comparison;
abstraction;
generalization;
classification and;
Analysis is a mental operation of dividing a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis is the selection in an object of one or another of its aspects, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc.; it is the dismemberment of a cognizable object into various components. For example, a schoolboy in the classroom of a circle of young technicians, trying to understand the mode of operation of a mechanism or machine, first of all, highlights the various elements, details of this mechanism and disassembles it into separate parts. So - in the simplest case, he analyzes, dismembers the cognizable object. Synthesis is a mental operation that allows one to move from parts to the whole in a single analytical-synthetic process of thinking. Unlike analysis, synthesis involves combining elements into a single whole. Analysis and synthesis usually act in unity. They are inseparable, they cannot exist without each other: analysis, as a rule, is carried out simultaneously with synthesis, and vice versa. Analysis and synthesis are always interconnected. The inseparable unity between analysis and synthesis clearly appears in such a cognitive process as comparison.
Comparison - this is an operation that consists in comparing objects and phenomena, their properties and relationships with each other and thus identifying the commonality or difference between them. Comparison is characterized as a more elementary process, from which, as a rule, cognition begins. Ultimately, the comparison leads to a generalization. Generalization - this is a combination of many objects or phenomena according to some common feature. In the course of generalization in the compared objects - as a result of their analysis - something in common is singled out. These are common to various objects properties are of two types:
common as similar signs and;
common as essential features.
By finding similar, identical or common properties and features of things, the subject discovers the identity and difference between things. These similar, similar signs are then abstracted (distinguished, separated) from the totality of other properties and denoted by a word, then they become the content of the corresponding ideas of a person about a certain set of objects or phenomena.
abstraction - a mental operation based on abstraction from non-essential features of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them.
Abstraction - an abstract concept formed as a result of mental abstraction from non-essential aspects, properties of objects and relations between them in order to identify essential features. Isolation (abstraction) of common properties of different levels allows a person to establish generic relationships in a certain variety of objects and phenomena, systematize them and thereby construct a certain classification. Classification - systematization of subordinate concepts of any field of knowledge or human activity, used to establish links between these concepts or classes of objects. Classification should be distinguished from categorization.
Categorization - the operation of assigning a single object, event, experience to a certain class, which can be verbal and non-verbal meanings, symbols, etc. The regularities of the considered operations of thinking are the essence of the main internal, specific regularities of thinking. On their basis, only all external manifestations of mental activity can be explained.
Issues for discussion :
1. The essence of thinking as a process of problem solving.
3. The main types of mental actions characteristic of the process of solving problems and their content. 4. Basic operations of thinking and their essence.
Concepts and judgments are such forms of reflection of reality that are obtained as a result of complex mental activity, consisting of a number of the following mental operations:
1. Comparison of selected objects. In order to reflect with the help of thinking any connections and relations between objects or phenomena of the objective world, it is necessary first of all to single out these phenomena in perception or representation. For example, in order to understand the reason for the unsuccessful performance of a given physical exercise by an athlete, it is necessary to focus your thoughts on this exercise and on the conditions under which it was performed. This selection is always associated with the awareness of the task, it involves a preliminary statement of the question, which determines the selection of the objects of interest to us. Comparing phenomena with each other, we note both their similarity and difference in certain respects, their identity or opposite. For example, low or high starts are similar to each other in their purpose, being the initial moment of the exercise, but differ in the position of the athlete's body. Comparing the phenomena identified in the process of thinking, we get to know them more precisely and penetrate deeper into their originality.
2. Abstraction. In order for the process of thinking to take place, it is necessary not only to distinguish individual properties of objects, but also to think these properties abstractly from the objects themselves. Such a mental operation is called abstraction (from Latin abstraction - distraction). The process of abstraction is the mental (temporary) abstraction of one property of a thing from its other properties, one object from other objects with which it is actually connected. In order to think abstractly of its properties when analyzing an object, “one must leave aside all relations that have nothing in common with the given object of analysis,” says Marx. So, studying the patterns of the athlete's reaction process at the start, the experimental psychologist singles out only one element of this process - the latent period, distracting (for the time being) from such side effects as the influence of spectators on the athlete, his personal attitude to this competition, etc. e. Abstraction allows you to penetrate “deep” into an object, reveal its essence, forming an appropriate concept about this object. Abstraction is a mental operation that allows you to think of a given phenomenon in its most general, and therefore most essential, characteristic features. It is the source of the knowledge of truth.
3. Generalization. Abstraction is always combined with generalization; abstract properties of objects, we immediately begin to think in their generalized form. For example, understanding the characteristic features of a boxer's blow during a knockout, we single out such a property as sharpness; at the same time, we think of this property in its generalized form, using the concept of sharpness that we have developed on the basis of acquaintance with this phenomenon in many other cases (not only in boxing, but also in fencing; not only when hitting, but also when hitting the ball and etc.), i.e., as a combination of force with a short-term touch on the object being struck. This mental operation alone allows us to reflect in our minds the essence of the phenomenon: the striking power of a blow during a knockout lies precisely in its sharpness.
4. Specification. Abstraction always presupposes the opposite mental operation - concretization, i.e., the transition from abstraction and generalization back to concrete reality. In the educational process, concretization often acts as an example for an established general position.
In conjunction with abstraction, concretization is an important condition for a correct understanding of reality, since it does not allow thinking to break away from the living contemplation of phenomena. Thanks to concretization, our thinking becomes vital; behind it, a directly perceived reality is always felt. The lack of concretization leads to the fact that knowledge becomes bare abstractions, cut off from life, and therefore useless.
5. Analysis. Analysis is the mental decomposition of a complex object or phenomenon into its constituent parts. In practical activity, analysis takes the form of the actual dismemberment of the subject into its component parts. The possibility of practically performing such a division underlies the mental division of an object into its elements.
For example, thinking about the complex structure of a jump, we mentally distinguish the following main parts in it: takeoff, push, flight phase, landing. This mental analysis is facilitated by the fact that in reality we can isolate these moments and improve in the process of training the speed of the take-off, the force of the push, the correct grouping in flight, etc.
6. Synthesis. Synthesis is the reverse process of analysis, the process of mental reunification of a complex object or phenomenon from those of its elements that were known in the process of its analysis. Thanks to synthesis, we get a holistic concept of a given object or phenomenon, as consisting of naturally connected parts. As in analysis, synthesis is based on the possibility of practically performing such a reunion of an object from its elements.
The relationship between analysis and synthesis in the processes of thinking cannot be understood in such a way that analysis must first be carried out, and then synthesis: any analysis presupposes synthesis and vice versa. then synthesis: every analysis presupposes a synthesis, and vice versa. of its elements, which were known in the process of its analysis. Thanks to synthesis, we get a holistic concept of a given object or phenomenon, as consisting of naturally connected parts. As in analysis, synthesis is based on the possibility of practically performing such a reunion of an object from its elements.
The interrelation of analysis and synthesis in the processes of thinking cannot be understood in such a way that first analysis must be carried out, and then synthesis: any analysis presupposes synthesis and vice versa.
Any mental activity is carried out with the help of the following mental operations: analysis and synthesis, comparison, generalization and classification, abstraction and concretization.
Analysis called the mental division of the whole into parts or the mental decomposition of objects or phenomena, the allocation of their individual parts, features, properties. As opposed to analysis synthesis there is a mental combination of parts into a single whole or a mental combination of objects and phenomena from separate parts, signs, properties. Although analysis and synthesis are opposite operations, they are at the same time inextricably linked, but at certain stages of the thought process, analysis or synthesis comes to the fore.
So, when reading, individual phrases, words, letters in the text stand out. Here the thought processes of analysis are carried out. Then the processes of synthesis become predominant: letters are combined into words, words into sentences, sentences into certain sections of the text.
When establishing, with the help of thinking, connections between objects or phenomena of the surrounding world, it is necessary compare them with each other. With the help of comparison processes, similarities and differences in objects of reality are revealed. Only by comparing some objects and phenomena with others, a person can identify their similarities and differences with each other, act in the same way on similar objects and in different ways, depending on the differences between them, correctly orient themselves in the surrounding reality.
Based on the comparison of objects and phenomena with each other, it can be made generalization. Generalization is a mental association of objects and phenomena with each other on the basis of highlighting their common properties and features. The most important is the generalization based on the selection of essential features of similar objects. Such a generalization makes it possible to form concepts and formulate laws.
Highlighting similarities and differences in objects or phenomena by means of comparison, generalization processes allow a person to classify objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality. Classification is the mental distribution of objects into separate groups and subgroups based on the processes of comparison and generalization. You can classify animals, plants, diseases, chemical elements. When classifying on the basis of the presence of signs of similarity, small groups are combined into larger ones, and, on the contrary, differences give reason to divide broad groups into a number of fractional groups.
All diseases, for example, are divided into two large groups: neuropsychic and somatic. In turn, among neuropsychiatric diseases, mental and nervous diseases are distinguished. The group of nervous diseases includes as independent subgroups: vascular diseases, tumors, brain injuries, infectious diseases of the central nervous system, etc. On the other hand, some of these subgroups may be combined with subgroups related to somatic diseases. Thus, diseases of the vessels of the brain and heart are combined into one group of cardiovascular diseases, etc.
The classification can be based on different characteristics. It is possible, for example, to distribute patients being treated in the clinic into groups according to sex or age, or according to the severity of the disease.
In the process of generalizing objects and phenomena, a person thinks only about their common properties, abstracting from the differences between them. This mental operation is called abstraction. An example of abstraction, in particular, are thoughts about the height of a building, regardless of all its other features, etc. That is, with abstraction, the properties of objects are thought abstractly from the objects themselves with all their features.
Abstraction and generalization are closely related. On the one hand, the process of generalization is based on abstraction, abstraction from the differences between generalized objects. On the other hand, the generalization itself, the allocation of the general in objects and phenomena, contributes to the abstraction of these properties. Generalization of similar objects, such as mountains, helps to abstract the sign of the height of mountains, distracting from other signs common to mountains.
As opposed to abstraction specification allows you to move from more general, abstract properties and signs to concrete reality, to sensory experience. Talking about the common features of all trees, we can then specify these provisions by giving an example of a particular type of trees. Concretization, thus, contributes to a better understanding of the general, linking it with direct sensory experience. Thanks to concretization, thinking is constantly based on reality; concretization prevents the separation of thinking from this reality.
Abstraction operations play an important role in the process of understanding the conventional meaning, sayings and proverbs. In order to understand this meaning, it is necessary to abstract from the specific situation that they describe. So, when explaining the conditional, figurative meaning of “strike while the iron is hot,” we must abstract ourselves from ideas about iron and how it is processed, catching only the general meaning of a proverb of this kind, which consists in the fact that one should not put off a task, the execution of which is possible only now : time can be lost (as when iron is cooled), and the job will be lost because of this.
With mental disorders, the abstraction operations necessary to understand the figurative meaning of sayings and proverbs may be violated. Patients with such mental disorders find it difficult when trying to explain the meaning of proverbs and sayings: “not all that glitters is gold”, “don’t get into your sleigh”, etc. They often explain the last proverb like this: “not your sleigh - not sit down, sit down only in your sleigh. They also cannot carry out the operation of comparing proverbs and say which of the three proverbs (“go slower, you will be further”, “measure seven times, cut once”, “strike while the iron is hot”) are similar, and which of these proverbs differ in figurative meaning. Violations of abstraction operations are also manifested in the inability to understand a joke, humor, to catch their abstract meaning.
Opposite disorders are also observed, in which violations of concretization operations come to the fore. These frustrations are shown sometimes in the form of reasoning. Reasoning differs in that, having chosen a certain topic for conversation, a person begins to express, often in an instructive tone, various provisions that are abstract, little connected with concrete reality. Each of these provisions may be correct, but there is no specification of these provisions, and therefore the patient's statements acquire the character of "idle talk on a given topic."
Thinking- socially determined, inextricably linked with speech, the mental process of searching for and discovering something new, i.e. the process of generalized and indirect reflection of reality in the course of analysis and synthesis.
Thinking as a special mental process has a number of specific characteristics and features.
The first such sign is generalized a reflection of reality, since thinking is a reflection of the general in objects and phenomena of the real world and the application of generalizations to individual objects and phenomena.
The second, no less important, sign of thinking is indirect knowledge of objective reality. The essence of indirect knowledge lies in the fact that we are able to make judgments about the properties or characteristics of objects and phenomena without direct contact with them, but by analyzing indirect information.
The next most important characteristic feature of thinking is that thinking is always associated with the decision of one or another tasks, arising in the process of cognition or in practical activity. The process of thinking begins to manifest itself most clearly only when a problem situation arises that needs to be solved. Thinking always starts with question, the answer to which is goal thinking
An exceptionally important feature of thinking is the inextricable connection with speech. The close connection between thinking and speech finds its expression primarily in the fact that thoughts are always clothed in speech form. We always think in words, that is, we cannot think without uttering the word.
Types of thinking.
There are the following types of thinking:
- Visual and effective- here the solution of the problem is carried out with the help of a real transformation of the situation on the basis of a motor act. Those. the task is given visually in a specific form and the way to solve it is a practical action. This type of thinking is typical for a child of preschool age. This kind of thinking also exists in higher animals.
Visual-figurative - a situation necessary for solving a problem, a person recreates in a figurative form. Begins to form at the senior preschool age. In this case, in order to think, the child does not have to manipulate the object, but it is necessary to clearly perceive or visualize this object.
- Verbal-logical(theoretical, reasoning, abstract) - thinking appears primarily in the form of abstract concepts and reasoning. Begins to develop at school age. Mastery of concepts occurs in the process of assimilation of various sciences. At the end of school education, a system of concepts is formed. Moreover, we use concepts that sometimes do not have a direct figurative expression (honesty, pride). The development of verbal-logical thinking does not mean that the previous two types do not develop or disappear altogether. On the contrary, children and adults continue to develop all kinds of thinking. For example, in an engineer, designer, visual-effective thinking achieves greater perfection (or when mastering new technology). In addition, all types of thinking are closely interconnected.
From the point of view of the originality of the tasks being solved, thinking can be: creative (productive) and reproducing (reproductive). Creative is aimed at creating new ideas, reproductive is the application of ready-made knowledge and skills.
Forms of thought- concepts, judgments, conclusions.
concept- a thought that reflects the general, essential and distinctive features of objects and phenomena of reality (for example, the concept of "man"). Distinguish concepts worldly(acquired in practical experience) and scientific(acquired during training). Concepts arise and develop in the process of development of science and technology. In them, people record the results of experience and knowledge.
Judgment - reflection of connections between objects and phenomena of reality or between their properties and features.
inference- such a connection between thoughts (concepts, judgments), as a result of which we get another judgment from one or several judgments, extracting it from the content of the original judgments.
Thinking processes.
There are several basic mental processes (mental operations), with the help of which mental activity is carried out.
Analysis- mental division of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts, the allocation of individual features in it. Analysis is practical and intellectual.
Synthesis- mental connection of individual elements, parts and features into a single whole. But synthesis is not a mechanical combination of parts.
Analysis and synthesis are inextricably linked and provide a comprehensive knowledge of reality. Analysis provides knowledge of individual elements, and synthesis, based on the results of analysis, provides knowledge of the object as a whole.
Comparison- comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities or differences between them. Thanks to this process of thinking, we know most things, because. we cognize an object only by equating it with something or distinguishing it from something.
As a result of comparison in the compared objects, we highlight something in common. That. Thus, on the basis of comparison, a generalization is built.
Generalization - mental association of objects into groups according to those common features that stand out in the process of comparison. Through this process, conclusions, rules and classifications are made (apples, pears, plums - fruits).
Abstraction consists in the fact that, by isolating any properties of the object under study, a person is distracted from the rest. Concepts (length, breadth, quantity, equality, value, etc.) are created by abstracting.
Specification involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the specific in order to reveal the content (give an example for the rule).
Thinking as a process of problem solving.
The need for thinking arises first of all when, in the course of life, a new problem appears before a person. Those. thinking is necessary in those situations in which a new goal arises, and the old methods of activity are no longer sufficient to achieve it. Such situations are called problematic . In a problem situation, the process of thinking begins. In the course of activity, a person encounters something unknown, thinking is immediately included in the activity, and the problem situation turns into a task that is realized by the person.
A task - the goal of an activity given in certain conditions and requiring the use of means adequate to these conditions for its achievement. Any task includes: goal, condition(known) desired(unknown). Depending on the nature of the ultimate goal, tasks are distinguished practical(aimed at transforming material objects) and theoretical(aimed at cognition of reality, for example, study).
The principle of solving the problem : the unknown is always connected with something known, i.e. the unknown, interacting with the known, reveals some of its qualities.
Thinking and problem solving are closely related to each other. But this connection is not unambiguous. Problem solving is carried out only with the help of thinking. But thinking is manifested not only in solving problems, but also, for example, for mastering knowledge, understanding a text, setting a task, i.e. for knowledge (mastery of experience).
Individual features of thinking.
The thinking of each person has some differences in certain properties.
Independence- the ability of a person to put forward new tasks and find the right solutions without resorting to the frequent help of other people.
Latitude- this is when a person's cognitive activity covers various areas (broad-minded).
Flexibility- the ability to change the solution plan planned at the beginning, if it no longer satisfies.
Rapidity- the ability of a person to quickly understand a difficult situation, quickly think and make a decision.
Depth- the ability to penetrate into the essence of the most complex issues, the ability to see a problem where other people do not have a question (you need to have a Newton's head to see a problem in a falling apple).
criticality- the ability to objectively evaluate one's own and other people's thoughts (not to consider one's thoughts absolutely correct).
