PART 1. FUNDAMENTALS OF SPHERICAL ASTRONOMY

Chapter 1. Introduction

General astronomy, its origin and modern features, main sections. The subject of astronautics, main sections, the formation of modern astronautics. Astronomical observatories on Earth and in space. Excursion to the Pulkovo Observatory

The subject of astronomy, its main sections

Astronomy– the science of the physical structure, movement, origin and evolution of celestial bodies, their systems and the study of the Universe as a whole (modern definition from the 18th century)

Astronomy – 2 Greek words (astro – star, nomos – law), i.e. . star law – the science of the laws of life of stars (the times of the ancient Greeks - V - VI centuries BC, i.e. ~ 2.5 thousand years ago)

Astronomy objects:

· Solar system and its components (Sun, large and small planets, satellites of planets, asteroids, comets, dust).

· Stars and their clusters and systems, nebulae, our Galaxy as a whole and other galaxies and their clusters.

· Various objects in different parts of the spectrum of electromagnetic waves (quasars, pulsars, cosmic rays, gravitational waves, cosmic microwave background radiation (background)

· The Universe as a whole (large-scale structure, dark matter, etc.).

Tentatively, the following main branches of astronomy can be distinguished:

1. Astrometry – this is a classical part of astronomy (from the ancient Greeks - 5-1 century BC) studies the coordinates (positions) of celestial bodies and their changes on the celestial sphere; more specifically: creates an inertial coordinate system (fixed) SC; All in all: the science of measuring space and time.

Astrometry includes 3 subsections:

A) spherical astronomy – this is the theoretical part of astrometry, a mathematical apparatus for expressing the coordinates of celestial bodies and their changes;

b) practical astronomy - develops methods of observations and their processing, the theory of astronomical instruments and keepers of the precise time scale (time service); serves to solve problems of determining the coordinates of geographical points on land (field astronomy), at sea (nautical astronomy), in the air (aviation astronomy), and is used in satellite navigation and geodesy;

V) fundamental astrometry – solves the issues of determining the coordinates and proper motions of celestial objects on the sphere, as well as astronomical constants (precession, aberration and nutation), including photographic and CCD astrometry – determination of a, d and m a , d of celestial bodies using photographic and CCD observation methods.

2. Celestial Mechanics (theoretical astronomy)– studies the spatial movements of celestial bodies and their systems under the influence of forces of mutual gravity and other physical nature; studies the figures of celestial bodies and their stability to understand the processes of origin and evolution of celestial bodies and their systems; determines the orbital elements of celestial bodies based on observational data, and precalculates the apparent positions (coordinates) of celestial bodies.

Astrometry and celestial mechanics study only the geometry and mechanics of the surrounding space.

3.Astrophysics arose in 1860 based on the discovery of spectral analysis. This is a major part of modern astronomy. Studies the physical state and processes occurring on the surface and in the interior of celestial bodies, chemical composition (temperature, brightness, gloss, presence of electromagnetic waves), properties of the medium between celestial bodies, etc.

Includes sections:

A) practical astrophysics – develops methods for astrophysical observations and their processing, deals with the theoretical and practical application of astrophysical instruments

b) theoretical astrophysics – deals with the explanation of physical processes and observed phenomena occurring on celestial bodies on the basis of theoretical physics.

New sections on the range of electromagnetic waves used:

V) radio astronomy explores celestial bodies using radar, studies their radiation in the radio range (from mm to km wavelengths), as well as radiation from the interstellar and intergalactic medium. It arose in 1930 after the discovery by K. Jansky (USA), Reber of the radio emission of the Milky Way and the Sun;

G) also sections of astrophysics or astronomy (terrestrial, transatmospheric and cosmic):

infrared astronomy (astrophysics)

x-ray

neutrino

There may be subsections of astrophysics based on objects of study:

near-Earth astronomy:

solar physics

physics of stars

physics of planets, the Moon, etc.

4. Stellar astronomy– studies the movement and distribution in space of stars (primarily in our Galaxy), gas-dust nebulae and stellar systems (globular and open star clusters), their structure and evolution, problems of their stability.

Includes the following subsections:

Extragalactic astronomy - the study of the properties and distributions of star systems (galaxies) located outside our Galaxy (hundreds of millions of them - see the Hubble Space Telescope's Deep Survey);

Dynamics of stellar systems, etc.

5. Cosmogony– develops problems of the origin and evolution of celestial bodies and their systems, including bodies of the Solar System (including the Earth), as well as problems of star formation.

6. Cosmology – studies the Universe as a single whole: its geometric structure, evolution and origin of all component objects, general parameters such as age, matter, energy, etc.

Occupies a separate place space astronomy , where we can especially highlight astronautics - as a complex of a number of branches of science (including astronomy) and technology, the purpose of which is the study and exploration of space.

The subject of astronautics and its sections

Cosmonautics is a complex of a number of branches of science and technology, with the goal of penetrating into outer space with the aim of its study and development. Already - flights into outer space. Cosmonautics occupies a special position in astronomy.

Cosmonautics – from Greek “cosmos” - Universe, “nautix” - swimming, i.e. sailing (travel) in the Universe or (in Russian) astronautics - star navigation

The main branches of astronautics can be distinguished:

1. Theoretical astronautics(based on celestial mechanics) - studies the movement of spacecraft (SV) in the gravitational field of the Earth, Moon and solar system bodies: launching a spacecraft into orbit, maneuvering, descent of a spacecraft to the Earth and solar system bodies.

2. Practical astronautics– studies:

Design and operation of rocket and space systems, methods of space flights

On-board equipment.

Astronomical research using astronautics

Space astrometry

Cosmic astrophysics (solar system bodies, the Sun)

4. Exploring the Earth from spacecraft(space geodesy, communications, TV, navigation, remote sensing of the Earth (ERS), technology, agriculture, geology, etc.)

Achievements of 20th century astronomy

LUNA-AO

HST

Terminology

Usually a view of the celestial sphere is given from the outside, while the observer is at its center. All constructions are presented on the surface of the celestial sphere (from the inside, only in the planetarium)

In point O there is an observer - half of the visible celestial sphere.)

The earth is mistaken for a ball!

Fig.2.2 Elements of the celestial sphere (a); the entire celestial sphere, where in the center is T. O - the observer (b).

Direction of plumb line - a line passing through any point on the Earth's surface (observer, point of direction above the observer's head) and the Earth's center of mass ZOZ¢. A plumb line intersects the celestial sphere at 2 points – Z ( zenith – exactly above the observer’s head) and Z¢ ( nadir – opposite point on the sphere).

The plane perpendicular to the plumb line and passing through point O is called the true or mathematical horizon (the great circle of the celestial sphere NESW, that is, an imaginary, imaginary circle on the sphere). There is a real visible horizon, It lies on the surface of the Earth and depends on the terrain. At the moments of sunrise and sunset, the luminaries are considered to be on the true horizon.

Daily rotation of the celestial sphere. From observations of the starry sky, it is clear that the celestial sphere rotates slowly in the direction from east to west ( daily allowance - since its period is equal to one day), but this is apparent (if you stand facing the South, then the rotation of the celestial sphere is clockwise). In reality, the Earth rotates around its axis in the direction from west to east (confirmed by experiments with the Foucault pendulum, the deflection of falling bodies to the east). In astronomy, the terminology of apparent phenomena is preserved: the rising and setting of celestial bodies, the daily movements of the Earth and the Moon, the rotation of the starry sky.

The daily rotation of the Earth occurs around the earth's axis pp¢, and the apparent rotation of the celestial sphere occurs around its diameter pp¢, parallel to the earth's axis and called axis of the world.

The celestial axis intersects with the celestial sphere at 2 points - the north celestial pole (P) in the northern hemisphere is located at a distance of ~ 1° from the star a in the constellation Ursa Minor and the south pole (P¢) in the southern hemisphere is in the constellation Octantus (no bright stars, but you can tell by the constellation Southern Cross). Both poles are stationary on the celestial sphere.

The great circle (QQ¢) of the celestial sphere, the plane of which is perpendicular to the axis of the world is called celestial equator, also passes through the center of the celestial sphere. The celestial equator intersects with the horizon plane at 2 diametrically opposite points: point east (E) and point west (W). The celestial equator rotates along with the celestial sphere!

The great circle of the celestial sphere passing through the celestial poles (P, P¢), zenith (Z) and nadir (Z¢) is called celestial meridian (fixed) . It intersects with the true horizon at points south (S) And north (N), distanced from points E and W by 90 0.

The plumb line and axis of the world lie in the plane of the celestial meridian, which intersect with the plane of the true horizon along the diameter (NOS) of the celestial sphere passing through point N and point S. This noon line , since the Sun at noon is near the celestial meridian.

The visible celestial sphere rotates, The points of Zenith, Nadir and all points of the true horizon are motionless relative to the observer, i.e. do not rotate with the celestial sphere. The celestial meridian passes through fixed points and pole points and also does not rotate, i.e. connected to the Earth. It forms the plane of the earth's (geographical) meridian on which the observer is located and therefore does not participate in the daily rotation of the celestial sphere. For all observers located on a common geographic meridian, the celestial meridian is common.

In the daily rotation of the celestial sphere around the axis of the world, the celestial bodies move in small circles, daily or celestial parallels, the planes of which are parallel to the plane of the celestial equator.

Each luminary crosses (passes) the celestial meridian twice a day. Once - its southern half ( upper culmination - the height of the luminary above the horizon is greatest) and the second time - its northern half, 12 hours later - ( lower culmination - the height of the luminary above the horizon is the smallest ).

Chapter 4. Time

The movement of the Earth as a natural process for calculating time. True solar time. Time units: day, hour, minute, second. The problem of mean solar time, mean Sun. Equation of time and its components. Sidereal time. Transition from mean time to sidereal time and back.

Local, zone, summer time. Transition from one type of time to another. World and regional time. Date line.

Universal (UT) and coordinated (UTC) time. Irregularity of the Earth's rotation, ephemeris and dynamic (TDT) time.

True solar time

Mean solar time is a uniform time determined by the movement of the mean sun. Used as a standard for uniform time on a scale of one mean solar second (1/86400th of a mean solar day) until 1956.

Equation of time

The connection between the two solar time systems is established equation of time – difference between mean solar time (T avg) . true solar time (T ist): h = T avg - T ist. The equation of time is a variable quantity. It reaches +16 minutes in early November and –14 minutes in mid-February. The equation of time is published in Astronomical Yearbooks (AE). By choosing the value h from AE and directly measuring the hour angle of the true sun t source, you can find the average time: T av = t source +12 h + h.

those. mean solar time at any moment is equal to true solar time plus the equation of time.

Thus, by directly measuring the hour angle of the Sun t¤, determine the true solar time and, knowing the equation of time h at this moment, find the average solar time: T m = t¤ + 12 h + h. Since the average equatorial sun passes through the meridian either earlier or later than the true Sun, the difference in their hour angles (equation of time) can be either positive or negative.

The equation of time and its change during the year is presented in the figure with a solid curve (1). This curve is the sum of two sinusoids - with annual and semi-annual periods.

A sine wave with a yearly period (dashed curve) gives the difference between true and average time, due to the uneven movement of the Sun along the ecliptic. This part of the equation of time is called equation of the center or equation of eccentricity (2). A sine wave with a half-year period (dashed-dotted curve) represents the time difference caused by the inclination of the ecliptic to the celestial equator and is called equation for the inclination of the ecliptic (3).

The equation of time vanishes around April 15, June 14, September 1, and December 24, and takes extreme values ​​four times a year; of these, the most significant around February 11 (h = +14 m) and November 2 (h = -16 m).

The equation of time can be calculated for any moment. It is usually published in astronomical calendars and yearbooks for each mean midnight on the Greenwich meridian. But it should be borne in mind that in some of them the equation of time is given in the sense of “true time minus average” (h = T ¤ - T t) and therefore has the opposite sign. The meaning of the equation of time is always explained in the explanation of calendars (yearbooks).

4.3 Sidereal time. Transition from mean time to sidereal time and back

Sidereal day is the period of time between two successive culminations of the same name at the point of the vernal equinox on the same meridian. This is a more constant period of time, i.e. the period of rotation of the Earth relative to distant stars. The beginning of the sidereal day is taken to be the moment of its lower culmination, that is, midnight when

S = t¡ = 0. The stellar time scale is accurate to 10 -3 seconds for several months.

Thus, the process of rotation of the Earth around its axis determines three types of time of day for measurement short intervals: true solar time, mean solar time And sidereal time.

Local, zone, summer time. Transition from mean time to sidereal time and back

The average day is longer (longer) than sidereal days, since during one revolution of the celestial sphere in the direction from east to west, the sun itself shifts from west to east by 1 degree (i.e. 3 m 56 s).

Thus, V tropical year The average day is one day less than the sidereal day.

For measuring long-term periods of time, the movement of the earth around the sun is used. Tropical year- This the period of time between two successive passages average sun through the middle vernal equinox and equals 365.24219879 average solar day or 366.24219879 sidereal day.

Conversion of mean time intervals to sidereal time and back is carried out according to tables, often on a computer, using AE, AK, and in general according to the formulas: DT = K¢ ´ DS and DS = K ´ DT,

where K=366.24/365.24 = 1.002728 and K¢ =365.24/366.24 = 0.997270.

The average sidereal day is equal to 23 hours 56 minutes 04.0905 seconds of the average solar day. The sidereal year contains 365.2564 average solar day, i.e. more than a tropical year by 20 m 24 s due to the movement of the g point towards the Sun.

At different points on the same geographical meridian, the time (solar, sidereal) is the same.

Local time - this is time T m measured on a specific geographical meridian. Every point on Earth has its own local time. For example, with a distance between two observers of 1¢ = 1852 meters (for the equator), the time difference reaches 4 minutes! Inconvenient in life.

Standard Time – this time T is the local solar time of the central meridian of any time zone. Using Tp, time is calculated in the territory of a given time zone. T p was introduced in 1884 by decision of an international conference (in Russia since 1919) under the following conditions:

1) The globe was divided by longitude into 24 zones of 15 degrees;

3) The time difference between two neighboring zones is one hour. The geographic longitude of the central meridian of a zone (in hours) is equal to the number of this zone. The Prime Meridian passes through the center of the Greenwich Observatory (England);

4) The boundaries of time zones on the oceans run along geographical meridians, on land mainly along administrative boundaries

Time scales

Astronomical time

Before 1925 in astronomical practice for the beginning average solar day took the moment of the upper climax (noon) average sun. This time was called mean astronomical or simply astronomical. The unit of measurement was mean solar second.

Universal (or world) time UT

Universal Time has been used since January 1, 1925, instead of astronomical time. Counted from the lower culmination of the mean sun on the Greenwich meridian. In other words, the local mean time of the meridian with zero longitude (Greenwich) is called Universal Time (UT). The standard of a second for the UT scale is a certain part of the period of the Earth’s rotation around its axis 1\365.2522 x 24 x 60 x 60. However, due to the instability of the Earth’s axial rotation, the UT scale is not uniform: a continuous deceleration of about 50 seconds. for 100 years; irregular changes up to 0.004 sec. per day; seasonal fluctuations are about 0.001 sec per year.

Regional time is entered for individual regions, for example Central European Time, Central Pacific Time, London Time, etc.

Summer time. In order to save material resources through more rational use of the daylight hours of the year, a number of countries are introducing summer time - the so-called. “moving the hands” of the clock 1 hour ahead compared to zone time. But the schedule of all types of people’s activities did not change! Daylight saving time is usually introduced at the end of March at midnight from Saturday to Sunday, and is canceled at the end of October, also at midnight from Saturday to Sunday.

Ephemeris time

Ephemeris time (ET - Ephemeris time) or terrestrial dynamic time (Terrestrial Dynamical Time - TDT) or Newtonian time:

independent variable (argument) in celestial mechanics (Newtonian theory of the motion of celestial bodies). Introduced on January 1, 1960 in astronomical yearbooks as more uniform than Universal Time, burdened by long-period irregularities in the rotation of the Earth. Currently, this is the most stable time scale for the needs of astronomy and space exploration. Determined from observations of solar system bodies (mainly the Moon). The unit of measurement taken is e femeris second as 1/31556925.9747 fraction tropical year for the moment 1900 January 0, 12 hours ET or, otherwise, as 1/86400 fraction of the duration average solar day for the same moment.

Ephemeris time is related to universal time by the ratio:

The DT correction for the year 2000 is assumed to be +64.7 seconds.

Chapter 5. Calendar

Types of calendars: solar, lunar and lunisolar calendars. Julian and Gregorian calendar. Calendar eras. Julian period and Julian days.

Definition

A calendar is a system for counting long periods of time with integer values ​​of the number of days in longer units of time. The calendar month and calendar year contain an integer number of days so that the beginning of each month and year coincides with the beginning of the day.

Therefore, the calendar and natural month and year should not be equal.

Calendar tasks: 1) establishing the order of counting days, 2) determining the number of days in long periods of time (year), 3) establishing the beginning of counting periods.

The calendar is based on: 1) the period of seasonal changes on Earth - a year ( solar calendar ), 2) the period of changing phases of the Moon - a month ( moon calendar). Exist lunar and lunisolar calendars.

Types of solar calendars

The solar calendar is based on the tropical year = 365.2422 average solar days.

Ancient Egyptian calendar– one of the first (3000 BC). A year is 360 days long; the number of months is 12, lasting 30 days. The ecliptic was divided into 360 equal parts - degrees. Later, the priests specified the length of the year: from 365 days to 365.25!

Roman calendar. 8th century BC But it was less accurate than the Egyptian one.

A year is 304 days long; number of months 10.

Julian calendar. Introduced on January 1, 45 BC. Julius Caesar based on the Egyptian calendar. A year is 365.25 days long; the number of months is 12. Every 4th year is a leap year - it is divided by 4 without a remainder, i.e. 366.25 days (365,365,365,366!)

Used in Europe for over 1600 years!

Gregorian calendar. The year in the Julian calendar was 0.0078 days longer than the true one, and thus, over 128 years, extra days accumulated that had to be added. In the 14th century, this lag was known and in 1582, by the decision of Pope Gregory the 13th, the dates in the calendar were moved immediately 10 days ahead. Those. after October 4, October 14, 1582 began immediately! In addition, it was customary to exclude 3 leap years every 400 years (in centuries that were not divisible by 4).

The new calendar began to be called Gregorian - “new style”. The year in the Gregorian calendar (365.2425) differs from the true one (365.242198) by 0.0003 days and thus the extra days accumulate in only 3300 years!

The new style is now being used everywhere. Its disadvantage is the unequal number of days in months (29,30,31) and quarters. This makes planning difficult.

Several projects for reform of the Gregorian calendar have been proposed to eliminate or reduce these shortcomings.

One of them, apparently the simplest, is as follows. all quarters of the year have the same duration of 13 weeks, i.e. for 91 days. The first month of each quarter contains 31 days, the remaining two - 30 days each. This way, each quarter (and year) will always start on the same day of the week. But since 4 quarters of 91 days contain 364 days, and a year must contain 365 or 366 days (leap year), then between December 30 and January 1, a day is inserted without counting months and weeks - International New Year's Day. And in a leap year, the same non-working day, without counting months and weeks, is inserted after June 30.

However, the issue of introducing a new calendar can only be resolved on an international scale.

Moon calendar

Based on the change of phases of the Moon, i.e. the period between two successive moments of the first appearance of the crescent moon after the new moon. The exact duration of the lunar month was established from observations of solar eclipses - 29.530588 average solar days. In a lunar year - 12 lunar months = 354.36708 avg. sunny days. The lunar calendar appeared almost simultaneously with the solar one, back in the middle of the 3rd century BC. At the same time, a seven-day week was introduced (according to the number of luminaries known at that time (Sun, moon + 5 planets from Mercury to Saturn)

Currently, the lunar calendar is used as muslim calendar in Asian countries, etc.

5.4 Mathematical foundations for constructing a calendar (on your own)

5.5 Calendar eras

Counting years necessarily presupposes some initial moment of the chronology system - calendar era. Era- also means a chronological system. There have been up to 200 different eras in human history. For example, the Byzantine era “from the creation of the world”, in which the year 5508 BC was taken as the “creation of the world”. Chinese "cyclical" era - from 2637 BC. From the creation of Rome - 753 BC. and so on.

Our era - Christian era – came into use only on January 1, 533 from the birthday of the biblical figure (not historical) I. Christ.

A more realistic reason for the arbitrary choice of the beginning of our era (AD) is associated with the periodicity of the number 532 years = 4x7x19. Easter falls on the same resurrection date every 532 years! This is convenient for pre-calculating dates for celebrating a Christian holiday. Easter. It is based on periods associated with the movement of the Moon and the Sun (4 - the period of high years, 7 - the number of days in a week, 19 - the number of years through which the lunar phases fall on the same calendar dates (the Metonic cycle was known back in 432 BC) Meton is an ancient Greek astronomer.

General concepts

The influence of refraction is an important problem for ground-based astronomy, where large angles are measured on the celestial sphere, when determining the equatorial coordinates of luminaries, and calculating the moments of their rising and setting.

astronomical (or atmospheric) refraction . Because of this, the observed (apparent) zenith distance z¢ of the luminary is less than its true (i.e., in the absence of an atmosphere) zenith distance z, and the apparent height h¢ is slightly greater than the true height h. Refraction, as it were, lifts the luminary above the horizon.

Difference r = z - z¢ = h¢ - h, is called refraction.

Rice. The phenomenon of refraction in the earth's atmosphere

Refraction only changes the zenith distances z, but does not change the hour angles. If the luminary is at its culmination, then refraction changes only its declination and by the same amount as the zenith distance, since in this case the planes of its hour and vertical circles coincide. In other cases, when these planes intersect at a certain angle, refraction changes both the declination and right ascension of the luminary.

It should be noted that refraction at the zenith takes the value r = 0, and at the horizon it reaches 0.5 - 2 degrees. Due to refraction, the disks of the Sun and Moon near the horizon appear oval, since at the lower edge of the disk the refraction is 6¢ greater than at the top and therefore the vertical diameter of the disk appears shortened in comparison with the horizontal diameter, which is not distorted by refraction.

Empirically, i.e. it was experimentally deduced from observations that riblizhennoe expression to determine general (average) refraction:

r = 60².25 ´V\760´273\(273 0 +t 0) ´ tgz¢,

where: B - atmospheric pressure, t 0 - air temperature.

Then, at a temperature equal to 0 0 and at a pressure of 760 mm Hg, the refraction for visible rays (l = 550 millimicrons) is equal to:

r =60².25 ´ tgz¢ = К´ tgz¢. Here K is the refractive constant under the above conditions.

Using the above formulas, refraction is calculated for a zenith distance of no more than 70 angular degrees with an accuracy of 0.¢¢01. Pulkovo tables (5th edition) allow you to take into account the influence of refraction up to a zenith distance z = 80 angular degrees.

For more accurate calculations, the dependence of refraction is taken into account not only on the height of the object above the horizon, but also on the state of the atmosphere, mainly on its density, which itself is a function, mainly of temperature and pressure. Corrections for refraction are calculated at pressure IN[mmHg] and temperature t° C according to the formula:

To take into account the influence of refraction with high accuracy (0.¢¢01 and higher), the theory of refraction is quite complex and is discussed in special courses (Yatsenko, Nefedeva A.I., etc.). Functionally, the value of refraction depends on many parameters: height (H), latitude (j), also air temperature (t), atmospheric pressure (p), atmospheric pressure (B) along the path of a light beam from the celestial body to the observer and is different for different wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum (l) and each zenith distance (z). Modern refraction calculations are performed on a computer.

It should also be noted that refraction, according to the degree of its influence and consideration, is divided into normal (tabular) and abnormal. The accuracy of taking into account normal refraction is determined by the quality of the standard atmosphere model and reaches 0.¢¢01 and higher up to zenith distances of no more than 70 degrees. The choice of observation site is of great importance here - highlands, with good astroclimate and regular terrain, ensuring the absence of inclined layers of air. With differential measurements with a sufficient number of reference stars on CCD frames, the influence of refractive variations, such as daily and annual, can be taken into account.

Abnormal refraction, such as instrumental and pavilion ones are usually taken into account quite well using weather data collection systems. In the ground layer of the atmosphere (up to 50 meters), methods such as placing weather sensors on masts and sounding are used. In all of these cases, it is possible to achieve an accuracy of accounting for refractive anomalies of no worse than 0.²01. It is more difficult to eliminate the influence of refractive fluctuations caused by high-frequency atmospheric turbulence, which have a dominant influence. The power spectrum of the vibrations shows that their amplitude is significant in the range from 15Hz to 0.02Hz. It follows that the optimal time for registering celestial objects should be at least 50 seconds. Empirical formulas derived by E. Hegh (e =± 0.²33(T+0.65) - 0.25,

where T is the registration time) and I.G. Kolchinsky (e =1\Ön(± 0.²33(secz) 0.5, where n is the number of registration moments) show that with such a registration time for a zenith distance (z) equal to zero , the accuracy of the position (e) of the star is about 0.²06-0.²10.

According to other estimates, this type of refraction can be taken into account through measurements within one to two minutes with an accuracy of 0.03 (A. Yatsenko), up to 0.03-0.06 for stars in the range of 9-16 magnitudes (I .Reqiume) or up to 0."05 (E.Hog). Calculations carried out at the US Observatory USNO by Stone and Dun showed that with CCD recording on an automatic meridian telescope (field of view 30" x 30" and exposure time 100 seconds), it is possible to determine the positions of stars differentially with an accuracy of 0.²04. A prospective assessment carried out by American astronomers Colavita, Zacharias and others (see Table 7.1) for wide-angle observations in the visible wavelength range shows that using the two-color technique it is possible to achieve the atmospheric accuracy limit of about 0.²01.

For advanced telescopes with a CCD field of view of the order of 60"x60", using multi-color observation techniques, reflective optics, and finally using differential methods of high-density and accurate reference catalogs at the level of space catalogs such as HC and TC

It is quite possible to achieve an accuracy of the order of several milliseconds (0.²005).

Refraction

The apparent position of the star above the horizon, strictly speaking, differs from that calculated by formula (1.37). The fact is that rays of light from a celestial body, before entering the observer’s eye, pass through the Earth’s atmosphere and are refracted in it, and since the density of the atmosphere increases towards the Earth’s surface, the light ray (Fig. 19) is more and more deflected in the same direction along a curved line, so that the direction OM 1 , according to which the observer ABOUT sees the luminary, turns out to be deflected towards the zenith and does not coincide with the direction OM 2 (parallel VM), by which he would see the luminary in the absence of an atmosphere.

The phenomenon of refraction of light rays as they pass through the earth's atmosphere is called astronomical refraction.

Corner M 1 OM 2 is called refractive angle or refraction r. Corner ZOM 1 is called visible zenith distance of the luminary z", and the angle ZOM 2 - true zenith distance z.

Directly from Fig. 19 follows

z - z"= r or z = z" + r ,

those. the true zenith distance of the luminary is greater than the visible one by the amount of refraction r . Refraction, as it were, lifts the luminary above the horizon.

According to the laws of light refraction, the incident beam and the refracted beam lie in the same plane. Therefore, the ray trajectory MVO and directions OM 2 and OM 1 lie in the same vertical plane. Therefore, refraction does not change the azimuth of the luminary, and, in addition, is equal to zero if the luminary is at the zenith.

If the luminary is at its culmination, then refraction changes only its declination and by the same amount as the zenith distance, since in this case the planes of its hour and vertical circles coincide. In other cases, when these planes intersect at a certain angle, refraction and

This ancient science arose to help people navigate in time and space (calendars, geographical maps, navigation instruments were created on the basis of astronomical knowledge), as well as to predict various natural phenomena, one way or another connected with the movement of celestial bodies. Modern astronomy includes several sections.

Spherical astronomy using mathematical methods, studies the apparent location and movement of the Sun, Moon, stars, planets, satellites, including artificial bodies on the celestial sphere. This branch of astronomy is associated with the development of the theoretical foundations of time calculation.

Practical astronomy represents knowledge about astronomical instruments and methods for determining time, geographic coordinates and azimuth directions from astronomical observations. It serves purely practical purposes and, depending on the place of application (in the sky, on land or at sea), is divided into three types: aviation, geodetic And seaworthy.

Astrophysics studies the physical state and chemical composition of celestial bodies and their systems, interstellar and intergalactic environments and the processes occurring in them. Being a branch of astronomy, but in turn is divided into sections depending on the object of study: physics of planets, natural satellites of planets, the Sun, the interstellar medium, stellar atmospheres, the internal structure and evolution of stars, the interstellar medium, and so on.

Celestial Mechanics studies the movement of celestial bodies of the Solar System, including comets and artificial satellites of the Earth in their common gravitational field. The compilation of ephemeris also relates to the tasks of this section of astronomy.

Astrometry– a branch of astronomy associated with measuring the coordinates of celestial objects and studying the rotation of the Earth.

Stellar astronomy studies stellar systems (their clusters, galaxies), their composition, structure, dynamics, evolution.

Extragalactic astronomy studies cosmic celestial bodies located outside our star system (Galaxies), namely other galaxies, quasars and other ultra-distant objects.

Cosmogony studies the origin and development of cosmic bodies and their systems (the Solar system as a whole, as well as planets, stars, galaxies).

Cosmology- a study of space that studies the physical properties of the Universe as a whole, conclusions are drawn based on the results of research on that part of it that is available for observation and study.

Astrology none of the above is studied and most astronomical knowledge is completely useless for an astrologer. An astronomer also does not need to understand astrology, much less enter into discussions on this topic, which lies outside his interests and competence. However, a place was found on the astrological astronomy website. There will be here the necessary minimum of astronomical information, without which an astrologer cannot do, and everything that may be of interest to any person interested in astrology.

Astronomy is one of the most mysterious and interesting sciences. Despite the fact that astronomy is now only taught in schools for a few lessons at best, people still have an interest in it. Therefore, starting with this message, I will begin a series of posts about the basics of this science and interesting questions encountered when studying it.

A Brief History of Astronomy

Raising his head and looking up at the sky, ancient man probably thought more than once about what kind of motionless “fireflies” were located in the sky. Observing them, people connected some natural phenomena (for example, the change of seasons) with celestial phenomena, and attributed magical properties to the latter. For example, in Ancient Egypt, the flood of the Nile coincided with the appearance of the brightest star Sirius (or Sothis, as the Egyptians called it) in the sky. In this regard, they invented a calendar - the “sothic” year is the interval between two ascensions (appearances in the sky) of Sirius. For convenience, the year was divided into 12 months, 30 days each. The remaining 5 days (there are 365 days in a year, respectively, 12 months of 30 days are 360, there are 5 “extra” days left) were declared holidays.

The Babylonians made significant progress in astronomy (and astrology). Their mathematics used the 60-digit number system (instead of our decimal number system, as if the ancient Babylonians had 60 fingers), which is where the real punishment for astronomers came from - the 60-ary representation of time and angular units. There are 60 minutes in 1 hour (not 100!!!), 60 minutes in 1 degree, the entire sphere is 360 degrees (not 1000!). In addition, it was the Babylonians who identified the zodiac on the celestial sphere:

The celestial sphere is an imaginary auxiliary sphere of arbitrary radius onto which celestial bodies are projected: it is used to solve various astrometric problems. The eye of the observer is usually taken to be the center of the celestial sphere. For an observer on the Earth's surface, the rotation of the celestial sphere reproduces the daily movement of the luminaries in the sky.

The Babylonians knew 7 "planets" - the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. It was probably they who introduced the seven-day week - each day of such a week was dedicated to a specific celestial body. The Babylonians also learned to predict eclipses, which the priests made remarkable use of, increasing the faith of the common people in their supposedly supernatural abilities.

What is there in the sky?

First of all, let's define our "Ecumenical Address" (valid for Russians):

• state: Russia
• planet Earth
• system: Solar
• Galaxy: Milky Way
• group: Local group
• cluster: Virgo supercluster
• Metagalatika
• Our Universe

What do all these beautiful words mean?

solar system

You and I live on one of the eight large planets revolving around the Sun. The sun is a star, that is, a fairly large celestial body in which thermonuclear reactions occur (where it turns out sooooo much energy).

A planet is a celestial body of a spherical shape (massive enough to take such a shape under the influence of gravity) on which these very reactions do not occur. There are only eight major planets:

1. Mercury
2. Venus
3. Earth
4. Jupiter
5. Saturn
6. Neptune

Some planets (more precisely, all of them except Mercury and Venus) have satellites - small “planets” moving around a large planet. The Earth's satellite is the Moon, whose beautiful surface is shown in the first picture.

There are also dwarf planets in the Solar System - a small body of almost spherical shape, which is not a satellite of a large planet and cannot “clear” its path in the Solar System (due to lack of mass). There are currently 5 known dwarf planets, one of which, Pluto, was considered a large planet for more than 70 years:

1. Pluto
2. Ceres
3. Haumea
4. Makemake
5. Eris

Also in the Solar System there are very small celestial bodies, similar in composition to planets - asteroids. They are mainly distributed in main asteroid belt, between Mars and Jupiter.

And, of course, there are comets - “tailed stars”, harbingers of failure, as the ancients believed. They are composed mainly of ice and have a large and beautiful tail. One of these comets, Comet Hale-Bopp (named after Hale and Bopp), which many people on Earth could see in the sky in 1997.

Milky Way

But our solar system is one of many other planetary systems in Milky Way galaxy(or Milky Way). A Galaxy is a large number of stars and other bodies rotating around a common center of mass under the influence of gravity (a computer model of the Galaxy is shown in the figure on the left). The size of the galaxy compared to our Solar System is truly enormous - about 100,000 light years. That is, ordinary light, moving at the highest speed in the Universe, will need one hundred thousand (!!!) years to fly from one edge of the Galaxy to the other. This is fascinating - looking at the sky, at the stars, we look deep into the past - after all, the light reaching us now originated long before the appearance of humanity, and from a number of stars - long before the appearance of the Earth.

The Milky Way itself resembles a spiral with a “plate” in the center. The role of the “arms” of the spiral is played by clusters of stars. In total, there are from 200 to 400 billion (!) stars in the Galaxy. Naturally, our Galaxy is also not alone in the Universe. It is part of the so-called Local group but more about that next time!

Useful Astronomy Problems

1. Estimate what is more numerous - stars in the Galaxy or mosquitoes on Earth?
2. Estimate how many stars there are in the Galaxy per person?
3. Why is it dark at night?

The vault of heaven, burning with glory,
Looks mysteriously from the depths,
And we float, a burning abyss
Surrounded on all sides.
F. Tyutchev

Lesson1/1

Subject: Subject of astronomy.

Target: Give an idea of ​​astronomy - as a science, connections with other sciences; get acquainted with the history and development of astronomy; instruments for observations, features of observations. Give an idea of ​​the structure and scale of the Universe. Consider solving problems to find the resolution, magnification and aperture of a telescope. The profession of astronomer, its importance for the national economy. Observatories. Tasks :
1. Educational: introduce the concepts of astronomy as a science and the main branches of astronomy, objects of knowledge of astronomy: space objects, processes and phenomena; methods of astronomical research and their features; observatory, telescope and its various types. History of astronomy and connections with other sciences. Roles and features of observations. Practical application of astronomical knowledge and astronautics.
2. Educating: the historical role of astronomy in the formation of a person’s understanding of the surrounding world and the development of other sciences, the formation of the scientific worldview of students in the course of acquaintance with some philosophical and general scientific ideas and concepts (materiality, unity and knowability of the world, spatio-temporal scales and properties of the Universe, the universality of the action of physical laws in the Universe). Patriotic education when familiarizing with the role of Russian science and technology in the development of astronomy and cosmonautics. Polytechnic education and labor education in presenting information about the practical application of astronomy and astronautics.
3. Developmental: development of cognitive interests in the subject. Show that human thought always strives for knowledge of the unknown. Formation of skills to analyze information, draw up classification schemes. Know: 1st level (standard)- the concept of astronomy, its main sections and stages of development, the place of astronomy among other sciences and the practical application of astronomical knowledge; have an initial understanding of the methods and tools of astronomical research; the scale of the Universe, space objects, phenomena and processes, the properties of the telescope and its types, the importance of astronomy for the national economy and the practical needs of mankind. 2nd level- the concept of astronomy, systems, the role and features of observations, the properties of a telescope and its types, connections with other objects, the advantages of photographic observations, the importance of astronomy for the national economy and the practical needs of mankind. Be able to: 1st level (standard)- use a textbook and reference material, build diagrams of the simplest telescopes of different types, point the telescope at a given object, search the Internet for information on a selected astronomical topic. 2nd level- use a textbook and reference material, build diagrams of the simplest telescopes of different types, calculate the resolution, aperture and magnification of telescopes, carry out observations using a telescope of a given object, search the Internet for information on a selected astronomical topic.

Equipment: F. Yu. Siegel “Astronomy in its development”, Theodolite, Telescope, posters “telescopes”, “Radio astronomy”, d/f. “What astronomy studies”, “The largest astronomical observatories”, film “Astronomy and worldview”, “astrophysical methods of observation”. Earth globe, transparencies: photographs of the Sun, Moon and planets, galaxies. CD- "Red Shift 5.1" or photographs and illustrations of astronomical objects from the multimedia disc "Multimedia Library for Astronomy". Show the Observer's Calendar for September (taken from the Astronet website), an example of an astronomical journal (electronic, for example Nebosvod). You can show an excerpt from the film Astronomy (Part 1, fr. 2 The most ancient science).

Intersubject communication: Rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction of light. Construction of images produced by a thin lens. Camera (physics, VII class). Electromagnetic waves and the speed of their propagation. Radio waves. Chemical action of light (physics, X class).

During the classes:

Introductory talk (2 min)

1. Textbook by E. P. Levitan; general notebook - 48 sheets; exams upon request.
2. Astronomy is a new discipline in the school course, although you are briefly familiar with some of the issues.
3. How to work with the textbook.

• work through (not read) a paragraph
• delve into the essence, understand each phenomenon and processes
• work through all the questions and tasks after the paragraph, briefly in your notebooks
• check your knowledge using the list of questions at the end of the topic
• View additional material on the Internet

Lecture (new material) (30 min) The beginning is a demonstration of a video clip from a CD (or my presentation).

Astronomy [Greek Astron (astron) - star, nomos (nomos) - law] - the science of the Universe, completing the natural and mathematical cycle of school disciplines. Astronomy studies the movement of celestial bodies (section “celestial mechanics”), their nature (section “astrophysics”), origin and development (section “cosmogony”) [ Astronomy is the science of the structure, origin and development of celestial bodies and their systems =, that is, the science of nature]. Astronomy is the only science that received its patron muse - Urania.
Systems (space): - all bodies in the Universe form systems of varying complexity.

- The Sun and those moving around (planets, comets, satellites of planets, asteroids), the Sun is a self-luminous body, other bodies, like the Earth, shine with reflected light. The age of the SS is ~ 5 billion years. /There are a huge number of such star systems with planets and other bodies in the Universe/ Stars visible in the sky , including the Milky Way - this is an insignificant fraction of the stars that make up the Galaxy (or our galaxy is called the Milky Way) - a system of stars, their clusters and the interstellar medium. /There are many such galaxies; light from the nearest ones takes millions of years to reach us. The age of galaxies is 10-15 billion years/ Galaxies unite into a kind of clusters (systems) All bodies are in continuous movement, change, development. Planets, stars, galaxies have their own history, often amounting to billions of years. The diagram shows the systematic and distances: 1 astronomical unit = 149.6 million km(average distance from the Earth to the Sun). 1pc (parsec) = 206265 AU = 3.26 St. years 1 light year(saint year) is the distance that a beam of light travels at a speed of almost 300,000 km/s in 1 year. 1 light year is equal to 9.46 million million kilometers!

History of astronomy (you can use a fragment of the film Astronomy (part 1, fr. 2 The most ancient science))
Astronomy is one of the most fascinating and ancient sciences of nature - it explores not only the present, but also the distant past of the macrocosm around us, as well as to draw a scientific picture of the future of the Universe.
The need for astronomical knowledge was dictated by vital necessity:

Stages of development of astronomy
1st Ancient world(BC). Philosophy →astronomy →elements of mathematics (geometry).
Ancient Egypt, Ancient Assyria, Ancient Maya, Ancient China, Sumerians, Babylonia, Ancient Greece. Scientists who made significant contributions to the development of astronomy: THALES of Miletus(625-547, Ancient Greece), EVDOKS Knidsky(408- 355, Ancient Greece), ARISTOTLE(384-322, Macedonia, Ancient Greece), ARISTARCHUS of Samos(310-230, Alexandria, Egypt), ERATOSTHENES(276-194, Egypt), HIPPARCHUS of Rhodes(190-125, Ancient Greece).
II Pre-telescopic period. (AD to 1610). Decline of science and astronomy. The collapse of the Roman Empire, barbarian raids, the birth of Christianity. Rapid development of Arab science. Revival of science in Europe. Modern heliocentric system of world structure. Scientists who made significant contributions to the development of astronomy during this period: Claudius PTOLEMY (Claudius Ptolomeus)(87-165, Dr. Rome), BIRUNI, Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al-Biruni(973-1048, modern Uzbekistan), Mirza Muhammad ibn Shahrukh ibn Timur (Taragay) ULUGBEK(1394 -1449, modern Uzbekistan), Nicholas COPERNIUS(1473-1543, Poland), Quiet(Tighe) BRAHE(1546-1601, Denmark).
III Telescopic before the advent of spectroscopy (1610-1814). The invention of the telescope and observations with its help. Laws of planetary motion. Discovery of the planet Uranus. The first theories of the formation of the solar system. Scientists who made significant contributions to the development of astronomy during this period: Galileo Galilei(1564-1642, Italy), Johann KEPLER(1571-1630, Germany), Jan GAVELIY (GAVELIUS) (1611-1687, Poland), Hans Christian HUYGENS(1629-1695, Netherlands), Giovanni Dominico (Jean Domenic) CASSINI>(1625-1712, Italy-France), Isaac Newton(1643-1727, England), Edmund Halley (HALLIE, 1656-1742, England), William (William) Wilhelm Friedrich HERSCHEL(1738-1822, England), Pierre Simon LAPLACE(1749-1827, France).
IV Spectroscopy. Before the photo. (1814-1900). Spectroscopic observations. The first determinations of the distance to the stars. Discovery of the planet Neptune. Scientists who made significant contributions to the development of astronomy during this period: Joseph von Fraunhofer(1787-1826, Germany), Vasily Yakovlevich (Friedrich Wilhelm Georg) STROVE(1793-1864, Germany-Russia), George Biddell Erie (AIRY, 1801-1892, England), Friedrich Wilhelm BESSEL(1784-1846, Germany), Johann Gottfried HALLE(1812-1910, Germany), William HEGGINS (Huggins, 1824-1910, England), Angelo SECCHI(1818-1878, Italy), Fedor Aleksandrovich BREDIKHIN(1831-1904, Russia), Edward Charles PICKERING(1846-1919, USA).
Vth Modern period (1900-present). Development of the use of photography and spectroscopic observations in astronomy. Solving the question of the source of energy of stars. Discovery of galaxies. The emergence and development of radio astronomy. Space research. See more details.

Connection with other objects.
PSS t 20 F. Engels - “First, astronomy, which, due to the seasons, is absolutely necessary for shepherding and agricultural work. Astronomy can only develop with the help of mathematics. Therefore, I had to do math. Further, at a certain stage in the development of agriculture in certain countries (raising water for irrigation in Egypt), and especially with the emergence of cities, large buildings and the development of crafts, mechanics also developed. Soon it becomes necessary for shipping and military affairs. It is also transmitted to help mathematics and thus contributes to its development.”
Astronomy has played such a leading role in the history of science that many scientists consider “astronomy to be the most significant factor in the development from its origins - right up to Laplace, Lagrange and Gauss” - they drew tasks from it and created methods for solving these problems. Astronomy, mathematics and physics have never lost their relationship, which is reflected in the activities of many scientists.

		The interaction of astronomy and physics continues to influence the development of other sciences, technology, energy and various sectors of the national economy. An example is the creation and development of astronautics. Methods for confining plasma in a limited volume, the concept of “collisionless” plasma, MHD generators, quantum radiation amplifiers (masers), etc. are being developed.
	1 - heliobiology 2 - xenobiology 3 - space biology and medicine 4 - mathematical geography 5 - cosmochemistry A - spherical astronomy B - astrometry B - celestial mechanics G - astrophysics D - cosmology E - cosmogony F - cosmophysics	Astronomy and chemistry connect the issues of studying the origin and prevalence of chemical elements and their isotopes in space, the chemical evolution of the Universe. The science of cosmochemistry, which arose at the intersection of astronomy, physics and chemistry, is closely related to astrophysics, cosmogony and cosmology, studies the chemical composition and differentiated internal structure of cosmic bodies, the influence of cosmic phenomena and processes on the course of chemical reactions, the laws of abundance and distribution of chemical elements in the Universe, the combination and migration of atoms during the formation of matter in space, evolution of the isotopic composition of elements. Of great interest to chemists are studies of chemical processes that, due to their scale or complexity, are difficult or completely impossible to reproduce in terrestrial laboratories (matter in the interior of planets, the synthesis of complex chemical compounds in dark nebulae, etc.). Astronomy, geography and geophysics connects the study of the Earth as one of the planets of the solar system, its basic physical characteristics (shape, rotation, size, mass, etc.) and the influence of cosmic factors on the geography of the Earth: the structure and composition of the earth's interior and surface, relief and climate, periodic, seasonal and long-term, local and global changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere of the Earth - magnetic storms, tides, changes of seasons, drift of magnetic fields, warming and ice ages, etc., resulting from the influence of cosmic phenomena and processes (solar activity , rotation of the Moon around the Earth, rotation of the Earth around the Sun, etc.); as well as astronomical methods of orientation in space and determination of terrain coordinates that have not lost their significance. One of the new sciences was space geoscience - a set of instrumental studies of the Earth from space for the purposes of scientific and practical activities. Connection astronomy and biology determined by their evolutionary character. Astronomy studies the evolution of cosmic objects and their systems at all levels of organization of inanimate matter in the same way as biology studies the evolution of living matter. Astronomy and biology are connected by the problems of the emergence and existence of life and intelligence on Earth and in the Universe, problems of terrestrial and space ecology and the impact of cosmic processes and phenomena on the Earth's biosphere. Connection astronomy With history and social science, studying the development of the material world at a qualitatively higher level of organization of matter, is due to the influence of astronomical knowledge on the worldview of people and the development of science, technology, agriculture, economics and culture; the question of the influence of cosmic processes on the social development of mankind remains open. The beauty of the starry sky awakened thoughts about the greatness of the universe and inspired writers and poets. Astronomical observations carry a powerful emotional charge, demonstrate the power of the human mind and its ability to understand the world, cultivate a sense of beauty, and contribute to the development of scientific thinking. The connection between astronomy and the “science of sciences” - philosophy- is determined by the fact that astronomy as a science has not only a special, but also a universal, humanitarian aspect, and makes the greatest contribution to clarifying the place of man and humanity in the Universe, to the study of the relationship “man - the Universe”. In every cosmic phenomenon and process, manifestations of the basic, fundamental laws of nature are visible. On the basis of astronomical research, the principles of knowledge of matter and the Universe and the most important philosophical generalizations are formed. Astronomy influenced the development of all philosophical teachings. It is impossible to form a physical picture of the world that bypasses modern ideas about the Universe - it will inevitably lose its ideological significance.

Modern astronomy is a fundamental physical and mathematical science, the development of which is directly related to scientific and technical progress. To study and explain processes, the entire modern arsenal of various, newly emerged branches of mathematics and physics is used. There is also.

Main branches of astronomy:

Classical astronomy	combines a number of branches of astronomy, the foundations of which were developed before the beginning of the twentieth century:
	Astrometry:	Spherical astronomy	studies the position, apparent and proper motion of cosmic bodies and solves problems related to determining the positions of luminaries on the celestial sphere, compiling star catalogs and maps, and the theoretical foundations of counting time.
		Fundamental astrometry	conducts work to determine fundamental astronomical constants and theoretical justification for the compilation of fundamental astronomical catalogs.
		Practical astronomy	deals with determining time and geographical coordinates, provides the Time Service, calculation and preparation of calendars, geographical and topographic maps; Astronomical orientation methods are widely used in navigation, aviation and astronautics.
	Celestial Mechanics	explores the movement of cosmic bodies under the influence of gravitational forces (in space and time). Based on astrometry data, the laws of classical mechanics and mathematical research methods, celestial mechanics determines the trajectories and characteristics of the movement of cosmic bodies and their systems and serves as the theoretical basis of astronautics.
Modern astronomy	Astrophysics	studies the basic physical characteristics and properties of space objects (movement, structure, composition, etc.), space processes and space phenomena, divided into numerous sections: theoretical astrophysics; practical astrophysics; physics of planets and their satellites (planetology and planetography); physics of the Sun; physics of stars; extragalactic astrophysics, etc.
	Cosmogony	studies the origin and development of space objects and their systems (in particular the Solar system).
	Cosmology	explores the origin, basic physical characteristics, properties and evolution of the Universe. Its theoretical basis is modern physical theories and data from astrophysics and extragalactic astronomy.

Observations in astronomy.
Observations are the main source of information about celestial bodies, processes, phenomena occurring in the Universe, since it is impossible to touch them and conduct experiments with celestial bodies (the possibility of conducting experiments outside the Earth arose only thanks to astronautics). They also have the peculiarities that to study any phenomenon it is necessary:

• long periods of time and simultaneous observation of related objects (example: the evolution of stars)
• the need to indicate the position of celestial bodies in space (coordinates), since all the luminaries seem far from us (in ancient times the concept of the celestial sphere arose, which as a whole revolves around the Earth)

Example: Ancient Egypt, observing the star Sothis (Sirius), determined the beginning of the Nile flood, and established the length of the year at 4240 BC. in 365 days. For accurate observations, we needed devices.
1). It is known that Thales of Miletus (624-547, Ancient Greece) in 595 BC. for the first time used a gnomon (a vertical rod, it is believed that his student Anaximander created it) - it allowed not only to be a sundial, but also to determine the moments of the equinox, solstice, length of the year, latitude of observation, etc.
2). Already Hipparchus (180-125, Ancient Greece) used an astrolabe, which allowed him to measure the parallax of the Moon in 129 BC, establish the length of the year at 365.25 days, determine the procession and compile it in 130 BC. star catalog for 1008 stars, etc.
There was an astronomical staff, an astrolabon (the first type of theodolite), a quadrant, etc. Observations are carried out in specialized institutions - , arose at the first stage of the development of astronomy before NE. But real astronomical research began with the invention telescope in 1609

Telescope - increases the angle of view from which celestial bodies are visible ( resolution ), and collects many times more light than the observer's eye ( penetrating force ). Therefore, through a telescope you can examine the surfaces of the celestial bodies closest to the Earth, invisible to the naked eye, and see many faint stars. It all depends on the diameter of its lens.Types of telescopes: And radio(Demonstration of a telescope, poster "Telescopes", diagrams). Telescopes: from history
= optical

1. Optical telescopes ()

	Refractor(refracto-refract) - the refraction of light in the lens is used (refractive). “Spotting scope” made in Holland [H. Lippershey]. According to the approximate description, it was made in 1609 by Galileo Galilei and first sent it to the sky in November 1609, and in January 1610 he discovered 4 satellites of Jupiter. The world's largest refractor was made by Alvan Clark (an optician from the USA) 102 cm (40 inches) and installed in 1897 at the Hyères Observatory (near Chicago). He also made a 30-inch one and installed it in 1885 at the Pulkovo Observatory (destroyed during the Second World War).
	Reflector(reflecto-reflect) - a concave mirror is used to focus the rays. In 1667, the first reflecting telescope was invented by I. Newton (1643-1727, England), the mirror diameter was 2.5 cm at 41 X increase. In those days, mirrors were made of metal alloys and quickly became dull. The world's largest telescope. W. Keck installed a mirror with a diameter of 10 m in 1996 (the first of two, but the mirror is not monolithic, but consists of 36 hexagonal mirrors) at the Mount Kea Observatory (California, USA). In 1995, the first of four telescopes (mirror diameter 8 m) was introduced (ESO Observatory, Chile). Before this, the largest was in the USSR, the diameter of the mirror was 6 m, installed in the Stavropol Territory (Mount Pastukhov, h = 2070 m) in the Special Astrophysical Observatory of the USSR Academy of Sciences (monolithic mirror 42 tons, 600 tons telescope, you can see stars 24 m).
	Mirror-lens. B.V. SCHMIDT(1879-1935, Estonia) built in 1930 (Schmidt camera) with a lens diameter of 44 cm. Large aperture, coma-free and large field of view, placing a corrective glass plate in front of a spherical mirror. In 1941 D.D. Maksutov(USSR) made a meniscus, advantageous with a short pipe. Used by amateur astronomers. In 1995, the first telescope with an 8-m mirror (out of 4) with a base of 100 m was put into operation for an optical interferometer (ATACAMA desert, Chile; ESO). In 1996, the first telescope with a diameter of 10 m (out of two with a base of 85 m) named after. W. Keck introduced at the Mount Kea Observatory (California, Hawaii, USA) amateur telescopes

• direct observations
• photograph (astrograph)
• photoelectric - sensor, energy fluctuation, radiation
• spectral - provide information about temperature, chemical composition, magnetic fields, movements of celestial bodies.

Photographic observations (over visual) have advantages:

1. Documentation is the ability to record ongoing phenomena and processes and retain the information received for a long time.
2. Immediacy is the ability to register short-term events.
3. Panoramic - the ability to capture several objects at the same time.
4. Integrity is the ability to accumulate light from weak sources.
5. Detail - the ability to see the details of an object in an image.

In astronomy, the distance between celestial bodies is measured by angle → angular distance: degrees - 5 o.2, minutes - 13",4, seconds - 21",2 with the ordinary eye we see 2 stars nearby ( resolution), if the angular distance is 1-2". The angle at which we see the diameter of the Sun and Moon is ~ 0.5 o = 30".

• Through a telescope we see as much as possible: ( resolution) α= 14 "/D or α= 206265·λ/D[Where λ is the wavelength of light, and D- diameter of the telescope lens] .
• The amount of light collected by the lens is called aperture ratio. Aperture E=~S (or D 2) of the lens. E=(D/d xp ) 2 , Where d xp - the diameter of the human pupil under normal conditions is 5mm (maximum in the dark 8mm).
• Increase telescope = Focal length of the lens/Focal length of the eyepiece. W=F/f=β/α.

At high magnification >500 x, air vibrations are visible, so the telescope must be placed as high as possible in the mountains and where the sky is often cloudless, or even better outside the atmosphere (in space).
Task (independently - 3 min): For a 6m reflecting telescope at the Special Astrophysical Observatory (in the northern Caucasus), determine the resolution, aperture and magnification if an eyepiece with a focal length of 5cm (F = 24m) is used. [ Evaluation by speed and correctness of solution] Solution: α= 14 "/600 ≈ 0.023"[at α= 1" the matchbox is visible at a distance of 10 km]. E=(D/d xp) 2 =(6000/5) 2 = 120 2 =14400[collects so many times more light than the observer's eye] W=F/f=2400/5=480 2. Radio telescopes - advantages: in any weather and time of day, you can observe objects that are inaccessible to optical ones. They are a bowl (similar to a locator. A poster "Radio telescopes"). Radio astronomy developed after the war. The largest radio telescopes now are the fixed RATAN-600, Russia (came into operation in 1967, 40 km from the optical telescope, consists of 895 individual mirrors measuring 2.1x7.4 m and has a closed ring with a diameter of 588 m), Arecibo (Puerto Rico, 305 m- concreted bowl of an extinct volcano, introduced in 1963). Of the mobile ones, they have two radio telescopes with a 100m bowl.

Celestial bodies produce radiation: light, infrared, ultraviolet, radio waves, x-rays, gamma radiation. Since the atmosphere interferes with the penetration of rays to the ground with λ< λ света (ультрафиолетовые, рентгеновские, γ - излучения), то последнее время на орбиту Земли выводятся телескопы и целые орбитальные обсерватории : (т.е развиваются внеатмосферные наблюдения).

l. Fixing the material .
Questions:

1. What astronomical information did you study in courses in other subjects? (natural history, physics, history, etc.)
2. What is the specificity of astronomy compared to other natural sciences?
3. What types of celestial bodies do you know?
4. Planets. How many, as they say, order of arrangement, largest, etc.
5. What is the importance of astronomy in the national economy today?

Values ​​in the national economy:
- Orientation by stars to determine the sides of the horizon
- Navigation (navigation, aviation, astronautics) - the art of finding a way by the stars
- Exploration of the Universe to understand the past and predict the future
- Cosmonautics:
- Exploration of the Earth in order to preserve its unique nature
- Obtaining materials that are impossible to obtain in terrestrial conditions
- Weather forecast and disaster prediction
- Rescue of ships in distress
- Research of other planets to predict the development of the Earth
Result:

1. What new did you learn? What is astronomy, the purpose of a telescope and its types. Features of astronomy, etc.
2. It is necessary to show the use of the CD "Red Shift 5.1", the Observer's Calendar, an example of an astronomical journal (electronic, for example, Nebosvod). Show on the Internet, Astrotop, portal: Astronomy V Wikipedia, - using which you can obtain information on an issue of interest or find it.
3. Ratings.

Homework: Introduction, §1; questions and tasks for self-control (page 11), No. 6 and 7 draw up diagrams, preferably in class; pp. 29-30 (p. 1-6) - main thoughts.
When studying the material about astronomical instruments in detail, you can ask students questions and tasks:
1. Determine the main characteristics of G. Galileo’s telescope.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Galilean refractor optical design compared to the Kepler refractor optical design?
3. Determine the main characteristics of the BTA. How many times more powerful is BTA than MSR?
4. What are the advantages of telescopes installed on board spacecraft?
5. What conditions must be satisfied by the site for the construction of an astronomical observatory?

The lesson was prepared by members of the “Internet Technologies” circle in 2002: Prytkov Denis (10th grade) And Disenova Anna (9th grade). Changed 09/01/2007

"Planetarium" 410.05 mb		The resource allows you to install the full version of the innovative educational and methodological complex "Planetarium" on a teacher's or student's computer. "Planetarium" - a selection of thematic articles - are intended for use by teachers and students in physics, astronomy or natural science lessons in grades 10-11. When installing the complex, it is recommended to use only English letters in folder names.
Demo materials 13.08 MB		The resource represents demonstration materials of the innovative educational and methodological complex "Planetarium".
Planetarium 2.67 mb		This resource is an interactive Planetarium model, which allows you to study the starry sky by working with this model. To fully use the resource, you must install the Java Plug-in
Lesson	Lesson topic	Development of lessons in the TsOR collection	Statistical graphics from TsOR
Lesson 1	Subject of astronomy	Topic 1. Subject of astronomy. Constellations. Orientation by the starry sky 784.5 kb 127.8 kb 450.7 kb Electromagnetic wave scale with radiation receivers 149.2 kb

1. The need to keep track of time (calendar). (Ancient Egypt - relationship with astronomical phenomena noticed)
2. Finding your way by the stars, especially for sailors (the first sailing ships appeared 3 thousand years BC)
3. Curiosity is to understand current phenomena and put them to your service.
4. Caring about your destiny, which gave birth to astrology.

Space - airless space - has neither beginning nor end. In the endless cosmic emptiness, here and there stars are located, singly and in groups. Small groups of tens, hundreds or thousands of stars are called star clusters. They are part of giant (millions and billions of stars) superclusters of stars called galaxies. There are about 200 billion stars in our Galaxy. Galaxies are tiny islands of stars in the endless ocean of space called the Universe.

The entire starry sky is conventionally divided by astronomers into 88 sections - constellations that have certain boundaries. All cosmic bodies visible within the boundaries of a given constellation are included in this constellation. In fact, the stars in the constellations are not connected in any way either with each other, or with the Earth, and especially with people on Earth. We just see them in this part of the sky. There are constellations named after animals, objects and people. You need to know the outlines and be able to find the constellations in the sky: Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, Cassiopeia, Orion, Lyra, Eagle, Swan, Leo. The brightest star in the starry sky is Sirius.

All phenomena in nature occur in space. The space visible around us on the Earth's surface is called the horizon. The boundary of visible space, where the sky seems to be in contact with the surface of the earth, is called the horizon line. If you climb a tower or mountain, the horizon will expand. If we move forward, the horizon line will move away from us. It is impossible to reach the horizon line. On a flat place, open on all sides, the horizon line has the shape of a circle. There are 4 main sides of the horizon: north, south, east and west. Between them are the intermediate sides of the horizon: northeast, southeast, southwest and northwest. On diagrams it is customary to indicate north at the top. The number that shows how many times the actual distances in the drawing are reduced (increased) is called the scale. Scale is used when constructing plans and maps. The area plan is drawn up on a large scale, and maps on a small scale.

Orientation means knowing your location relative to known objects, being able to determine the direction of the path along known sides of the horizon. At noon, the Sun is above the point of the south, and the midday shadow of objects is directed to the north. You can navigate by the Sun only in clear weather. Compass is a device for determining the sides of the horizon. Using a compass you can determine the sides of the horizon in any weather, day and night. The main part of the compass is the magnetized needle. When not supported by a fuse, the arrow is always located along the north-south line. The sides of the horizon can also be determined by local features: by individual trees, anthills, stumps. To navigate correctly, you must use several local signs.

In the constellation Ursa Major, it is easy to find the North Star. Polaris is a dim star. It is always above the northern side of the horizon and never goes beyond the horizon. By the North Star at night you can determine the sides of the horizon: if you stand facing the North Star, then there will be north in front, south behind, east on the right, and west on the left.

Stars are huge hot balls of gas. On a clear moonless night, 3,000 stars are visible to the naked eye. These are the closest, hottest and largest stars. They are similar to the Sun, but they are millions and billions of times farther from us than the Sun. That's why we see them as luminous points. We can say that the stars are distant suns. A modern rocket launched from Earth can reach the nearest star only after hundreds of thousands of years. Other stars are even further away from us. Millions of stars can be observed through astronomical instruments - telescopes. The telescope collects light from cosmic bodies and increases their apparent size. Through a telescope you can see faint stars invisible to the naked eye, but even through the most powerful telescope any stars look like luminous points, only brighter.

Stars are not the same in size: some are tens of times larger than the Sun, others are hundreds of times smaller. And the temperature of stars is also different. Its color depends on the temperature of the outer layers of a star. The coldest stars are red, the hottest are blue. The hotter and larger the star, the brighter it shines.

The sun is a huge hot ball of gas. The Sun is 109 times larger than Earth in diameter and 333,000 times larger than Earth in mass. More than 1 million Earth globes could fit inside the Sun. The Sun is the closest star to us; it has an average size and average temperature. The sun is a yellow star. The sun shines because atomic reactions occur inside it. The temperature on the surface of the Sun is 6,000° C. At this temperature, all substances are in a special gaseous state. The temperature increases with depth and in the center of the Sun, where atomic reactions occur, it reaches 15,000,000 °C. Astronomers and physicists study the Sun and other stars so that people on Earth can build nuclear reactors that can supply all the energy needs of humanity.

A hot substance emits light and heat. Light travels at a speed of about 300,000 km/s. Light travels from the Sun to the Earth in 8 minutes 19 seconds. Light travels in a straight line from any luminous object. Most surrounding bodies do not emit their own light. We see them because light from luminous bodies falls on them. Therefore they say that they shine by reflected light.

The sun is of great importance for life on Earth. The sun illuminates and warms the Earth and other planets in the same way that a fire illuminates and warms the people sitting around it. If the Sun were to go out, the Earth would be plunged into darkness. Plants and animals would die from the extreme cold. The sun's rays heat the earth's surface differently. The higher the Sun is above the horizon, the more the surface heats up, and the higher the air temperature. The highest position of the Sun is observed at the equator. From the equator to the poles, the height of the Sun decreases, and the heat supply decreases. Around the Earth's poles the ice never melts; there is permafrost.

The earth we live on is a huge ball, but it is difficult to notice. Therefore, for a long time it was believed that the Earth was flat, and was covered on top, like a cap, by a solid and transparent vault of heaven. Subsequently, people received a lot of evidence of the sphericity of the Earth. A smaller model of the Earth is called a globe. A globe depicts the shape of the Earth and its surface. If you transfer an image of the Earth's surface from a globe to a map and conditionally divide it into two hemispheres, you will get a map of the hemispheres.

The Earth is many times smaller than the Sun. The diameter of the Earth is about 12,750 km. The Earth revolves around the Sun at a distance of about 150,000,000 km. Each revolution is called a year. There are 12 months in a year: January, February, March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November and December. Each month has 30 or 31 days (February has 28 or 29 days). There are 365 whole days and a few more hours in a year.

Previously, it was believed that a small Sun moved around the Earth. Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. Giordano Bruno is an Italian scientist who supported the idea of ​​Copernicus, for which he was burned by the inquisitors.

The Earth rotates from west to east around an imaginary line - an axis, and from the surface it seems to us that the Sun, Moon and stars are moving across the sky from east to west. The starry sky rotates as a single whole, while the stars maintain their position relative to each other. The starry sky makes 1 revolution in the same time as it takes the Earth to make 1 revolution around its axis.

On the side illuminated by the Sun it is day, and on the side that is in the shadow it is night. As the Earth rotates, it exposes the sun's rays first to one side and then to the other. This is how the change of day and night occurs. The Earth makes 1 revolution around its axis in 1 day. The day lasts 24 hours. An hour is divided into 60 minutes. A minute is divided into 60 seconds. Day is the light time of the day, night is the dark time of the day. Day and night make up a day (“day and night – a day away”).

The points at which the axis reaches the Earth's surface are called poles. There are two of them - northern and southern. The equator is an imaginary line that runs equidistant from the poles and divides the globe into the northern and southern hemispheres. The length of the equator is 40,000 km.

The Earth's rotation axis is inclined to the Earth's orbit. Because of this, the height of the Sun above the horizon and the length of day and night in the same area of ​​the Earth changes throughout the year. The higher the Sun is above the horizon, the longer the day lasts. From December 22 to June 22, the altitude of the Sun at noon increases, the length of the day increases, then the altitude of the Sun decreases and the day becomes shorter. Therefore, the year was divided into 4 seasons (times of year): summer – hot, with short nights and long days, and the Sun rising high above the horizon; winter – cold, with short days and long nights, with the Sun rising low above the horizon; spring is a transitional season from winter to summer; autumn is a transition season from summer to winter. Each season has 3 months: summer - June, July, August; autumn – September, October, November; winter – December, January, February; spring – March, April, May. When it is summer in the northern hemisphere of the Earth, it is winter in the southern hemisphere. And vice versa.

There are 8 huge spherical bodies moving in orbit around the Sun. Some of them are larger than the Earth, others are smaller. But they are all much smaller than the Sun and do not emit their own light. These are planets. Earth is one of the planets. Planets shine by reflected sunlight, so we can see them in the sky. The planets move at different distances from the Sun. The planets are located from the Sun in this order: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The largest planet, Jupiter, is 11 times larger than Earth in diameter and 318 times larger in mass. The smallest of the major planets, Mercury, is 3 times smaller in diameter than the Earth.

The closer a planet is to the Sun, the hotter it is, and the further from the Sun, the colder it is. At noon, the surface of Mercury heats up to +400 °C. The most distant of the major planets, Neptune, is cooled to -200 °C.

The closer a planet is to the Sun, the shorter its orbit, the faster the planet goes around the Sun. The Earth makes 1 revolution around the Sun in 1 year or 365 days 5 hours 48 minutes 46 seconds. For the convenience of the calendar, every 3 “simple” years of 365 days, 1 “leap” year of 366 days is included. On Mercury, a year lasts only 88 Earth days. On Neptune, 1 year lasts 165 years. All planets rotate around their axes, some faster, others slower.

Large planets are orbited by their satellites. Satellites are similar to planets, but are much smaller in mass and size.

The Earth has only 1 satellite - the Moon. In the sky, the sizes of the Moon and the Sun are approximately the same, although the Sun is 400 times larger in diameter than the Moon. This happens because the Moon is 400 times closer to the Earth than the Sun. The moon does not emit its own light. We see it because it shines with reflected sunlight. If the Sun went out, the Moon would also go out. The Moon revolves around the Earth in the same way that the Earth revolves around the Sun. The moon participates in the daily movement of the starry sky, at the same time slowly moving from one constellation to another. The Moon changes its appearance in the sky (phases) from one new moon to another new moon in 29.5 days, depending on how the Sun illuminates it. The moon rotates around its axis, so there is also a change of day and night on the moon. However, a day on the Moon does not last 24 hours, as on Earth, but 29.5 Earth days. Day lasts two weeks on the Moon, and night lasts two weeks. The stone lunar ball on the sunny side heats up to +170 °C.

From Earth to Moon 384,000 km. The Moon is the cosmic body closest to Earth. The Moon is 4 times smaller than the Earth in diameter and 81 times smaller in mass. The Moon completes one revolution around the Earth in 27 Earth days. The Moon always faces the Earth with the same side. We never see the other side from Earth. But with the help of automatic stations it was possible to photograph the far side of the Moon. Lunokhods traveled on the Moon. The first person to set foot on the lunar surface was the American Neil Armstrong (in 1969).

The Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth. “Natural” means created by nature. In 1957, the first artificial Earth satellite was launched in our country. "Artificial" means made by people. Today, several thousand artificial satellites fly around the Earth. They move in orbits at different distances from the Earth. Satellites are needed to predict the weather, draw up accurate geographical maps, control the movement of ice in the oceans, for military reconnaissance, to transmit television programs, and they provide cellular communications for mobile phones.

Through a telescope, mountains and plains are visible on the Moon - the so-called. lunar seas and craters. Craters are pits that are formed from large and small meteorites falling on the Moon. There is no water or air on the moon. That's why there is no life there.

Mars has two tiny moons. Jupiter has the most satellites - 63. Mercury and Venus have no satellites.

17. Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, several hundred thousand asteroids and iron-stone blocks move around the Sun. The diameter of the largest asteroid is about 1,000 km, and the smallest known is about 500 meters.

From far from the very borders of the solar system, huge comets (tailed luminaries) approach the Sun from time to time. Comet nuclei are icy blocks of solidified gases into which solid particles and rocks are frozen. The closer to the Sun, the warmer it is. Therefore, when a comet approaches the Sun, its core begins to evaporate. The tail of a comet is a stream of gases and dust particles. A comet's tail grows larger as the comet approaches the Sun and shrinks as the comet moves away from the Sun. Over time, comets disintegrate. There is a lot of debris from comets and asteroids floating around in space. Sometimes they fall to Earth. Fragments of asteroids and comets that fall to Earth or another planet are called meteorites.

Inside the solar system, many small pebbles and dust particles the size of a pinhead—meteor bodies—orbit the sun. Bursting into the Earth's atmosphere at high speed, they heat up from friction with the air and burn high in the sky, and to people it seems as if a star has fallen from the sky. This phenomenon is called a meteor.

The Sun and all the cosmic bodies revolving around it - planets with their satellites, asteroids, comets, meteoroids - form the Solar System. Other stars are not part of the solar system.

The Sun, Earth, Moon and stars are cosmic bodies. Cosmic bodies are very diverse: from a small grain of sand to the huge Sun. Astronomy is the science of cosmic bodies. To study them, large telescopes are built, astronauts are organized around the Earth and to the Moon, and automatic devices are sent into space.

The science of space flight and space exploration using spacecraft is called astronautics. Yuri Gagarin is the first cosmonaut of planet Earth. He was the first to orbit the globe (in 108 minutes) on the Vostok spacecraft (April 12, 1961). Alexey Leonov is the first person to walk out of a spacecraft into outer space wearing a spacesuit (1965). Valentina Tereshkova - the first woman in space (1963). But before man flew into space, scientists launched animals - monkeys and dogs. The first living creature in space is the dog Laika (1961).