This period is characterized by the further development of such large states as the Roman Empire, the Parthian and Kushan kingdoms, the Han Empire. Attempts are being renewed to create a large centralized state in India as well. The expansion of Rome obviously reaches its natural limits, beyond which it no longer extends. More and more, the empire goes on the defensive from the Parthians in the east, from the Germanic tribes - in the north. Of great historical importance was the birth of Christianity - the second world religion after Buddhism. Everywhere in the countries of the Ancient World, there are growing signs of a crisis in slaveholding farms, slaveholding, as a socio-economic structure, is beginning to become obsolete.
Roman Empire of the Principate. After defeating his opponents, Octavian Augustus took up the organization of the internal affairs of a huge state. The essence of his reforms boiled down to the fact that with the concentration of real power in his own hands, all the external official attributes of the republic were preserved, hence the name of the state “Roman Empire” is somewhat conditional, officially at that time it continued to be called a republic. According to one of the posts - the princeps, the first among senators, such a system is called the principate. Under Octavian's successors, it is fully preserved.
With the time of Augustus, the heyday of Roman literature coincides, it was under him that many Roman poets: Ovid, Horace, Virgil enjoy the support of the rich Maecenas, whose name has become a household name.
The lack of legal means to limit the arbitrariness of the emperors made it possible for people like Caligula and Nero to appear on the throne, dissatisfaction with whose actions caused uprisings both in the legions stationed on the borders of the empire and in the praetorian guard stationed in Rome itself. Over time, the fate of the throne began to be decided in the Praetorian barracks and in the army. So the first representative of the Flavian dynasty came to power - Vespasian (69 - 79 AD), who was supported by the legions that suppressed the uprising in Judea in 68 - 69 years. AD
The last major conquests of Rome are carried out under the emperor Trajan (98 -117 AD) from the Antonin dynasty: Dacia and Mesopotamia are subordinate to him. In the future, Rome is increasingly forced to defend its possessions from the onslaught of barbarian tribes: Germans, Sarmatians and others. Along the borders of the empire, a whole system of border fortifications was being built, called limes. As long as the Roman army retained its basic qualities - discipline and organization, the limes was a very effective means of repelling barbarian invasions. The unlimited power of the emperor, the huge size of the state (in the 2nd century AD, Rome unites under its rule the entire Mediterranean, half of Western Europe, the entire Middle East, the entire Balkan Peninsula and North Africa, the population of the empire is 120 million people), sharply increased administrative difficulties administration, the dependence of the emperors on the army caused the crisis of the empire, which manifested itself with particular force with the termination of the Sever dynasty in 217 AD. The economy, in which slave labor played a prominent role, needed a constant influx of slaves, and with the cessation of major wars, the most significant source of replenishment of the labor force dried up. To maintain a huge army and the empire's administrative apparatus, more and more taxes were required, and the old system of government, which retained the old republican forms of power and other paraphernalia, did not meet these needs. Outwardly, the crisis manifested itself in the constant change of emperors on the throne, at times several emperors coexisted simultaneously in the empire. This time was called the era of “soldier emperors”, since almost all of them were enthroned by legions. The empire emerged from a period of protracted crisis only with the beginning of the reign of Emperor Diocletian (284 - 305 AD).
The emergence of Christianity. At the beginning of a new era in Judea, a new religious trend arises, named Christianity after its founder. Modern historical science fully admits the real existence of such a person as Jesus Christ, and the reliability of many of the information in the Gospels. The finds of manuscripts from the Dead Sea region, the so-called Qumran ones, unambiguously showed that the ideas embodied in the sermons of Christ and his apostles were by no means absolutely new and peculiar only to this sect. Similar thoughts were expressed by many prophets and preachers. The general pessimism that gripped many peoples after all unsuccessful attempts to overthrow Roman power made it possible to establish in the minds of people the idea of non-resistance and obedience to earthly power, i.e. Roman Caesar, and retribution in the next world for the torment and suffering in this.
With the development of the tax apparatus of the empire and the strengthening of other duties, Christianity increasingly takes on the character of the religion of the oppressed. The absolute indifference of the new cult to the social, property status of neophytes, their ethnicity made Christianity the most acceptable religion in a multinational empire. In addition, the persecution of Christians and the courage and humility with which Christians accepted these persecutions aroused interest and sympathy for them among the masses. The new doctrine becomes especially popular in the cities of the empire, not excluding the capital itself. Gradually, the ascetic life of the first Christian communities and the almost complete absence of organization are replaced by a developed and fairly centralized system of community management, the Christian church acquires property, monasteries arise, which also have significant wealth. By the end of III - beginning of IV centuries. AD Christianity becomes one of the most powerful and influential creeds.
Kushan Empire and Parthia. After the troops of Alexander the Great defeated the army of the Persian king Darius III at Gaugamela, the most stubborn resistance to the invaders was offered by the peoples of Central Asia: Bactria and Sogd. Already at that time there was a tendency towards their separation, but in 329-327. BC. Alexander managed to crush all resistance. After the death of the great commander, the territories of Central Asia became part of the Seleucid state, but their power was alien to the majority of the local population and around 250 BC. Bactrian satrap Diodotus declared himself an independent ruler. From this moment begins the hundred-year history of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, one of the most interesting states of the Ancient World. In the politics, history and culture of this state, the most characteristic features of Hellenism were manifested with particular brightness and brilliance: the organic combination and creative interaction of the Hellenic and Eastern principles. In the era of the existence of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, the region from a rich agricultural area with separate urban centers began to turn into a country with developed trade and handicraft production. The rulers of the kingdom paid special attention to the construction of cities, which became centers of trade and craft activities. The development of trade is also evidenced by a large number of Greco-Bactrian coins. It is thanks to this source that we know the names of more than 40 rulers of the kingdom, while only 8 are mentioned in written sources. The process of spreading Greek culture mainly affected cities, in which it manifested itself in various areas, but primarily in architecture.
Between 140 and 130 years. BC. nomadic tribes invading from the north destroyed the kingdom. The tradition of government was preserved, the minting of coins with the Greek names of the kings continued, but they did not have much power.
On the ruins of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, one of the largest state formations of the Ancient World, the Kushan state, is gradually taking shape. Its basis was the territory of Bactria, where small associations of nomads who destroyed the Greco-Bactrian kingdom coexisted, and the possessions of small Greek dynasts - the heirs of the former rulers of the state. The founder of the Kushan state was Kadfiz I, who presumably in the 1st c. AD united the whole of Bactria under his rule, taking the title of “king of kings”.
Under his son Kadphises II, a significant part of North-Western India goes to the Kushans. As a result, the Kushan state included most of Central Asia, the territory of modern Afghanistan, most of Pakistan and northern India. At the end of I - beginning of II centuries. AD the Kushans face China in East Turkestan, where they eventually manage to stop the expansion of their eastern neighbor. Under the ruler Kanishka (presumably the first third of the 2nd century AD), the center of the state shifted from Bactria to the Indian regions, and this may also be the reason for the penetration of Buddhism into the territory of the state. The Kushan Empire was a centralized state headed by a "king of kings", whose personality was often deified. The central government relied on a developed administrative apparatus, in which there were many ranks and gradations. The state retained its power until the 3rd century AD, when the Kushans were defeated in a clash with the Sasanian state, which replaced Parthia. Some revival of the Kushan state is noted in the 4th century, but it has not reached its former power.
Simultaneously with the withdrawal from the Seleucid power of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, Parthia also seeks independence, which in 247 BC. headed by the leader of one of the nomadic tribes Arshak, his name becomes the throne name of the subsequent rulers of Parthia. The first decades of the existence of the new state are filled with the struggle for independence with the power of the Seleucids. It was held with varying success, but in the end, Parthia managed to defend its independence. Moreover, under Mithridates I (171-138 BC), Media and Mesopotamia became part of Parthia. End of II - beginning of I centuries. BC. characterized by a tense struggle with the nomadic tribes who defeated the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. After the establishment of peace on the eastern borders, Parthia resumes its movement to the West, where its interests collide with the interests of the Roman state. With particular force, these contradictions manifested themselves in the middle of the 1st century BC, when the Parthians in 53 BC. managed to completely defeat the army of the Roman commander Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in Northern Mesopotamia. As a result, the Parthians move their capital to Ctesiphon and temporarily subjugate Syria, Asia Minor and Palestine, but they fail to keep these territories. Campaign of the Roman army in Media in 38 AD. ultimately also ended in failure. In the future, the struggle takes place with varying success, periodically Rome achieves some predominance. Under the emperors Trajan and Hadrian, the Roman army takes the capital of the Parthians, Ctesiphon, and Mesopotamia even becomes a province of the Roman Empire, but the Romans fail to establish themselves here completely, just as they fail to inflict a final defeat on the Parthians. In general, the struggle between the two rivals lasted more than two centuries and ended inconclusively.
Military defeats weakened Parthia. In the 20s. 3rd century AD the king of one of the vassal kingdoms - Persia - Artashir Sassanid subjugated Parthia. One of the reasons for the internal weakness of the Parthian state was the lack of centralized power, similar to the power of its neighbors - the Kashans and the Romans. There was no unified system of administration of the entire territory, and there were no clear rules for the succession of power, which sometimes led to lengthy civil strife among the ruling family of the Arshakids. The Parthians never succeeded in rallying all the heterogeneous parts of their state into a single organism.
Ancient China in the 1st - 3rd centuries. AD At the end of the 1st century BC. in the country, social contradictions sharply escalated, which the usurped throne of Emperor Wang Mang, a relative of the deposed ruler in the female line, tried to soften. As a result of Wang Mang's reforms, all sectors of society were dissatisfied with innovations, the situation was aggravated by natural disasters in 14 AD: drought and locust invasion. As a result, an uprising broke out, which went down in history under the name of the “red-browed” uprising (18 - 25 AD). The government troops were defeated in several battles, and one of the leaders of the uprising, Liu Xu, established himself on the throne in 25 AD. declared himself emperor and moved the capital to Luoyang. This is how the Late, or Eastern, Han Dynasty arose.
The new emperor, who took the title of Guang Wu-di (25-57 AD), reduces taxes, sharply limits slavery, which contributes to the growth of the country's productive forces. The foreign policy of this period is characterized by the struggle to regain control over the Western Territory, which was lost during the period of unrest. The struggle ended with the defeat of the nomadic tribes of the Xiongnu at the end of the 1st century. AD, and the borders of China again reached East Turkestan. The Han Empire establishes close contacts with Parthia and other states of the Middle East. But on the northern borders of the empire, new dangerous nomadic neighbors appear: the proto-Mongolian Xianbei tribes. In the 2nd century AD, the Qiang tribes appeared on the northwestern borders, the struggle against which ended with decisive success only in the 60s of this century.
The policy of concessions to the common people at the turn of the 1st - 2nd centuries was replaced by other trends: the dispossession of the mass of small landowners, the growth of their dependence on large landowners, whose possessions become practically independent and self-sufficient, in which one cannot but see the manifestations of elements of emerging feudalism. By the end of the 2nd century, the empire was gripped by a socio-economic and political crisis, in which the rivalry between various court factions played a significant role. In this situation, in 184, in the 17th year of the reign of Emperor Ling-di, an uprising of the “yellow bandages” broke out, led by Zhang Jiao. The spiritual banner of the movement was Taoism, which over the past centuries has been transformed from a philosophical teaching into a religious and mystical system. In the same year, Zhang Jiao died, but in 185 the uprising broke out with renewed vigor, and it was again suppressed with extreme cruelty. Scattered uprisings continue until 207, but government troops inevitably stop them. However, the uprising has shaken to the limit all the foundations of a single empire, it provokes a new round of the struggle for power between representatives of the ruling class. In the third century, civil strife leads to the death of a single empire and three independent states arise on its remnants - Wei, Shu and Wu. The era of the Three Kingdoms began, which is usually attributed to the early Middle Ages
Chronology of the most important events in world history
–III-I centuries BC–
287 BC In Rome, the law of the dictator Hortensius was adopted, establishing the complete legal equality of plebeians and patricians.
285 - 246 BC The reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus ("loving sister") in Egypt. Strengthened, despite the loss of Cyrene, the political and economic position of Egypt in the Hellenistic world. He married, according to Egyptian tradition, his own sister Arsinoe II. He acted, like his father, as a champion of science, art and worship.
280 - 275 BC The war of the Epirus king Pyrrhus against Rome. The Romans are defeated in battles at Heraclea (280) and at Ausculum (279), after which they unite with Carthage, the enemy of Pyrrhus. After Pyrrhus returned to Italy from Sicily (276), the Romans defeated his weakened army at the battle of Benevent (275).
276 - 239 BC The reign of the Macedonian king Antigonus II Gonatas. Athens, Sparta and other Greek cities unsuccessfully waged the Chremonid war against him (267-262). For a short time he united all of Greece under his rule.
268 - 232 BC The reign of Ashoka from the Mauryan dynasty. The highest flowering of the Mauryan Empire, which during this period occupied the territory of almost all of India and parts of modern Afghanistan. He patronized Buddhism.
264 - 241 BC. First Punic War between Rome and Carthage for dominance in Sicily. After a series of victories and defeats, the Romans destroy the Carthaginian fleet and conclude a peace treaty on favorable terms for themselves: the Carthaginians pledged to clear Sicily and hand over all the prisoners, and also paid a large monetary contribution to Rome.
246 - 226 BC The reign of Seleucus II of the Seleucid dynasty.
246 - 221 BC The reign of Ptolemy III Euergetes ("the benefactor") in Egypt. Under his rule, the Ptolemaic state reached the largest size and enjoyed the highest authority among the Hellenistic states (the conquest of Cyrene again, the campaign against Syria to the Euphrates). 245 - 241 BC. The reign of the Spartan king Agis IV. In an effort to restore the former greatness of Sparta, he carried out a series of reforms to improve the situation of citizens. Accused of seeking tyranny and executed.
238 BC Taking advantage of the difficult situation of Carthage weakened by the war and the uprising of mercenaries and the local dependent population, the Romans freely seize the islands of Sardinia and Corsica that belonged to Carthage.
235 - 221 BC The reign of the Spartan king Cleomenes III. Continuing the course of Agis IV to strengthen Sparta, he carried out a series of reforms that improved the situation of the poor, but provoked opposition from the dictator of the Achaean Union Aratus, who turned to the Macedonian king Antigonus Doson for help. After a military defeat by the Macedonians at Sellassia (221), Cleomenes fled to Egypt, where he died (219).
229 - 228 BC The first war between Rome and the Illyrians. Beginning of Roman expansion to the Balkan Peninsula.
223 - 222 BC Campaign of Gaius Flaminius in northern Italy. Roman subjugation of the Gauls in the Po Valley.
223 - 187 BC. The reign of Antiochus III the Great, king of the Seleucid state. Subdued the Parthians and Bactria (212-205), conquered Palestine from Egypt (203). Having been defeated by Rome in the Syrian War (192-188), he lost the territories of Asia Minor. Under Antiochus III, the Seleucid state reached its peak.
221 - 207 BC Qin Dynasty in China. The first centralized state in China was created - the Qin Empire. Prince Ying Zheng (259-210) assumes the title of Qin Shihuang ("first emperor of the Qin dynasty"). He builds the Great Wall to protect against nomads, expands and reorganizes the empire, introduces uniform legislation, unifies coins, measures and weights, establishes a system of government that will survive until the 20th century. The dynasty ends with the overthrow of Qin Shihuang's son from the throne.
221 - 203 BC The reign of Ptolemy IV Philopator ("father-lover") in Egypt. Successfully completed the war with Syria, defeating the Syrian king Antio at Rafiya; £a III the Great (217). The country is increasingly weakened by the growth of the national movement and socio-political unrest, as well as palace troubles.
218 - 201 BC. Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage. The reason for the war is the rivalry between Rome and Carthage in Iberia (Spain). In the autumn of 218, the Carthaginian army (Hannibal), having made an unprecedented crossing of the Alps, invaded the Apennine Peninsula and won a number of victories over the Roman troops. From 212 the initiative passed to the Romans. As a result, Carthage, under difficult conditions, concluded a peace with the Romans, according to which it lost its possessions outside Africa, gave Rome its entire fleet and undertook to pay a large indemnity.
218 BC, autumn-winter Hannibal defeats the Roman commander Publius Cornelius Scipio in battles near the Ticinus and Trebbia rivers.
217 BC April Having arranged a skillful ambush in a narrow defile near Lake Trasimene, the Carthaginians (Hannibal) defeated the Roman army of Gaius Flaminius.
216 BC, August 2 In the battle of Cannae, the Roman army (consul Terentius Varro, ca. 70 thousand) was surrounded and completely defeated by the Carthaginians (Hannibal, 50 thousand). Since then, the word "Cannes" has become synonymous with successful military operations to encircle and destroy the enemy. The lack of forces did not allow Hannibal to use the victory to march on Rome.
215 - 205 BC First Macedonian War between Macedonia and Rome for hegemony in Greece and the Hellenistic countries. After the victory of the Carthaginians over the Romans at Cannae, the Macedonian king Philip V entered into an alliance with Hannibal against Rome. Under the peace treaty, Rome was able to expand its influence in Greece.
211 BC After a two-year siege and naval blockade, the Romans took and destroyed Syracuse, who fought on the side of Carthage. The defense of Syracuse with the use of engineering devices was skillfully organized by the great mathematician Archimedes.
209 BC The Romans captured the main stronghold of the Carthaginians in Iberia - New Carthage.
207 BC. Metavrian battle between the Roman troops led by the consuls Gaius Claudius, Nero and Mark Livy and the Carthaginian army of Hasdrubal Barca, who came from Iberia to help Hannibal. Hasdrubal's army was destroyed, which put Hannibal in a very difficult position. 207 - 192 BC. Tyranny of Nabis in Sparta. He confiscated the lands of large landowners and distributed them to the landless Spartans and helots, whom he included in the composition of citizens. In the struggle against the Achaean Union, he was defeated.
204 BC The Roman army of Cornelius Scipio Africanus the Elder landed at Carthage.
202 BC In the battle of Zama (120 km southwest of Carthage), the Roman army of Cornelius Scipio the Elder defeated the Carthaginians under the command of Hannibal. This victory of the Romans finally decided the outcome of the 2nd Punic War.
202 BC - 9 AD The reign of the Western (or Early, or First) Han Dynasty in China.
200 - 197 BC Second Macedonian War between Macedonia and Rome for hegemony in Greece and the Hellenistic countries. The decisive battle took place at Cynoscephalae (197), where the Romans under the command of Titus Quinctius Flamininus defeated the troops of the Macedonian king Philip V. Greece was declared "free", but in fact was under the rule of Rome.
197 - 179 BC The uprising of the Iberian tribes against the power of Rome. After a series of setbacks, having concentrated a 45,000-strong army in Spain, the Romans crushed the uprising and restored their provincial rule there.
192 - 188 BC Syrian war between Rome and the Seleucid Empire. In the battle of Magnesia (190), the army of Antiochus III was defeated and almost destroyed. Antiochus III lost first Asia Minor, and then Armenia and Bactria.
183 BC Hannibal, preferring death to extradition to Rome, commits suicide.
171 - 168 BC Third Macedonian War between Macedonia and Rome for hegemony in Greece and the Hellenistic countries. In the battle of Pydna (168), the Roman legions of Lucius Aemilius Paulus utterly defeated the troops of the last Macedonian king Perseus, who was taken prisoner. The Roman Senate abolished royal power in Macedonia and divided the country into 4 separate districts dependent on Rome.
171 - 138 BC. Mithridates I creates the Parthian empire. First, he annexes Media to Parthia, and then extends his power to Mesopotamia, where he is recognized as the Babylonian king (141). 168 - 142 BC. The struggle of Judea against the power of the Seleucids for political independence. The uprising, which broke out in response to an attempt by Antiochus IV to forcibly Hellenize the population, was led by Judas Maccabeus, and after his death (161) by his brothers. The rebels captured Jerusalem (164).
154 - 133 BC. The struggle of the Lusitanian tribes against the Roman conquerors in Spain. Lusitania conquered, the Roman legions came to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.
149 - 148 BC Revolt in Macedonia against the Romans (4th Macedonian War). After his suppression, the Romans turned Macedonia, along with Illyria and Epirus, into their province.
149 - 146 BC Third Punic War. After a three-year siege, the Romans took Carthage, the inhabitants were sold into slavery, and the city was completely destroyed. The main part of the Carthaginian possessions is included in the Roman province of Africa, and the other part is transferred to Numidia. Rome became the largest Mediterranean power.
146 BC After the victory over the Achaean Union, which started a war with Rome, the consul Lucius Mummius captured and destroyed the largest center of the Achaean Union, Corinth. Its inhabitants were sold into slavery. The Achaean Union and all other Greek unions were dissolved, the cities were made dependent on the Roman governors of Macedonia. Only Athens and Sparta retained nominal independence.
143 - 133 BC Numanzin war of the Iberian tribes of Spain against the Roman conquerors. The center of the uprising was the city of Numantia, which was an inaccessible fortress. Numantia is taken and destroyed by the Romans, the sphere of domination of Rome in the Iberian Peninsula is greatly expanded.
140 - 87 BC The reign of the Chinese emperor Wudi. Introduced a system of state examinations for administrative posts. Under him, Confucianism became the official ideology. He waged more than forty years of war against neighboring peoples and states, which significantly expanded the boundaries of the empire. During his reign, the Han Empire experienced the apogee of its political and economic power and again found itself in a state of deep internal crisis.
138 - 132 BC The first slave uprising in Sicily. Suppressed by the Roman army. 132 - 129 BC Anti-Roman uprising of free, slaves and mercenary troops led by Aristonicus in Pergamon. It broke out in connection with the testament in 133 of the Pergamon kingdom to Rome. The rebels sought to preserve Pergamum with Aristonicus on the throne and independent of Rome. Having suffered several defeats at first, the Romans crushed the uprising.
133 BC The Roman people's tribune Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus tried to reform the distribution of public lands in the interests of poor citizens. After a vote in the popular assembly, Gracchus was removed from power (for the first time in the history of Rome), and then, when he decided to run for the people's tribunes again, he was killed by senators.
123 - 87 BC The reign of the Parthian king Mithridates II the Great. Expansion of the territory of the Parthian kingdom, the conclusion of an agreement with Rome.
123 - 121 BC The Roman people's tribune Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (younger brother of Tiberius) came up with a broad and well-thought-out program of democratic and agrarian reforms, contrary to the interests of the senatorial nobility. He died during an armed clash between his supporters and opponents.
113 - 101 BC The war of the Romans with the invasion of the Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Teutons. Having suffered several crushing defeats (113-105), the Romans were saved from defeat only by the strange inconsistency of the winners: they turned not to defenseless Italy, but to Spain. Taking advantage of an unexpected respite, the Romans, on the initiative of Gaius Marius, carried out a radical military reform, after which they defeated the tribes of the Cimbri (101) and Teutons (102), actually exterminating them.
111 BC In Rome, on the initiative of the tribune Spurius Thorius, an agrarian law was adopted, establishing private ownership of land that had passed into the hands of small and medium landowners.
111 - 105 BC Rome's war with the Numidian king Jugurtha. In 106, the Romans under the command of Gaius Marius inflicted a final defeat on Jugurtha, after which Numidia was dismembered and became dependent on Rome.
107 - 104 BC. Military-political reforms Guy Maria. They contributed to the transformation of the Roman troops from a civilian militia into a professional mercenary army.
104 - 101 BC The Second Slave Revolt in Sicily. Suppressed by the Roman army. 103 - 100 BC Speech by the Roman populace led by Apuleius Saturninus with reforms directed against the senatorial oligarchy. Deprived at the decisive moment of the support of Gaius Maria, Apuleius Saturninus and his supporters were killed by the optimates.
100 BC The Roman commander Gaius Marius becomes consul for the sixth time, defeating the Numidian king Jugurtha (106) and defeating the tribes of the Teutons (102) and Cimbri (101).
91 - 88 BC Allied war in Italy - the war of the rebellious Italians against the Roman Republic, one of the bloodiest wars in all of Roman history. After several major successes, the Italians lost the initiative, suffered a series of defeats, and ceased resistance. Nevertheless, as a result of the Allied War, the entire free population of Italy received, albeit with restrictions, the rights of Roman citizenship.
89 - 84 BC First Mithridatic War. The Pontic king Mithridates VI Eupator, in an effort to block the path of Roman expansion to the East, gathered a huge army and, with the support of a strong fleet, expelled the Romans from Asia Minor and Greece. Then his troops in Greece were defeated by the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla (86) and driven back to Asia Minor. After the conclusion of peace, Mithridates VI retained the main possessions.
88 BC. Civil War in Rome. Lucius Cornelius Sulla was elected consul and appointed supreme commander in the war against Mithridates VI. By the decision of the people's assembly, he was removed from command in favor of Marius. He refused to comply with this decision, moved troops against Rome (for the first time in Roman history) and captured the “eternal city” with a fight, after which he dealt with the Marians (populars), executing about 10 thousand of them.
87 - 84 BC One of the leaders of the populations, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, was a Roman consul. Exiled by Sulla, he gathered troops in Campania, summoned Marius and other exiles, and took possession of Rome (87), brutally cracking down on the optimates (senatorial nobility). After the death of Maria (86) - in fact, the autocratic Roman ruler. While preparing to attack Sulla, returning from Asia, Cinna was killed by soldiers who refused to follow him (84).83 BC. Returning after the victory over Mithridates VI to Italy, Sulla again defeated the Marians and ordered the killing of 6 thousand prisoners, and expelling his opponents.
83 - 81 BC. Second Mithridatic War (war of the Romans against the Pontic king Mithridates VI). It was provoked by the Roman proconsul JI. Murena, ended with his defeat and the restoration of the terms of the peace treaty 84.
82 - 79 BC. Dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Sulla proclaimed himself dictator (for the first time for an indefinite period) "for the issuance of laws and the organization of the state." His dictatorship is directed against all democratic institutions and aims to overcome the state crisis of Rome in the spirit of the ideas of the optimates (senatorial nobility). In 79, acknowledging that he had not achieved his goals, Sulla resigned and returned to private life.
80 - 72 BC. Anti-Roman (anti-Sullan) uprising of the Iberian tribes led by the Roman general, Praetor of Spain Quintus Sertorius. Having united almost all of Spain, Sertorius inflicted a series of defeats on the Romans (76-75). The uprising is crushed, Sertorius is killed by his close associates.
78 - 77 BC The Roman consul Mark Aemilius Lepidus moved with an army to Rome, trying to wrest power from the Sullans (followers of Sulla). It was defeated by Gnaeus Pompey and Lutacius Catullus.
74 - 63 BC Third Mithridatic War (war of the Romans against the Pontic king Mithridates VI). The army of Mithridates invaded Bithynia, which was dependent on Rome (74), and captured it. The war went on for a long time with varying success. Then a decisive defeat was inflicted on the Pontic troops on the Euphrates by the army of Gnaeus Pompey (65). Mithridates fled to Panticapaeum (modern Kerch), where he tried to find refuge with his son Farnak, and when he rebelled against his father, he ordered the slave to kill himself (63).
73 - 71 BC The Spartacus Revolt, the largest slave revolt in the Roman Empire. It began with the flight of the Thracian Spartacus with his comrades from the gladiator school in Capua (73). Of the fugitive slaves who joined him, having trained and armed them, Spartacus managed to create an army similar to the Roman army, which allowed him to win a number of victories over the Roman legions. The uprising first swept southern Italy, then virtually all of Italy; the army of the rebels numbered up to 70 thousand people. Spartacus was defeated by the Roman army of Mark Licinius Crassus and died in battle (71).
70 BC Restoration of the pre-Sullan constitution. Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey are elected Roman consuls.
67 BC Having received special powers, a strong fleet and the necessary troops, Pompey eliminated piracy in the Mediterranean within 60 days.
66 - 62 BC Eastern campaigns of Gnaeus Pompey. As a result of hostilities 66-64, a victory was won over Mithridates VI Eupator. After the end of the war with Mithridates, the Romans went to Syria, where Pompey legally abolished the former kingdom of the Seleucids and formed a new Roman province of Syria, to which he added the Phoenician cities and Judea, which recognized dependence on Rome.
64 - 63 BC The struggle around the agrarian bill of the tribune Servilius Rullus. The bill provided for the allocation of land to land-poor citizens. The opposition of the consul Cicero led to the fact that the bill was not even put to a vote.
63 BC Conspiracy of Catiline. The impoverished Roman patrician Lucius Sergius Catalina, who made a fortune during the period of Sullan proscriptions, having failed several times in consular elections, organized a conspiracy to seize sole power in Rome. Mark Tullius Cicero, elected consul in 63, found out about Catiline's intentions and delivered a speech in the Senate (October 21, 63), which predetermined the failure of Catiline in the consular elections of 62. After an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Cicero, Catalina fled Rome and gathered an army in Etruria. He was defeated and fell in battle (beginning 62).
60 BC First triumvirate. A tacit agreement between Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompey on a joint fight against the senatorial oligarchy. This alliance played a large role in the public affairs of Rome throughout the next decade.
59 BC. Gaius Julius Caesar was elected consul and, during his consulship, passed a number of laws that contributed to the strengthening of the state system and the solution of some social problems, while satisfying the supporters of Pompey and Crassus.
58 - 51 BC Gallic campaigns of Gaius Julius Caesar. As a result of eight campaigns, Caesar conquered all of Gaul (57), defeated the Germanic tribes (58, 55), launched two invasions of Britain (55, 54), suppressed the general uprising of almost all Gallic tribes under the leadership of Vercingetorix (52) and the uprisings of individual Gallic tribes (51). The campaigns were notable for the merciless mass extermination of the vanquished.
53 BC Crassus is defeated at Carrhae by the Parthians, and then hacked to death during negotiations with them. With the death of Crassus, the first triumvirate disintegrated.
52 BC Pompey was elected consul, and for the first time in Roman history without a colleague, that is, he received the sole supreme government power, in fact, a dictatorship.
51 - 47 BC Joint reign of Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII, sister and brother, in Egypt. Ptolemy XIII drowned while fleeing after being defeated in battle with Caesar (47). Cleopatra was declared the queen of Egypt.
49 BC, On January 10, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River. Starting a civil war with this illegal act, he announced in his defense that he was in defense of the violated rights of the people's tribunes. Having defeated Pompey under Ilerda (49) and Pharsalus (48), as well as over the Pompeians under Taps (46) and Munda (45), Caesar was at the head of the Roman state (45). After the defeat at Pharsalus, Pompey, who commanded the troops of the Senate Republic, fled to Egypt, where he was treacherously killed on the orders of Ptolemy XIII (48).
48 - 47 BC The Alexandrian War is an uprising of the population of Alexandria against the Romans in connection with the announcement of Cleopatra (against the wishes of the majority of the population of Alexandria) as the queen of Egypt. Surrounded in the seaside palace of the Egyptian kings, Caesar with a small detachment and supporters of Cleopatra withstood the siege all winter 48/47, and in the spring, having received reinforcements, he defeated Ptolemy XIII.
47 BC Caesar defeated the Bosporan king Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates VI, near Zela (Asia Minor), (“veni, vidi, vici” - “came, saw, conquered”) 47 - 30 BC. The reign of Cleopatra VII, the last queen of Egypt, from the Ptolemaic dynasty - formally until 44 together with her younger brother Ptolemy XIV, and after 44 with her son Ptolemy XV Caesar (Caesarion, son of Caesar). Beautiful, intelligent and educated, Cleopatra was the mistress of Julius Caesar, after 41 - Mark Antony (from 37 - wife). After the defeat in the war with Rome and the entry into Egypt of the Roman army, Octavian (Augustus) committed suicide.
45 BC At the direction of Caesar, a reform of the calendar was carried out. Instead of the old system of the "lunar" year from January 45 BC. introduced a "solar" year. The "Julian" chronology became a system in the following centuries in the Roman Empire and, having survived it, survived in Europe until the 16th-19th centuries, and in Russia - until February 1918.
44 BC, March 15 As a result of a conspiracy of the Senate aristocracy, which he was never able to remove from government, Caesar was killed during the convening of the Senate on the Ides of March.
43 BC. The popular assembly of Rome, surrounded by Octavian's warriors, passed a law on the transfer of power to the three leaders of the Caesarians: Mark Antony, Aemilius Lepidus and Gaius Caesar Octavian - as "triumvirs for the establishment of the republic." A second triumvirate arose, which, unlike the first, was an official state body vested with emergency powers. The triumvirs announced the cancellation of the amnesty for the murderers of Caesar and, as revenge for his murder, began proscriptions that far surpassed those of Sulla. During them, about ZOY senators and 2000 horsemen died; one of the first victims was Marcus Tullius Cicero. The second triumvirate lasted until 36 BC.
42 BC At the Battle of Philippi, the Caesarians led by Mark Antony and Octavian (20 legions) defeated the Republicans led by Mark Brutus and Gaius Cassius (19 legions). Cassius and Brutus died.
41 - 40 BC Perusian war. Supporters of Mark Antony, led by his brother Lucius Antony and his wife Fulvia, revolted against Octavian. Besieged in the city of Perusia, they were forced to surrender because of hunger. Octavian released Lucius Antony and Fulvia, but brutally cracked down on their supporters
38 BC Antony's army inflicted a crushing defeat on the Parthians at the Battle of Gyndar. The dominance of the Romans in Asia Minor and Syria was fully restored.
37 - 4 BC The reign of Herod I the Great, king of Judea. Seized the throne with the help of Roman troops. Suspicious and power-hungry, he destroyed everyone in whom he saw rivals.
36 BC Campaign of Mark Antony against the Parthians. Encountering strong resistance, Antony was forced to retreat. During the retreat, the Roman army suffered very heavy losses - up to 25% of its composition.
31 BC In the battle at Cape Actium, the fleet of Octavian under the command of Agrippa inflicted a crushing defeat on the combined fleet of Antony and Cleopatra. This victory practically ended the civil wars that began after the death of Gaius Julius Caesar.
30 BC After the suicides of Antony and Cleopatra, Egypt becomes a Roman province.
27 BC - 14 AD The reign of the Roman emperor Augustus (until 27 - Octavian). In the history of Rome begins a new period - the period of the Roman Empire.
19 BC Completion of the conquest of Spain by the Romans.
between 8 and 4 BC Jesus of Nazareth was born.
Eschatology, Millennialism, Adventism: History and Modernity Grigorenko A Yu
§3. The Doctrine of the Second Coming in the 2nd–3rd Centuries AD
§3. The Doctrine of the Second Coming in the 2nd–3rd Centuries AD
Subsequent generations of Christian chiliasts, in turn, tried to justify their hopes for the imminent coming of the Savior and the onset of His earthly millennium kingdom, not only with the help of a literal interpretation of the Old Testament promises (Gen. 13:14-17; 15:18,27-29), the prophetic visions of Isaiah , Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, but also through the promises of Jesus himself, recorded by his contemporaries and disciples - the apostles Paul, Peter, Matthew, John.
One of the main and most famous representatives of Christian chiliasm of the first, apostolic century of our era was the Bishop of Hieropolis Papias. Many researchers consider him the "father" and the first distributor of chiliastic ideas and sentiments in the Christian world. Unfortunately, the works of this thinker have not come down to us, and one can judge his views only on the basis of evidence reported by such Christian writers as the historian of the ancient church Eusebius and Bishop Irenaeus of Lyons.126
According to St. Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, Papias passionately awaited the second coming, believing that “the days will surely come when vine trees will grow, and each will have 10,000 vines, each vine will have 10,000 branches, each branch will have 10,000 rods, each rod 10,000 brushes and 10,000 berries on each brush, and each squeezed berry will give twenty-five meters of wine, and when one of the saints takes up the brush, the other will cry out to him: “I am the best brush, take me, bless the Lord through me ". Similarly, a grain of wheat will bear 10,000 ears, and each ear will have 10,000 grains, and each grain will produce 10 pounds of pure flour. Other fruitful trees, hay and grasses will produce in proportion to this, and all animals, using the food received from the earth, will be peaceful and in agreement with each other and in perfect obedience to people.”127
Many researchers believe that the fantastic images of Papias should be interpreted allegorically and under the sensual images of the fantasy of this thinker, to see a different, deeper meaning. Peaceful coexistence of a wolf with a lamb and a lynx with a goat, a land flowing with honey and milk - this is how the ancient prophets spoke about the kingdom of the Messiah. This way of expressing thoughts was generally characteristic of that time. In the same vein, it is advisable to interpret the work of Papias. Papias’ vineyard is a symbol of the new Israel, grapes point to Christ, vine branches are holy, wine is the grace of the Holy Spirit or a symbol of the blood of Christ, ears of corn are the beginning of every good deed, wheat grains are righteous people, etc.
In the second century AD, chiliastic sentiments and teachings began to spread much more actively. Their authors and supporters were not only ordinary believers, but also very large church hierarchs - the fathers and teachers of the church. One of the reasons for the activation of chiliasm and eschatology in that era was the intensification of persecution of the church and Christians by the Roman state during the reign of Trojan, Marcus Aurelius and other emperors. Christians tried to strengthen their faith, which was subjected to such a severe test, with the hope of seeing in the near future the end of the world, the onset of the second coming of the Savior and the establishment of his earthly millennium kingdom, in which all true believers and who endured during trials would receive a due reward for all those torments and hardships they have endured to this day.
One of the first developers of chiliastic thought of that time was St. Justin is a martyr who tried to substantiate the validity of his views with strong dogmatic arguments. His expectations of the approaching end of the world and the coming of the kingdom of Christ on the land of St. Justin stated, in particular, in his conversation with Trypho, a Jew. “Tell me,” he asks St. Justin Trypho, do you truly acknowledge that this place of Jerusalem will again be restored and do you hope that your people will gather and be blessed with Christ with the patriarchs and those who believed from our kind, as well as with those who became our proselytes before your coming? Christ?" St. Justin answered this question in the following way: “... I and other Christians who are sensible in everything know that there will be a resurrection of the body and a millennium in Jerusalem, which will be settled, adorned and exalted, as Ezekiel, Isaiah and other prophets declare.”128
His chiliastic ideas of St. Justin seeks to confirm with references to many passages of Scripture. With special attention, he dwells on the prophecies of Isaiah, set forth in 65 chapters of his book. The words of this prophet “for as the days of the tree of life will be the days of my people” (Is. 55:17) St. Justin interprets in a chiliastic aspect and finds in them an indication precisely of the millennium kingdom of Christ, for at one time Adam was told on what day he would eat from this tree, on that day he would die, which happened and Adam did not live to be 1000 years old. Uses St. Justin as proof of the truth of his chiliastic doctrine and the words of Psalm 89, 4 tbsp. and the second epistle of the apostle Peter, which says that the day of the Lord is like 1000 years. Similarly, he interprets the words of the Apocalypse: “In addition, we still have someone, named John, one of the apostles of Christ, in a revelation that was to him, predicted that those who believe in our Christ will live in Jerusalem for 1000 years, and after that there will come a universal Sunday and judgment, just as our Lord Himself said: “They will not marry and be given in marriage, but will become equal to angels, as children of the resurrection of God.” St. Justin also describes the blessedness of the righteous in the earthly thousand-year kingdom of Christ, understanding it, however, not as rivers of milk, but as a happy and blessed life, consisting in close communion of believers with Christ, the patriarchs and saints in the holy land endowed with all blessings - the new Jerusalem .
The successor of the chiliastic tradition in the Christian church of that time was also St. Irenaeus, from 178 AD e. became Bishop of Lyons. His chiliastic views of St. Irenaeus also tries to confirm by referring to various texts in the Old and New Testaments. He expounded his chiliastic doctrine in his essay Against Heresies. First of all, St. Irenaeus is trying to determine the time of the onset of the thousand-year kingdom of Christ on earth and for this purpose, like many of his predecessors on this path, he divides the entire history of the human race into six thousand-year periods, after which, i.e., at the moment of the onset of the seventh period, this will be revealed. kingdom. “In how many days this world was created,” he writes, “so many thousands of years it will exist, and therefore the Book of Genesis says: “and the heavens and the earth and all their adornments were completed, and God completed in six days all his works that he created, and in rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had created. And this is both a legend about the past, how it happened, and a prophecy about the future. For the day of the Lord is like 1000 years, and since creation was completed in six days, it is obvious that it will end in the year six thousand.”129
Next, St. Irenaeus explains that this six thousandth period of human history is intended for humanity to endure all sorts of sorrows and hardships in its continuation, and so that, having cleansed itself of everything that is filthy and unworthy during this period, in the course of the seventh millennium following it, it will receive the fullest reward. for all the previous calamities and hardships and led a life full of joys and pleasures. “For those who are being saved,” says Irenaeus, “sorrow is necessary, so that in some way worn, refined, and through patience imbued with the Word of God and cleansed by fire, they would be fit for the royal feast.”130
After determining the time of the creation of the millennium kingdom of Christ, St. Irenaeus addresses the appearance of the Antichrist into the world, his personality and the nature of his reign, after which he proceeds to describe the second coming of Christ and the creation of his earthly kingdom. The author tries to argue the regularity of the onset of this kingdom as follows: “It is fair,” he says, “that in the same creation in which the righteous labored or were subjected to sorrows, they experienced in every possible way in suffering and received the fruits of their suffering, and in the creation in which they are put to death were out of love for God, in the same they were quickened, and in the creation in which they suffered slavery, in the same they reigned. It is also necessary that the creation itself, restored to its original state, should serve the righteous without hindrance; and this the apostle showed in his epistle to the Romans, saying that the creation itself will be set free from the bondage of corruption into the freedom of the glory of the sons of God.”131
Another reason for his chiliastic doctrine of St. Irenaeus found in the words of Jesus Christ Himself, spoken by Him to His disciples during the celebration of the last Easter: “I tell you that from now on I will not drink from the growth of this grape until the day when I drink new wine with you in the kingdom of My Father” (Matt. ., 5) According to Irenaeus, these words primarily point to the hereditary possession of the land, on which believers will drink new wine from the new fruit of the vine, as well as to carnal resurrection, for drinking wine, they say, is characteristic of the flesh alone, and not in spirit.132
Irenaeus also deepens his argument by referring to the authority of Luke (Luke 14:12-14). “Therefore, the Lord said,” he remarks, “when you make lunch or dinner, do not call the rich, nor friends, nor neighbors and relatives, so that they in turn will not call you and you will not receive their reward, but call the lame, the blind and the poor, and you will be blessed, because they cannot repay you, for you will be repaid on the Sunday of the righteous. For what is a hundredfold recompense in this age for dinners and suppers given to the poor? This takes place during the time of the kingdom, i.e., on the seventh day, sanctified, on which God rested from all His works, which is the true Sabbath of the righteous, when they will not do anything earthly, but will have a meal prepared by God, delivering to them all sorts of things. 133 Finally, Irenaeus discovers the proof of the truth and regularity of the future kingdom of Christ for the righteous in the blessing that Isaac gave to his son Jacob. 134 when the creation, renewed and liberated, will bear fruit in abundance of all kinds of food from the dew of heaven and from the fatness of the earth.”135
Such was the general character of the arguments which Irenaeus uses in favor of his chiliastic doctrine. After presenting them in his essay “Against Heresies”, he describes in detail the “bliss” that God promises for the righteous, basically repeating the descriptions of his predecessors, the early Christian writers of the apostolic age, primarily Papias. But the highest and most perfect pleasure, according to Irenaeus, for the righteous will be personal communication with Christ, angels, etc. With the description of this communion, Irenaeus ends his depiction of the millennium kingdom of Christ.
At the end of the II century. n. e. Christianity began to represent a fairly significant force in the empire. There is a noticeable increase in the number of neophytes. This leads to the need to create a church organization, as a result of which a hierarchical structure of relationships between Christians arises, at the head of which are bishops and deacons. At the same time, the enthusiasm of the apostolic age is lost. Many do not agree with this and oppose the "bureaucratization" and "overorganization" of the Christian movement. One of the means of combating such tendencies in the life of the Christian community was the chiliastic teaching. Many of the "protestant-heretics" of that era of a similar plan resorted to this doctrine, justifying the need for a return to the principles of the apostolic church. One of them was a certain Phrygian, Montanus, who founded a movement that took its name from its leader. The Montanists called themselves "new prophecy," claiming that the promise of Christ was fulfilled with the appearance of Montanus (John 12:12-13). They also had their own books. Montanus himself posed as a prophet; brought himself into an ecstatic state, said that God himself spoke in him. His sayings were: "I am the Lord God dwelling in man"; "After me there will be no more prophetess, but there will be death."
Montan established very strict moral principles among the members of his movement, called on them to renounce property, to asceticism, long fasts and "mortification of the flesh", and forbade remarriage. Those who accepted the “new prophecy” called themselves “pneumatics” (“spiritual”), and those who remained under the New Testament called themselves “psychic” (“spiritual”). The teaching of Montana, according to the testimony of a church writer of the 4th century. Eusebius, enjoyed success primarily among the "poor, orphans and widows" and was widespread in Asia Minor, North Africa, Rome, Gaul, and the Balkans. Many bishops sided with Montana and urged their flock to give up everything, distribute property, dissolve marriages. The well-known Christian writer and clergyman Tertullian became a supporter of Montanus, thanks to whose testimony the views of Montanus are quite well known. The central place among them was occupied by the idea of the imminent onset of the end of the world, as a result of which Montanus rebelled against any indulgences. The time for marriage was over, he explained; in view of the imminent end of the world, people should not multiply. Life comes to an end. Therefore, it is unacceptable to save her during persecution and persecution, to evade torment. The remaining short time cannot be spent on compromise with a doomed world. Sinners cannot be tolerated in the Church, for she, like an immaculate bride, comes forward to meet her bridegroom.
The second coming was to take place in the very near future in the capital of the Montanists - the Phrygian city of Pepuza (Asia Minor). The name of the city meant the wilderness and meant Revelation (12:14). There, according to Montanus, the heavenly Jerusalem was to be settled and the thousand-year reign of Christ on earth was to begin. Anyone who wanted a thousand-year bliss with the Savior, Montanus convened in Pepuza. Despite the condemnation of the teachings of Montanus by the church leaders, the movement named after him lasted until the 8th century.
In the third century of our era, especially cruel persecution and persecution fell upon Christians. They took on the largest scale during the reign of Diocletian. In this regard, the chiliastic doctrine was the central part of the work of Christian writers, the sermons of preachers; chiliastic aspirations and hopes inspired the Christian masses.
One of the most famous Christian writers and teachers of the first centuries of our era was the Carthaginian presbyter Tertullian, who in the church is among its "fathers". Tertullian devoted a special essay, De spe fidelium, to the presentation of his chiliastic teaching, which has not survived to this day. Only to a small extent this loss is compensated by his other writings, in which he also touched on the topic of interest to us - the doctrine of the end of the world, the second coming of the Lord and the earthly thousand-year kingdom of Christ.
In his essay "Contra Marcion" he says: we acknowledge that we are promised a glorious millennial kingdom before we ascend into heaven in a new state, 1000 years after the resurrection in the newly created Jerusalem, which will descend from heaven and of which the apostle speaks, calling it our mother on high and our heavenly fatherland. All this, Tertullian points out, Jeremiah knew, John foresaw. In this Jerusalem, continues Tertullian, we will find many spiritual blessings in return for those that we despise and reject in our present earthly life. Thus, Tertullian concludes, a new kingdom will be established on earth, then there will be a general resurrection of the dead, a world fire and a universal judgment, and the saints will turn into angels.
Very interesting, because of their originality among other chiliasts, are the arguments that this great apologist for Christianity and the Church uses to defend against critics and those who doubt the truth of the eschatological teaching about the earthly millennium kingdom of Christ and, accordingly, about the earthly, bodily resurrection of the righteous in it in another work “De resurrectione carnis. “Man lives and acts in two kinds of substance,” he says, “spiritual and bodily. Spiritually and bodily he acquires merit or is subject to punishments, therefore, his spiritual and bodily being together must receive a reward or be punished. Thought itself is formed not without the participation of the body; the communion of thought involves a community of actions, and hence the community of judgment necessarily follows. In general, the body is not a substance that is alien to man, because from the very conception to the last breath it establishes man together with the soul, which without him does not commit any merit and any crime, and therefore without him can never come to judgment and receive eternal recompense. Hence, the truth of God requires that the body still here on earth receive its reward, it requires that a person in his present life receive a reward for all those merits, deprivations and sufferings that he has done or experienced in this world.
It is interesting to note that in Tertullian there is an undoubted departure from the former chiliastic views on the nature of the millennium of Christ's kingdom, which were previously painted in clearly sensual, "material" tones. Tertullian, on the other hand, has in mind mainly spiritual benefits that the saints will enjoy in Christ's earthly kingdom, which he speaks about in the last chapter of the third book of his work Against Markarion. He categorically opposes the literal understanding of the 19th article of the 1st chapter of the book of the prophet Isaiah, in connection with which he notes the following: never heard, and that has never entered the heart of man.”
After Tertullian, one of the greatest representatives of the chiliastic doctrine of the third century was St. Hippolytus, student of Irenaeus of Lyons. Hippolytus was originally a Roman senator and only later, converted to the Christian faith, he becomes a bishop of one of the districts near Rome. He expounded his chiliastic ideas in a commentary on the books of the prophet Daniel. According to him, after the expiration of six thousand years, the Sabbath will come, intended for the blessedness of the righteous in the earthly thousand-year kingdom of Christ. The first Saturday, the day of blessed rest after creation, is, in his opinion, at the same time a prototype of the coming kingdom of the saints, when Christ will descend from heaven and reign with them for 1000 years.
Hippolytus adheres to similar views in his other essay “On the Antichrist”, where, among other things, he divided the entire history of mankind into six thousand-year periods, after which the thousand-year kingdom of Christ should come, in which the righteous will be blessed together with Christ, the patriarchs and prophets.
Almost at the same time, chiliastic views in their original, crudely materialistic form were developed by the little-known church writer Commodian, according to whom Jerusalem would serve as the capital of the future thousand-year kingdom of Christ on earth. The latter, in his opinion, will have to descend from heaven to earth at a certain time. The resurrected righteous will live there in the fullest abundance of sensual earthly blessings and pleasures. There they will no longer die, but will marry and bear children, as they did during their earthly life. Grief and sadness at this time will disappear completely. The earth will abound in all possible blessings, peace and silence will reign everywhere. The capital city of this kingdom, Jerusalem, will be especially beautiful.
The list of chiliastic authors who became leading ecclesiastical authorities and hierarchs in the third century can be extended for quite a long time. This list will include Bishop Methodius of Tyre, Bishop Viktorinus of Pictavia, Sulpicius Severus, and many others. To complete this list, in our deep conviction, should the famous Christian writer Lactantius, who at the turn of the third or fourth centuries, as it were, sums up the previous development of the chiliastic doctrine and who seeks to substantiate its truth with all the arguments that were ever given by his predecessors - the chiliasts. It is all the more important to dwell on the figure of Lactantius and his worldview, since he played a very important role in the spiritual life of the society of that time, was the tutor of Constantine I the Great, and had the nickname of the Christian Cicero.
In his chiliastic system, like his predecessors, Lactantius first of all tried to determine the time of the second coming of Christ and the creation by the latter of his kingdom on earth. To do this, he refers to the history of the creation of the world, described by Moses. Philosophers, Lactantius wrote, counting thousands of years since the beginning of the world, argue that after this time this world will certainly end its existence. In order to understand and present this more clearly, Lactantius continued, it is necessary to delve into the past tense. God completed the creation in six days, and on the seventh he rested from all his works and sanctified it. This is the same day which the Jews call the Sabbath day, meaning the number seven, the full number. In seven days, Lactantius further points out, the annual circle of time is completed; there are also seven wandering, never-setting stars. There are also seven planets producing a variety of annual changes. But since all these creations of God were completed in six days, then six days or six thousand years must continue to continue, for, as the prophet said, a great day consists of a thousand years, and a thousand years before the eyes of the Lord is only yesterday (Ps. .89:5). Lactantius also believes that just as God fulfilled His creation in six days, so religion with truth will exist for 6000 years, during which it will reign, but as on the seventh day He rested and blessed him, it is just as necessary that at the end of six thousand years, injustice was destroyed, so that justice would triumph on earth for 1000 years and so that the world would enjoy complete peace.
Having determined the time of the second coming of Christ to create the millennium kingdom on earth, Lactantius goes on to describe the “blessedness” that the righteous will enjoy in this kingdom. “Having destroyed injustice, having judged people and resurrecting those who were righteous from the very beginning, Christ will be with people for 1000 years and will rule in all justice. The people who will then remain alive will not die, but in the course of 1000 years they will give birth to an infinite number of children, holy and pleasing to God. The resurrected will preside as judges over the survivors. Not all peoples will be exterminated: others will survive to serve as a field for the victories granted by God to the righteous, and to decorate their celebrations, as well as to ensure that they are in eternal slavery to them. The prince of demons and the author of all evils will be bound with chains and imprisoned in the dungeons of the heavenly hierarchy for 1000 years, when truth reigns on earth, so that he cannot harm any of the pious. When the Son of God appears, good people will gather from all countries of the world, and at the end of the judgment, a holy city will be built for them in the middle of the earth, where the Lord, who founded it, will himself dwell with his saints. The Sibyl describes this city as follows: "God himself founded it and made it more brilliant than the sun, moon and stars." The darkness covering the sky will be dispersed at that time, the sun and moon will shine with their own light, not subject to any change. The earth itself will produce many fruits, so that no one will need to cultivate it. Then the mountains will shed copper, wine will flow from them in streams and milk in a river. The wildest and most ferocious animals will no longer feed on blood at that time, birds of prey will no longer rush at their prey. All animals will become meek and extremely peaceful. In a word, the time of that time will appear as a true and living outline of all that the poets narrate about the golden age in the kingdom of Saturn. People will live at that time in peace and quiet and enjoy full abundance in everything. They will reign with God, and the sovereigns of the most distant countries will come to bow to the great King, whose name will be glorious in the whole universe: they will also bring him expensive gifts.”136
From our very brief analysis of the works of the most prominent Christian theologians of the first centuries of our era, it is clear that they were characterized by a deep conviction in the actuality, i.e., the reality of the events described in the Holy Scriptures related to the second coming of the Savior, the imminent apocalyptic end of the unrighteous world and the onset of for the righteous on earth of the millennium Kingdom of God. This form of apocalyptic and milenarian beliefs of Christian authors can therefore be called actual eschatology. The commitment of most Christian authors to actual eschatology, their belief in the reality of biblical prophecies about the earthly kingdom of God is largely due to the social base of Christian communities in the first centuries of our era, most of which were slaves, freedmen, artisans, lumpen-proletariat of the empire, who were at the very bottom Roman society, who fully experienced all the hardships of social and national oppression and therefore resolutely did not accept the order of things that existed at that time, filled with hatred for him, waiting both for his inevitable death in the very near future, and for the emergence of new world orders that corresponded to the norms of the kingdom heavenly on earth.
However, already in the third century after the birth of Christ, the social composition of Christian communities changed to a significant extent. Already in the second half of the 2nd c. n. e. Christian writers, without denying that the bulk of the members of the communities are poor, ignorant, slaves and freedmen, nevertheless point to the fact that there are “noble” and wealthy people in their composition. Acts, for example, speaks of every case of the conversion of such people as the proconsul of Cyprus Sergius Paul (Acts, XIII, 7-12).
Origen, in his objections to Celsus, notes that “with a significant number of people entering Christianity, one can point to rich people, even a few high-ranking husbands, women known for their sophistication and nobility ....”137 Christian church historian Eusebius wrote that “already in Rome, many, by wealth and origin, famous citizens with their whole families and with all their kinship turned to salvation.”138 Finally, Tertullian, addressing the tops of Roman society, said that “we (Christians - author) ... fill everything: your cities, islands, castles , suburbs, councils, camps, tribes, decuries, court, senate, forum: we leave you only your temples. that there is some truth in his words and that already at the end of the 2nd century. n. e. the poor and slaves ceased to define the social portrait of Christian communities.
Representatives of the upper strata of society, converted to a new faith, soon began to occupy in Christian communities, if not dominant, then at least a very, very influential position. Two factors contributed to this. Firstly, having a significant fortune, such neophytes, using it for charitable purposes, made the masses of ordinary and poor members of the community materially dependent on themselves. Secondly, wealthy Christians were usually very educated people, which is why they undertook the theoretical and literary processing of Christian teaching. After all, religious images, ideas and emotions that arose and became widespread among the masses were formed and expressed through Christian theologians, thinkers, authors of various epistles, apologetic works, and numerous commentaries on the books of Holy Scripture. Having passed through the prism of perception and through the literary design of educated theologians - the ideologists of the new teaching, these ideas and images underwent a significant metamorphosis. To neophytes from the rich and privileged strata of Roman society, the latter did not at all seem so bad and vile, as the poor and oppressed strata of the same society considered it. Due to the fact that the formation of Christian doctrine, starting from the end of the III century. professional and educated theologians, who by their origin belonged to the propertied strata of society, began to engage more and more actively, the actual eschatology of the first Christians began to be criticized more and more. The Church finally rejected the apocalypse and millenarianism of the first Christians at the moment when it received the status of a state church. The famous Augustine of Hippo was the surgeon who subjected the teachings of the first Christians to a rather complex and painful operation - the removal of eschatological-millennial ideas from it.
St. Augustine faced a very difficult task indeed. After all, the expectation of the imminent end of the world and the second coming of the Savior permeated all the texts of Holy Scripture, which Augustine had no right to change. He had only one way - to comment on these texts in a different way, not in the way that the first Christians understood them. St. Augustine used this his only opportunity to rid the Church of the actual eschatology of early Christian authors. The current eschatology of St. Augustine replaced it with allegorical eschatology, in which there was no place for chiliasm.
To the study of the question of the thousand-year kingdom of Christ, St. Augustine dedicates a special chapter of his famous work, The City of God. He tries to explain all the places of Holy Scripture, usually cited by chiliasts in support of the validity of their teaching, in relation to the earthly church, the New Testament, and he sharply denounces the most chiliastic interpretations as dreams produced by the morbid imagination of Jews and Judaizing Christians. Detailed descriptions of the judgment of sinners, the earthly thousand-year kingdom of Christ and the rewarding of the righteous in it, which are full of such Christian sources as Revelation, Augustine interprets allegorically. He believes that the end of world history is inevitable, but he believes that the millennial kingdom has already come, meaning by it in general the whole time from the first appearance of Christ on earth to the end of the present time, or otherwise the last millennium of human history on earth. Further, the earthly millennium kingdom of Christ, according to Augustine, is not a physical, but a spiritual state, which began from the moment of the birth of the Church of Christ on earth, which, however, does not yet represent the last and most perfect kingdom of the world, but the benefits of which can already be enjoyed by the righteous here and now in communion with God. God, therefore, has already won, and Satan is left with only the physical world.
Gradually, the allegorical chiliasm of Augustine became the official teaching of the church, and the eschatological millenarianism of the early church fathers went underground.
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Middle - second halfIII century was marked by a serious military and political crisis of the Roman Empire. In the context of a sharp activation of its opponents along the entire perimeter of the border and the beginning of large barbarian invasions into the depths of the state, the military leaders who led the largest provincial military groups, one after another, began to proclaim themselves emperors and fight for power with each other and with the government. In the fifty years between 235 and 285 there were 49 emperors. Almost all of them were of low origin, came to power by military means and died a violent death. This time went down in history under the name "the era of soldier emperors."
The reign of the young emperor
May 10, 238 rebellious soldiers killed the emperor Maximin the Thracian and his son. Thirteen-year-old Gordian III was proclaimed emperor, who relied on the old ruling aristocracy, temporarily removed from power during the reign of Maximinus. Thanks to experienced advisers, among whom the emperor's father-in-law Themisetheus played the most important role, Gordian gradually managed to solve most of the problems created by the previous ruler.
Emperor Gordian III and his associates. Apparently, the magnificent marble sarcophagus was intended for Junius Balbus, the father of the emperor. Judging by the peculiarities of clothing and hairstyles, it was made in 230–240. National Museum of Rome
The main threat to the empire at this time came from outside. Carps and Goths became more active on the Danube, Persian raids continued in the East. A number of frontier towns fell into their hands, and in 242 Themisefei planned to launch a major counteroffensive. The young emperor was to be at the head of the assembled army. It included not only the eastern legions, but also vexillations and auxiliary detachments brought from the Rhine and Danube borders.
Probably, the withdrawal of troops to participate in the campaign could push the Germans to launch a series of attacks on the unprotected sections of the border of Upper Germany and Rezia. On the territory of eastern Bavaria, 11 coin treasures dating back to 241–242 have been discovered so far, which indicates the danger to which the life of local inhabitants was exposed at that time. During the excavations of the Rhaetian fortifications of Gunzenhausen and Kösching, large coin hoards were discovered, including the silver denarii of Gordian III. The treasures are considered as a consequence of the hostilities that unfolded in this area and were associated with a fire that destroyed buildings on the territory of both forts. An alternative explanation is that the treasures could have been left by soldiers from the garrisons of the respective camps, who went east to fight against the Persians.
The fire and traces of destruction discovered during excavations of the Roman fortification in Künzig (Quintana) date back to the same time. During the excavation of the fort's principle on the eastern and western sides, two treasures were found. One of them included bronze elements of ceremonial weapons and horse harness, and the other included numerous spearheads and darts, swords, daggers, axes, nails and other iron objects. Researchers believe these objects were inside the armory when the fort was attacked and burned down. The freshly minted bronze ace of Gordian III, found here, allows these traces to be dated to 242–244.
The Persian campaign ended in failure. Due to the heat, the constant lack of water and food, the army experienced severe hardships, in which the soldiers blamed the young emperor. The Persians shied away from a decisive battle and waged skillful guerrilla warfare. In February 244, Gordian III died of wounds received in a skirmish or was killed by outraged soldiers. He was succeeded by the praetorian prefect Mark Julius Philip, who hurried to make peace with the Persians.
Emperors and generals
The short reign of this emperor took place in the wars on the Lower Danube, where the main opponents of the Romans were carps. Although in 247 Philip gave himself the title of "Carpy" in honor of his victory over the barbarians, the soldiers must have been dissatisfied with the results of the campaign. In 249, they proclaimed emperor, first Tiberius Claudius Marina Pakatian, who commanded them, and then the prominent senator Gaius Messiah Quintus Decius. In September 249, at the battle of Verona in northern Italy, Philip's troops were defeated, and he himself, along with his son, was killed. Decius in 250-251 had to fight again on the Danube against the carps and against the Goths. In 251, he, along with his son, died in battle with them at Abritt.
His successor, Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus, made peace with the Goths by promising them large sums of money. The new Roman commander, Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus, refused to hand over the money to the Goths, instead distributing it to the soldiers, who in the spring of 253 proclaimed him emperor. Trebonian Gallus was taken by surprise, betrayed and killed by his people. Aemilian lasted only 3 months in power.
The sarcophagus of Ludovisi, made of precious Proconnesian marble, was intended for Hostilian, son of Emperor Decius, who died in battle with the Goths in 251. National Museum of Rome
In August 253, Publius Licinius Valerian entered Italy with troops gathered in Rezia and Germany. In the battle of Spoletius, the troops of Aemilian went over to his side, and he himself was killed. Valerian was recognized by the Senate and appointed his eldest son Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus as his co-emperor. In the spring of 254, Valerian left Rome and went to the East of the empire, which was again threatened by the Persians. At the beginning of 260, he was defeated in the battle of Edessa and was taken prisoner by the Persians. These events provoked the beginning of numerous usurpations and uprisings in various provinces of the empire.
Roman Limes in the last decade of its existence
Due to the scarcity of sources, we can only form an idea of how the crisis on the German border unfolded on the basis of indirect data. It seems that during the years 242-254 there was a relative calm on the Rhine, which allowed the troops stationed here to be transferred to other parts of the border. The initiation from the territory of modern Romania (Leg(ionis) XXII Pr(imigenia) P(ia) F(idelis) Phippianorvm) testifies to the participation of German vexillations in the military campaign that Philip I the Arab waged against the carp in Dacia in 245–247. In 248, these same soldiers were involved in the restoration work in Romulus (Reshka, Romania).
As follows from the words of the historians Aurelius Victor and Eutropius, the military units removed from the border ensured the victory and recognition of the authority of Valerian, who commanded them, in the summer - autumn of 253. Some of these soldiers from Italy returned to their places of permanent deployment, the rest, following Valerian, went to the East to fight against the Persians. Finally, we have an inscription from Biskra (Algeria), certifying that in October 253, the vexillation of the III Augustus legion, located in Rezia, was transferred by order of Valerian to Numidia, where the previously disbanded legion was recreated on its basis. These measures would not have been possible if the border with Germany at that time was under the threat of an enemy invasion. However, the constant outflow of detachments that were part of the border garrisons, inevitably had to weaken the defense of the Rhine provinces.
Dedication of the soldiers of the I Minerva Legion to Emperor Maximinus Thracian. The name of the emperor was chipped off as a result of the decree adopted by the Senate on the "curse of memory." A similar fate often befell the names of "soldier emperors", most of whom, from an official point of view, were usurpers.
Inscriptions found during excavations german limes, testify that in the 230s-240s there were still Roman garrisons in the border fortresses. Known dated 237–238 is an inscription of the I Trevers cohort from Zugmantel and an inscription of the III Aquitanian Philip cohort from Osterburken, dated between 244 and 249. In Oringen in 241, the I Belgian Septimius Cohort was still located, in Jagsthausen, soldiers of the I German Cohort repaired a bathhouse in 244-247, and in 248 left a dedication to the goddess of fortune Fortuna in the local temple.
At the same time, the rarity or even the complete absence of coin finds on the border fortifications looks symptomatic. In Marienfels, located in the northern part of the limes, the latest coin finds date back to the reign of Maximinus Thracian, in Saalburg and Zugmantel on Tavna - the reign of Gordian III or Decius, in Osterburken - Trebonianus Gallus. In Heddesdorf, Bad Ems, Holzhausen and Alteburg, the last coins date from the period between 235 and 253. The same picture is observed in the fortifications on the Tawne Feldberg and Butzbach, as well as in Grosskrozenburg, Stockstadt and Obernburg am Main. On the Rhaetian limes, the latest coin finds at Gunzenhausen and Kösching date from the reign of Gordian III, at Hallheim and Ruffenhofen between 235 and 253 years. The latest coin find here is the hoard from Weisenburg, dated 251–253.
Beginning of the End
Due to the fragmentation of sources, it is difficult to compile an exact chronology of events. It seems that the first attacks on the border territories took place starting in the spring of 254, but the main theater of operations, where Gallienus himself was with a marching army, at that time was the border on the Upper and Middle Danube. The Marcomanni and the Quadi plundered Pannonia, the Carps plundered Dacia. To combat them, detachments from neighboring provinces were transferred to the Danube.
The dedication to Jupiter from Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), compiled on behalf of the vexillations of the British and German legions with auxiliary units assigned to them (vexill leg [G]ermanicia [e]t Britannicia m auxilis [e]arum), testifies to their presence on the military front actions in Pannonia in 256-257. At this time, Gallienus managed to achieve a number of successes, as evidenced by the series of coins minted by him in 254–257 with the legend “Germanic Victory”, as well as the victorious title “Dacian Greatest” adopted in 256.
German Limes in the middle of the III century. Fortifications abandoned by the Romans before 260
Aurelius Victor reports that peace with the king of the Marcomanni was sealed by the marriage of Gallienus to his daughter Pipa, and the part of the territory of Upper Pannonia ceded to him served as a ransom for his father-in-law. Having achieved a temporary peace on the Danube, in 257 Gallien went to Gaul, whose borders were threatened at that time by the Germans. As his deputy in Pannonia, he left the eldest son of Publius Cornelius Licinius Valerian II, whom he proclaimed Caesar and his heir. Guardianship of the young man, who at that time was in his 15th year, was to be carried out by an experienced military leader Ingenui.
For his headquarters on the Rhine, Gallienus chose the Colony of Agrippina (Cologne), the fortifications of which were recently restored. Soon, the imperial mint was transferred here from Vimination (Kostolac) to Moesia. The coins minted here contained the legends "German victory" and "restorer of Gaul".
The choice of the imperial residence shows that the main danger to the Roman borders at that time came from the Franks living on the Lower Rhine. To combat them, an army was assembled under his command, in which the presence of vexillations of the British legions and auxiliary units was attested. Military luck again smiled at the Romans, and in the autumn of 257, Gallienus appropriated the victorious title of "Germanic Greatest". Zosimos said that the emperor managed to conclude an alliance with one of the leaders of the barbarians, who defended the Rhine border and prevented those of his compatriots who tried to cross to the other side.
Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus. Glyptothek, Copenhagen. For historians, both ancient and modern, Gallienus has remained a highly controversial figure. As a rule, they highly appreciated his energy, abilities, aesthetic tastes, but blamed him for his inability to resist barbarian invasions and military mutinies. The reign of Gallienus marks the peak of the military and political instability of the Roman Empire.
In 258, Valerian II died in Sirmium under unclear circumstances. Ingenui, who took care of him, feeling the clouds gathering over his head, in 259 proclaimed himself emperor. Perhaps the reason that prompted him to usurp was the defeat and capture of Valerian the Elder in the East, and perhaps the Alemanni invasion that began in Retsia, which was supposed to draw the attention of Gallienus.
Due to problems with the chronology of events in 259–260, their sequence is still not entirely clear. It seems today that Gallienus reacted to the usurpation fairly quickly. Leaving as commander on the Rhine his youngest son Publius Cornelius Licinius Saloninus, whom he appointed Caesar after the death of Valerian II, at the head of the newly created mobile corps of troops, Gallienus rushed to Pannonia. In the summer of 259, his commander Aureoles defeated the usurper at the battle of Murs. Ingenui was besieged within the walls of Sirmium and was soon forced to commit suicide.
While Gallienus in Sirmium was investigating the circumstances of the rebellion, taking advantage of the absence of troops on the border, the Germans on the Rhine went on the offensive. The Franks crossed the river and invaded Germania Inferior and Belgica. The Alemanni broke through the Limes border fortifications and captured a strategically important area of the Tithe Fields. Under their general onslaught, the German border collapsed at once along its entire length.
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- Die Romer an Rhein und Donau. Zur politischen, wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Entwicklung in den römischen Provinzen an Rhein, Mosel und oberer Donau im 3 und 4. Jahrhundert. (Hrsg.) Günther R. und Köpstein H. - Berlin, 1975 - 517 S.
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