1912 Meiji 45th year. 1st Year of Taisho's Reign In January, three members of an expedition led by Shirase Nobu (1861–1946) set off from the Ross Sea coast in two dog sleds to conquer the South Pole. They were able to walk only 283 km, but they still managed to overcome

The boy was raised by his great-grandmother Nakayama Tsunako.

The emperor's childhood is known only from later years, which the biographer Donald Keane describes as highly controversial. Some contemporaries describe the young prince as a healthy and strong, and sometimes fearsome man, who is fluent in sumo. Others emphasize that the prince was weak and often ill. Some biographers note the occasion when he fainted the first time he heard gunshots; other scientists deny this fact. The researchers also noted the fact that with the move in 1857 to the Gosho Palace for permanent residence, Satinomiya developed insomnia.

The prince was born at a time of change in Japan. 8 months after his birth, Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in the city of Edo (since 1868 known as Tokyo) with his squadron of "black ships" in July 1853. Perry, acting on behalf of U.S. President Fillmore, desired to establish trade links with Japan and threatened the Japanese with military consequences if they refused.

On June 22, 1853, the shogun Tokugawa Ieyoshi died, and in October Tokugawa Iesada became the new shogun. After the outbreak of the crisis caused by the appearance of Perry, the Bakufu took an unusual step - they asked the Imperial Court for advice. Emperor Komei's representatives felt that trade with the Americans should be allowed and asked the shogun to inform them in advance of any action against Perry. The request was granted, and thus, for the first time in 250 years, the shogun actually consulted the emperor before making a decision.

On March 3, 1854, the first treaty was signed between America and Japan. Anticipating the inevitable defeat in the war, the Japanese government allowed free trade and authorized the conclusion of "unequal treaties", under which it could not set its own prices for goods and lost the right to try foreigners in its courts. On February 7, 1855, the first diplomatic agreement between Russia and Japan was signed - the Shimoda Treaty, which proclaimed friendship between the two countries. The ports of Shimoda, Hakodate and Nagasaki were opened for Russian ships (later open for American ships); the treaty also regulated questions on Sakhalin.

The willingness of the Bakufu to consult with the emperor did not last long. In 1858, a treaty of friendship and trade was concluded between the United States and Japan; Emperor Kōmei refused to approve his imprisonment, wanting first to ensure the unity of the daimyo. According to the letter attached to the contract, the shogun lost the opportunity to consult with the Imperial Court due to lack of time. Emperor Komei was enraged by this news and threatened to abdicate - despite the fact that such an action required the permission of the shogun. In July 1858 trade treaties were concluded with Holland, Russia and England.

On August 16, 1860, Satinomiya was recognized as blood prince and heir to the throne. He was formally adopted by Empress Eisho, his father's consort. On November 11, he was proclaimed crown prince and assumed the adult name of Mutsuhito. The prince began his studies at the age of 7. Subsequently, Satinomiya, with his father's encouragement, began composing five-line tanka poetry. He was distinguished by indifference to his studies, but, having already matured, he began to write poems in which he regretted his negligence. The future emperor spent most of his childhood in the Nakayama family in Kyoto, in accordance with the custom of entrusting the upbringing of imperial children to noble families.

Wars. Accession to the throne

In the early 1860s, the shogunate was under threat. Foreign powers sought to increase their influence on Japan. Many daimyo became dissatisfied with the actions of the bakufu doing business with foreigners, and many young samurai who were part of the shishi (or "people of high purpose") organization began to conspire against the shogunate. They revered Emperor Komei and supported direct military action that could rid the country of social ills. Initially desiring the death or expulsion of all foreigners, the Sisi subsequently became more pragmatic and preoccupied with the modernization of the country. The Bakufu took a series of measures to subdue several groups, hoping to eventually push the shishi and daimyō against each other.

Kyoto was the main center for the shishi who had influence over Emperor Komei. In 1863 they persuaded him to pass the "Decree for the Expulsion of the Barbarians". The document put the shogunate in a difficult position, as its representatives understood that they did not have enough power to carry out the decree. There were several attacks on foreigners and their ships, and the foreigners responded with military action. Bakufu military forces were withdrawn from Kyoto; an attempt to recapture the city in 1864 ended in failure. Unrest swept the whole of Japan.

Prince Mutsuhito's awareness of the political upheavals was unclear. At that time, he was trained in the poetic art of waka, first with his father and then in a circle of poets. In 1866, when the prince began to receive a classical education, Tokugawa Yoshinobu became shogun, who wanted to introduce reforms in the country along the lines of Western states. Yoshinobu, who became the last shogun, met resistance from the bakufu, and unrest and hostilities continued. In mid-1866, the Bakufu army moved into southern Japan to fight the rebels, but was defeated and destroyed.

Emperor Komei was distinguished by good health, by January 1867 he was 36 years old. However, this month he became seriously ill. Despite some initial improvements, his condition worsened over time and he passed away on 30 January. Many historians believe that the emperor was poisoned for some unknown reason - the British diplomat Ernest Satov wrote: "it is impossible to deny that the disappearance of Emperor Komei from the political arena and the leaving of a 15-year-old boy as his successor was very auspicious".

The political confrontation reached its peak at the end of 1867. In November, an agreement was reached whereby Yoshinobu would retain the title of shogun and a certain amount of power, but legislative power would be vested in a bicameral body based on the British model. The agreement lapsed the following month as soon as the rebels entered Kyoto and occupied the imperial palace. On January 4, 1868, the emperor solemnly read the document, and then the court proclaimed the "restoration" of imperial rule. The following month, the document was sent to foreign authorities:

The Emperor of Japan informs the rulers of all foreign states and their subjects that the shogun Tokugawa Yoshinobu, in accordance with his request, has been allowed to retain government power. We must continue to exercise supreme power in all internal and external affairs of the country. Therefore, the title of emperor should be changed to the title of Tycoon, and thanks to this, the agreements can be implemented. We have already appointed officials to conduct foreign affairs. It is desirable that the representatives of the allied forces take this message into account. Mutsuhito

Yoshinobu resisted, but at the end of 1869 the last bakufu who resisted were destroyed. In September of the following year, the era was named Meiji ("enlightened rule"); the name of the era later became the posthumous name of the emperor.

Shortly after the emperor's ascension to the throne, his subjects presented him with Ichijo Haruko as a possible bride. The future empress was the daughter of the minister Ichijo Tadaki, and she was also 3 years older than Mutsuhito, so the wedding had to be postponed until the genpuku ritual. Mutsuhito and Haruko were married on January 11, 1869. Haruko (known as Empress Shoken after her death) became the first empress consort to receive the title whom("emperor's wife"). She was given a predominantly public role. The empress was barren, and although Meiji had 15 children in total, born from five ladies-in-waiting, they were all considered Haruko's children. Only five of the fifteen survived to adulthood: a prince born to Lady Naruko (-), daughter of Yanagiwara Mitsunaru, and four princesses born to Lady Sachiko (-), eldest daughter of Count Sono Motosachi. This:

• Crown Prince Yoshihito ( Haru no miya Yoshihito Shinno:), 3rd son, (

Emperor Meiji was the 122nd emperor of Japan, his reign began on February 3, 1867 and ended on July 30, 1912. prince sati. Most of his childhood, the future emperor spent in the Nakayama family in Kyoto, in full accordance with the ancient ritual, when the imperial children were entrusted to raise noble families. Subsequently (July 11, 1860) Sati was adopted by the main wife of the Emperor - Asaki Nyogo - and thus received the title of imperial prince (sinno) and a new name - Mutsuhito. It was he who was destined to turn the backward feudal Japan into one of the prosperous world powers. The period of the reign of this emperor entered the history under the name of the Meiji era. And the revolutionary measures carried out by him were called the Meiji Restoration, Meiji Ishin. In Russian, the name of the era "Meiji" will correspond to "Enlightened rule".

Crown Prince Mutsuhito inherited the chrysanthemum throne at the age of 14, this year (1867) was considered the first year of the Meiji era and thus began the tradition of declaring a new era with the ascension to the throne of a new emperor, who after death received the name of the era of his reign.

In the autumn of 1867, the last Tokugawa shogun proclaimed another program of self-empowerment, which involved raising taxes, reconstructing the administrative system, and using French loans to increase the military power of the shogunate. Meanwhile, Kyoto was already openly preparing a rebellion. One of the courtiers, Iwakura Tomomi, wrote back in the summer of 1867: “There cannot be two suns in heaven. There cannot be two monarchs on earth. No country can survive if government decrees do not come from the same source. Therefore, I wish that we act decisively to destroy the shogunate."

In the same autumn of 1867, Emperor Meiji marries the daughter of Ichiyo Tadako, Haruko (05/28/1849 - 04/19/1914). At one time, Ichiyo served as the Minister of the Left, and Haruko became Empress Shoken and was the first imperial consort to receive the title of kogo (lit., "imperial wife"). Empress Shoken played a public role, but she had no children. Emperor Meiji, on the other hand, had a total of fifteen children from five court ladies, but only five of them survived to adulthood.

The capital of the shogunate was taken in April 1868, but resistance in the northeast continued into the autumn, despite the promised amnesty to the shogun and his supporters. The civil war ended only in the spring of 1869, when the remnants of the Tokugawa fleet capitulated in Hakodate.

The men who destroyed the Tokugawa regime are generally not regarded as the heroes of one of the greatest revolutions in the world. The Japanese revolutionaries did not put forward loud and burning slogans, did not seek to protect the oppressed, their victory was relatively quick and bloodless, it was not accompanied by mass terror or special cruelty. The attacking shogunates did not just save their native domains from slow extinction and did not just want to restore ancient traditions, their activities were predetermined by the weakness of the shogunate, its inability to adapt to the surrounding changes in the world. The capitulation of the current Japanese regime to the “black ships” and Commodore Perry reduced the country to a semi-colonial state, which led to a state of sincere indignation of “people of high intentions”. These people were not satisfied with the world in which they lived, and they wanted to change it.

The use of an ancient symbol - tenno, i.e. emperor - it was necessary in order to destroy the previous regime and legitimize the changes proposed by the revolutionaries. Nevertheless, the leaders of the revolution were not at all going to transfer the direct control of the country into the hands of the emperor, they left this “piece of the pie” to themselves. On the one hand, the revolutionaries can be accused of duplicity and outright cynicism, but in reality this is not so: all the active figures of the Meiji Restoration were deeply and sincerely devoted to their emperor and all their desires were aimed at ensuring that the monarch regained the traditional role of conductor of state rituals and approved the decisions of those who would rule in his name. In this regard, the term "yixing", which the Japanese borrowed from classical Chinese philosophy, can be interpreted not only as "restoration", but also as the seizure of power and the implementation of the policy that the new government began to implement after 1868. The living symbol of the revolution and became Mutsuhito, or rather, Emperor Meiji.

On March 14, 1868, the young emperor gathered his courtiers and some daimyo in Kyoto, where they were read the new principles of national policy. This document was prepared for Emperor Kido by Takayoshi and other young revolutionaries and is known as the Oath Charters. The document contained the following provisions:

1. Consultative meetings should be convened, and all state issues will be submitted for public discussion;

2. all social classes, high and low, will unite in order to develop the economy and the well-being of the people with all their might;

3. all military and civil officials, as well as ordinary people, will have the opportunity to fulfill their desires so that no one feels dissatisfied;

4. the fundamental customs of the past will be forgotten, all actions will comply with the principles of international law;

5. knowledge will be acquired throughout the world, thus contributing to the strengthening of the foundation of the state.

This declaration was designed to strengthen national unity and secure much-needed support from the samurai and the emerging bourgeoisie. True, after winning the final victory over the shogunate, the government "forgot" some of the obligations given to them.

The new government took measures to unite the country fragmented into small principalities: in each of the principalities, local authorities were created to represent the interests of the government. Then negotiations were held with local daimyo on the renunciation of hereditary rights to the principalities, the daimyo were also offered the posts of governors in their former possessions, and then the very concept of heredity was eliminated and instead of the daimyo recalled to the capital, they began to manage the former principalities (which have now become prefectures) government officials.

In parallel with the transformation of the principalities into prefectures, the central government was also reformed: the state council was divided into three departments (central, left and right chambers). The central chamber had the greatest legislative powers, the left chamber became an exclusively advisory body, and the right chamber concentrated all administrative functions and subjugated all departments. In April 1869, the emperor moved to the former shogun's palace in Edo, which was immediately renamed the Eastern capital - Tokyo.

Further, the revolutionary leaders set about raising the country's economy: customs barriers between prefectures were eliminated, and the introduction of Western science and technology was encouraged. The old classes (samurai, peasants, artisans and merchants) were abolished and three new classes appeared - the higher nobility (former daimyo and courtiers), the nobility (samurai) and the common people (the rest of the population). New estates were given equal rights, and marriages between representatives of different estates were also allowed. Ordinary people received the right to bear a surname, plus restrictions on the choice of profession were lifted and serfdom was actually eliminated.

In 1872-1873. an agrarian reform was carried out: the daimyo's ownership of land was annulled, and the government lifted the ban on the sale and division of land. The communal lands were taken away from the peasants and declared the property of the emperor, and the peasants actually received their personal allotments for free, only a significant part of the peasants were forced to mortgage their land, and in this case the owner of the allotment was recognized as the one to whom the land was mortgaged. Those. in fact, the peasants were simply robbed from all sides.

Murmured and former samurai. They still managed to make ends meet thanks to state pensions, but they had to forget about their former honor and glory. The new Japanese army was supposed to be built according to the French model, but after the Franco-Prussian war, in which France lost, the Japanese headed for Prussia. The navy, of course, was built according to the British model.

With the development of the army, the former samurai, as they say, “lit up their eyes” and they began to demand the immediate start of expansion against their neighbors. At that time, the minister was Saigo Takamori, who considered Korea suitable prey - easy and affordable, plus, he cherished plans to oust "civilians" from the government, replacing them with supporters of the military-feudal dictatorship. However, the military failed to satisfy the ambitious plans for Korea - the head of the Supreme State Council, Iwakura Tomomi, prevented the impending adventure, because. understood that aggressive actions against Korea would lead to an open clash with China, which considers Korea to be its fiefdom.

A confrontation with Korea and China was avoided, but the war machine had already gained momentum and it was not possible to stop it just like that. As a result, the kingdom of Ryukyu was forcibly annexed, which became Okinawa Prefecture a few years later, and attempts were made to seize Taiwan, which, however, were unsuccessful.

The Japanese government sorted out relations with Russia, in particular, attempts were made to clarify the issue of the territorial division of Sakhalin. The issue was resolved peacefully, mainly due to the position of the permanent representative of Russia in Tokyo - E. Byutsov. From the side of America, an offer was made to acquire Sakhalin in the same way as the Americans once acquired Alaska from Russia, but in this case the Russian side refused such a “profitable” deal, refusing at the same time the US mediation.

Then the Japanese government made another offer to Russia: in exchange for Russia's neutrality during the Japanese-Korean war and the passage of Japanese troops through Russian territory to attack Korea from the north, Russia would receive Sakhalin in its entirety, and not just its northern part. However, the Russian government ignored this proposal.

Further, Japan made a proposal of the following nature: Japan renounces claims to Sakhalin, but receives all the Kuril Islands in its full possession. At that time, a military conflict was brewing in the Balkans, which attracted much more attention from Russian diplomats, so the proposal of the Japanese side was accepted unconditionally.

If they managed to make peace with Russia, then the Japanese arbitrarily attacked the Koreans and as a result, in 1876, the Japanese-Korean treaty "on peace and trade" was signed, which was almost the same in nature as the one that was once signed between the Japanese government and America's representative, Commodore Perry.

This was followed by the "samurai riots" when the government decided to ban the wearing of swords for all persons except those on active duty. Of course, the samurai perceived such measures solely as an encroachment on their age-old rights and privileges, but no matter what measures they took, they were unable to stop the country that had accelerated along the path of progress and modernization: Japan was gaining momentum, deservedly breaking out among the leaders of the world stage.

Many Japanese are now proud of the events that took place at that time, and indeed: Japan has become a significant force on a global scale, and in the Pacific region, a leading power. But at the same time, there was a tilt towards militarism and Japan began to expand in relation to its neighbors and, as a result, joined the fascist movement during the Second World War.

Emperor Meiji was a symbol of the coup, but did not have real power: the main levers of control were held in their hands by major military, political and economic figures who were directly involved in the implementation of the Meiji Restoration.

200 years of shogunate rule Tokugawa ended with restoration Meiji(1868–1889) and the restoration of imperial power.

IN 1869 year, after the final overthrow of the power of the Tokugawa shogunate, the imperial person was proclaimed sacred and inviolable, with the rights of the head of state and government, as well as the supreme commander. The main call of that era was: A rich country has a strong army."

Epoch Meiji- a unique historical period of cardinal reforms and changes, when in a very short period of time a closed feudal country emerged from self-isolation and became a major world power. Japan, through the efforts of the emperor, turned into an "enlightened state" - Meiji (this motto is written in two hieroglyphs - "light" and "rule").

Japan adopted many of the achievements and experience of the West and embarked on the path of such a large-scale modernization, which modern history has not yet known. As a result, the country managed to step over from the Middle Ages to the present in a few decades, change the political and economic structures, make changes in the industrial, military, cultural and social spheres, and fundamentally rebuild the traditional Japanese society.

IN 1869 Year Emperor Mutsuhito moved the capital to Edo, renaming it Tokyo ("eastern capital").

Japan began an active struggle for its position in Chinese and Korean lands. After victories in Japanese-Chinese(1894–1895) and Russo-Japanese Wars(1904–1905) The Land of the Rising Sun began to be ranked among the great powers. Japan began to industrialize. Military victories contributed to the penetration of economic and cultural resources into the country. A long period of exporting the national wealth of Korea to Japan began, as well as the active development of trade relations with China.

It is the era Meiji became a period of interpenetration of Japanese and Western cultures. Much has changed, new motives, new techniques have appeared. Artists from other countries drew attention to Japanese culture and introduced elements of the Japanese style into painting, sculpture, and arts and crafts. Japanese motifs were especially pronounced in the new style - Art Nouveau (called "modern" in Russia).

The process of assimilation of Western influence included the emergence of new forms, combining the return to their own traditions and the use of new Western trends. In particular, successful attempts were made to work with new painting techniques that had long been known in Europe. Japanese artists mastered oil painting. Japanese painting of the Meiji era was influenced by such European schools as realism, impressionism, post-impressionism. IN 1887 year in Tokyo, a new school of fine arts of the national direction was established, and in 1907 The first official "Salon of Arts" appeared in the year.

Sculpture as a genre of art was not very popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but despite this, experiments were also carried out in this area. The small bronze sculptures of that era show the Japanese sense of line and color, which manifests itself in the use of soft green or warm brown patina. Woodcarving also developed.

An essentially new trend was the new engraving, called the "author's print" of sosaku-hanga, which appeared in the first decade of the 20th century. Hanga- this is any engraving, in literal translation - “printing from the board” ( sosaku- copyright, hanga-engraving).

The artists, strongly influenced by Western painting, realized the importance of their own artistic heritage, and found new opportunities in engraving to express their creative ideals. Traditional engraving was a production of mass printing, in the creation of which there was a clear division of labor of artists, carvers and printers in order to optimize and reduce the cost of production. Engravings of sosaku-hanga were regarded by artists as author's works of art, in which all stages of work - from creative conception to printing - were carried out by one engraving master. When working with sosaku-hanga many modern Western woodcut techniques were used, while at the same time maintaining the highest achievements of traditional Japanese woodcut printing. In particular, experiments with wooden printed boards were continued, which allow creating unique effects of the texture of the printed sheet surface. New themes and plots appeared in the author's engraving.

At the very beginning of their creative path, artists faced significant obstacles associated with the long-established norms for dividing art into genres (until the end of the 19th century, engraving belonged to the “low genres” and was not part of the “Fine Arts”, bijutsu), but in the future this style of work has become very popular.

In connection with the success of Japanese production methods and quality management, people often talk about the Japanese miracle of the 50s-70s of the XX century. But in the history of the country there was no less, and perhaps even more grandiose transformation in the last quarter of the 19th century. The book of the famous Japanist is the most complete description of the reign of Emperor Meiji (1852-1912) in Russian historiography, who is often compared with the great reformer of Russia - Peter I. And it is not for nothing that under Meiji the country, which was one step away from becoming a colony, was transformed into a powerful state , into a full player on the world map. Alexander Meshcheryakov compiled a chronicle of the events that allowed Japan to become what it is. Behind the dramatic fate of Meiji is the fascinating history of his country.

Alexander Meshcheryakov. Emperor Meiji and his Japan. - M.: Natalis, Ripol Classic, 2006. - 736 p.

Download abstract (summary) in format or (abstract is about 7% of the volume of the book)

The people who lived in the archipelago did not call themselves Japanese before the Meiji reign. They identified themselves with their native village and principality. In just one generation, they realized themselves as a Japanese nation. Japan in the mid-nineteenth century was a strange political construct. The shogunate removed the emperor and his court from making any decisions, but the shogun was considered appointed only after the emperor's decree was issued. Although the shogun and his government, made up of hereditary military (samurai), seemed to have enormous powers, their “subordination” was a country divided into three hundred principalities. At the beginning of the 19th century, Edo (now Tokyo) was the largest city in the world, with over a million inhabitants.

1852

Emperor Komei led a measured life, his time was filled with ceremonies and rituals, the schedule of which was known for years to come. For many centuries, the circle of marriage partners of the imperial house was extremely narrow, which, as you know, does not contribute to the appearance of healthy offspring. In addition, the Japanese emperors led an extremely immobile lifestyle. However, this year brought dynastic luck: on October 15, the future Emperor Meiji was born to the concubine of Emperor Yoshiko (1835-1907), daughter of the freelance chief adviser Nakayama Tadayasu (1809-1888). At birth, he received the name Satinomiya. None of his five siblings survived their father. In order to become emperor in the future, only one thing was required of him - to survive.

When news of his son's birth arrived at the palace, Komei sipped his pre-dinner sake and ate rice cakes delivered from Kawabata Doki's home. His ancestors have been baking pies for emperors for more than five centuries. At court, constancy was most valued, the principle of heredity of occupations extended not only to the emperor himself, but also to his entire entourage.

Japan lived according to the imperial time, the mottos of the board were proclaimed on behalf of the emperor. It was the fifth year under the motto Kaei - "Blessed Eternity". He assumed that the reign would pass without much change, which was considered a sign of decline. The new European idea that movement is good would seem idiotic to the inhabitants of the Gosho Imperial Palace. Life in Kyoto really proceeded at its measured pace, but the country was on the verge of gigantic changes. The Western powers, animated by the idea of ​​"free trade", demanded that Japan open up to the world and allow foreign ships into their ports. As early as the beginning of the 17th century, the Tokugawa shoguns expelled the Europeans.

The Europeans insisted on the opening of Japan: “We believe that a country that owns part of the coast of the World Ocean has no right to oppose trade with other countries ... We insist that the right of a civilized country, the right of a Christian country, is to impose on barbarians observance of customary norms of international law and certain norms of communication”.

Rice. 1. Map of the Japanese archipelago. 19th century

1853

The American flotilla of Commodore Matthew Perry (1794–1858), which appeared in Uraga Bay near Edo on June 3, consisted of four ships. Perry's mission was to get the Japanese to trade. The size of the American ships seemed monstrous. The displacement of the flagship was 2450 tons. In Japan, the construction of ocean-going ships was prohibited by law - the shogunate was afraid that merchants or adventurers would swim too far. Therefore, the displacement limit was set at 150 tons.

Russia had no particular trading interests in Japan. But she did not want to lag behind America either. Therefore, upon receiving news of American plans, it was decided to send Vice Admiral E. V. Putyatin to Japan. Putyatin's squadron arrived in Japan on July 18, 1853, just a few weeks later than Perry. The voyage from Kronstadt took 10 months. In the Far East, Russia had neither ice-free ports nor a powerful fleet. The squadron consisted of four ships, only one of them was steam. It was the schooner Vostok purchased in England.

While in China, Putyatin suggested that Perry start a joint “opening up” of Japan and asked for a loan of 40 tons of coal. He received coal, but Perry refused joint actions.

Many Japanese then believed that the Europeans would bring a lot of trinkets, and in return they would take away from the country all the things that were really necessary for life.

1854

Many representatives of the samurai establishment were inclined to believe that Japan was not able to withstand pressure and possible aggression. The example of China, defeated by the British in the first Opium War, stood before their eyes. On March 3, 1854, the first Japanese-American treaty was signed in Kanagawa. Now American ships could enter the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate, purchase coal and provisions there.

For almost two and a half centuries, Japan was in isolation, and the industrial revolution did not touch her. The centuries of peace and tranquility had a relaxing effect on the samurai, and their best swords in the world weren't long enough to pose any threat to foreign cannon ships. The ban on the construction of large-tonnage ships led to the fact that Japan did not have a combat-ready fleet at the decisive moment. The mistake had to be corrected, the shogunate ordered several steamships from Holland and decided that from now on Japanese ships would sail under a flag with a red sun on a white field. In two decades, this flag will be adopted as the state flag.

The Russian-Japanese Treaty of Friendship (Shimodsky Treaty) was signed on December 21. The ports of Shimoda, Hakodate and Nagasaki were opened for Russian ships, the state border passed between the Kuril Islands Iturup and Urup, Sakhalin was declared a zone of joint residence of citizens of both countries.

1855

The population responded to the challenge of the West by increasing educational activity. Starting from the 30s of the 19th century, 140 schools were opened annually. It was a unique way of adapting to a changed situation. Many Japanese understood that the only way to cope with the threat was to catch up with the West in knowledge.

It cannot be said that the shogunate was inactive. No, he gave orders. For example, to melt the bells of Buddhist temples into cannons. But what could "self-made" bronze guns against European ones, worked out at factories? The shogunate gave orders to the principalities to strengthen coastal defenses and rearm in a European way, but they did not have sufficient funds or skills for this.

1857

Meiji was brought up in the spirit of thousands of years of tradition. In Japan, the faces of the imperial family, fearing the evil eye, were not shown to subjects.

The European powers and America saw the treaties of friendship as only the first step towards the "discovery" of Japan. Sensing the military weakness of Japan, they sought to build on their success and achieve permission for full-scale trade. America was especially active.

Wishing to get to know the enemy better, the Japanese enthusiastically began to study American books. However, for all the demands to become “more open”, they tried to make foreigners know as little about Japan as possible.

It was clear to many that the shogunate was unable to cope with a foreign threat. From the side of the princes there were proposals on how to reform it. The proposals were not heard.

1858

Komei refused to approve the treaty with America, ordering the shogunate to first ensure unity among the princes. Since that time, the interference of the imperial court in the foreign policy of the shogunate has become more and more noticeable. Supporters of a tough foreign policy began to gather in Kyoto. Among them were samurai who left their master. Now they acted not on his orders, but on their own. They were called ronin.

Komei asked the deities: if a war breaks out between Japan and foreigners, let them send the "divine wind" (kamikaze) to help - the same one that swept the Mongol flotilla off the Japanese coast twice at the end of the 13th century.

Ii Naosuke (1815–1860) was not a strong supporter of the "opening of the country", but believed that Japan was doomed to this step. Despite the opposition of several influential daimyo and without the approval of the imperial court, on June 19, a trade agreement with the Americans was nevertheless signed. It provided for the opening of new ports: American merchants were allowed to trade in Edo and Osaka, an envoy was allowed to reside in Edo, extraterritoriality was guaranteed to American citizens.

If we consider the situation from an economic point of view, the immediate adverse effects of the treaty should be recognized as insignificant. However, the very fact of infringement of the country's sovereignty seemed terrible to the Japanese elite. Such a perception defies purely rationalistic interpretation, but it is precisely this perception that determined the strategy of Japanese foreign policy for many years to come.

In July, trade agreements were concluded with Holland, Russia and England (France signed such an agreement on September 3). All of them took the treaty with America as a model, and each of them had a provision on the most favored nation status.

The shogunate was already in poor control of the situation. Everyone who wanted to know about the content of the treaties knew about it. Their texts were printed in mass circulation in Edo itself and became a kind of "bestseller". Thus, almost the main principle of the former management was violated - only the information that requires them to implement decisions is brought to people.

The crisis of the shogunate is best seen in the appointment of incompetent individuals as shoguns. But let's not forget that such a system of "collective leadership" (this also applies to emperors) prevents the emergence of outright dictators, which is confirmed by all Japanese history. In a long period of peaceful life, such a system suited everyone, but in the face of external danger, it turned out to be untenable.

1859

Satinomiya studied the classics of Confucianism. Knowledge of the Chinese language was mandatory for an educated person. He did not study natural sciences or geography. Satinomia was brought up in the expectation that its main purpose would be the performance of rituals, the composition of poems, love joys, and not the leadership of the country and the army.

1860

Deprived of legal ways to influence the situation, the samurai turned to terror. Not only foreigners were subject to destruction. The first victim "among his own" was Ii Naosuke. The attackers were outraged by the inaction of officials in the face of foreign danger. From their point of view, Ii Naosuke lost his warrior spirit, and signed trade agreements with the "barbarians".

Satinomia was proclaimed heir to the throne on 11 November. From now on, he was obliged to live not with a biological, but with a “social” mother (the empress) in her chambers. Now he was considered the third in position in the Gosho Palace - after the emperor and empress. The new status involved the assignment of a new name. Three names were presented to the court of higher courtiers, of which they chose Mutsuhito - "peaceful", "friendly".

For the first time, the Shogunate delegated an official mission abroad. She went to America at the beginning of the year. The Japanese set themselves another task: to look with their own eyes at the country that brought Japan so much trouble and humiliation. The Japanese did not like much in America. But the technical achievements amazed them. Members of the mission purchased many books. These were books of practical content, they did not acquire novels. Returning home, the members of the mission presented their travel reports, but they were placed in an archive inaccessible to the inhabitants of the country.

Japanese culture is used to separating: tall and short, men and women, young and old. A culture that unites the uncombinable seemed to them a generator of chaos. Being brought up in a society where belonging to a particular class was fixed by inheritance, the samurai considered it absurd that any commoner could become the president of the country.

Anglo-French troops occupied Beijing. China was losing its sovereignty right before our eyes and turning into a semi-colony. Well, if huge China could not defend itself from the invasion of "barbarians", then what can we say about Japan.

1861

The policy of the Western powers was by no means limited to diplomatic arguments. Being completely at a loss, the shogunate went on one indulgence after another. In June, he lifted the ban on the construction of large-tonnage ships and allowed private individuals to buy foreign ships. In Yokohama, a new life was gaining momentum, no one thought about observing traditional taboos. They thought about comfort and profit.

The Japanese were surprised by everything: European dogs, carriages, huge horses, clothes. It seemed to them a great extravagance to keep their hands in their pockets, which their traditional clothes were deprived of. The wives of foreign merchants rode horseback. I was also amazed by hitherto unseen household innovations: a sewing machine, an iron, a bicycle, soap, huge glass windows and mirrors.

The English envoy R. Elcock did not make much difference in the status of Hong Kong and Yokohama, considering both cities to be colonies.

1862

Since it was not customary to “rent an apartment” in Japan, most of the representative offices were settled in Buddhist monasteries - there were simply no other suitable buildings in the city.

In July, ronin from Mito attacked the English legation in Edo. On January 15, an assassination attempt was made on the life of a member of the council of elders of the shogunate, Ando Nobumas (1819–1871). The latter survived, but the injury forced him to retire. He was the most capable and active member of the shogunal government. With his departure, the center of political life begins to move rapidly towards Kyoto.

In August, the shogunate made a number of concessions to the "outer princes", who took advantage of the shogunate's confusion before the troubles that befell it. There was a significant softening of the hostage system: the length of stay of daimyo in Edo was reduced, and family members were allowed to leave Edo at their discretion.

Considering that the protection of the emperor was poorly provided, the Shimazu family sent a detachment of a thousand samurai to Kyoto. The imperial palace of Gosho was guarded by squads loyal to the shogun, the emperor did not have his own troops. However, now the city was filled with "well-wishers", who themselves considered themselves the defenders of imperial interests. It wasn't long before they clashed with Komei's official bodyguards.

In June-October, a diplomatic mission of the shogunate visited Europe. Everyone thought that it was enough to “peep” at the Europeans how they make their wonderful things, learn their technologies, but at the same time preserve the usual home order. In London, hit the tunnel under the Thames. The idea that the river can be crossed not only by bridge, but also underground, was new to the Japanese. At this time, the World Exhibition was held in London. There were presented things from Japan. These were arts and crafts from the collection of the English envoy Elcock. The Japanese were surprised that Europeans liked these things. This gave me hope that all is not lost. Returning to Japan, the members of the mission found there an upsurge in xenophobic sentiment. And they were forbidden to talk about what they saw in Europe.

1863

The Japanese were hardworking and without any Protestant ethics, which claims that work is a charitable cause (see). However, unlike in the West, other grounds were chosen to justify diligence. The Japanese believed that laziness and lack of movement lead to stagnation of vital energy. Thus, the Japanese did not have a problem typical of "backward" countries, where the ideal pastime is idleness, which hinders "modernization". The authority of the West further spurred on the desire of the Japanese to work and work again. But to work not only to achieve their own prosperity, but also for the good of the country.

The canons of imperial behavior forced the emperor to study and study again. Empress Haruko and her retinue were also allowed to attend the lectures given to the Meiji. From July, Motoda Nakazane (1818–1891), a neo-Confucian scholar, became Meiji's main mentor. Motoda stressed the need to learn from the West in the natural sciences. Motoda helped formulate the main principle of the Meiji government: the West is important for Japan primarily as a source for the development of natural sciences and technology; the soul of the people must remain Japanese at the same time.

Meiji lived longer than many of his predecessors. This is partly because, unlike them, he exercised his body. Meiji spends his time not in the women's quarters of the palace, but in his office and on the parade ground. This year, Meiji began to study the German language.

If earlier representatives of only aristocratic families had direct access to the emperor, now the descendants of the samurai formed the basis of his entourage.

Even then, Meiji's addiction to alcohol was alarming. Meiji's wife, Haruko, composed a poem in which she expressed concern about the emperor's bad habit:

When flowers bloom in spring
When the maples blaze in autumn
I hope you keep moderation
I raised the cup.

Along with Western alcoholic beverages, European food gradually entered the life of Meiji.

Meiji's concubines began to appear one after another. It was a completely common practice. Haruko is barren. The concubines were, as a rule, less than twenty years old. From five of them, Meiji had 15 children. Only five survived. They were all considered children of Haruko.

On November 12, a mission was sent to study the experience of the USA and Europe. The mission sailed for San Francisco on an American steamer. The Empire of Japan still did not have ships that would cross the Pacific Ocean.

1872

The court historian Kume Kunitake (1839-1931) kept a detailed record of what the members of the mission had the opportunity to observe. The book became an instructive description of what he saw, a kind of guide to Western countries. Perhaps the most important conclusion of the book was this: Europe and America became so powerful relatively recently, this was achieved thanks to the development of science and education, and therefore Japan - if, of course, tries hard - has the opportunity to catch up with the West. The head of the mission, Iwakura Tomomi, “was an enthusiastic admirer of Peter the Great. The mission itself was reminiscent of Peter's Great Embassy to Europe.

In mid-February, the age-old ban on buying and selling land was lifted. For the first time in the history of Japan, the peasant received ownership of the land that he had always cultivated as a user. Moreover, this right was granted without any redemption. Now the main obstacle to capitalist development had disappeared, everything was bought and sold in the country. True, foreigners were still not allowed to own land.

Iwakura had to ask the government to lift the ban on Christianity, which was done on 24 February. A stream of missionaries poured into the country, and Japan could now be proud of the fact that it had become even more civilized and modern.

Meiji began a series of trips around the country. With the abolition of the principalities and the elimination of outposts, the country acquired a new space, which was to be made united. The emperor addressed his subjects with a message emphasizing the importance of education. The government decree on education appeared on 2 August. Just four years after the beginning of the new era, Japan introduced universal primary four-year education. In the so-called "developing countries", the construction of education usually starts at the top level - the universities. As a result, the property and social gap between the elite and the "common people" is supplemented by a colossal difference in the level of education. However, the Japanese leaders judged differently: the main emphasis was placed on primary education. The government was heading towards the destruction of the former hierarchy and the creation of social homogeneity.

The most resolute position was taken by Fukuzawa Yukichi, who called for a total renewal: “... The strength of the state depends on what education it has. If we compare Eastern Confucianism with Western enlightenment, it turns out that the East lacks: in the field of concrete knowledge - mathematics and natural science, in the field of abstract principles - a sense of independence. And both one and the other is absolutely necessary for humanity in everything. Therefore, if we want Japan to catch up with the Western powers, we must by all means expel Confucian enlightenment from our country.

Many textbooks were European. Now in all schools they sat not on mats, but at their desks, the girls studied together with the boys. This alone taught the pupils to a completely different way of life.

The first railway line between Tokyo and Yokohama, 24 km long, was put into operation. Left-hand traffic was adopted only in England and its colonies. Japan was the first (and, it seems, the last) country to adopt left-hand traffic completely voluntarily.

Faced with the indecisiveness of entrepreneurs and the lack of local capital, the government began to invest in the construction of advanced plants and factories, many of which it then sold on extremely favorable terms to recollected capitalists.

The opening of the railway communication was of great importance not only in terms of speed of movement. The trains ran on schedule. The Japanese had to get used to the fact that not only hours, but also minutes matter. Sale of watches in the country was gaining momentum. Watches became almost the first Western durable item that was really widely used in Japan.

A decree was promulgated on the abandonment of the lunar calendar and the transition to the solar (Gregorian) one. In particular, it said: “... in order to make our country modern and reform old customs in order to bring the people closer to civilization, there is an urgent need to revise the law on the calendar. The present system, with its division of the day into guards, the duration of which depends on the length of the day and night, creates great inconveniences for all institutions. At the same time, the chronology according to the mottos of the board was not canceled. Domestically, the old counting of years continued according to the motto of the Meiji reign. Japan adheres to the same "double counting" of time today. To date, Japan is the only country in the world where the mottos of government continue to exist, all state documentation is maintained in accordance with the current motto of the Heisei government - "Establishment of peace [on Earth and in Heaven]".

The history of the adoption of the new calendar is very indicative of the strategy of the Meiji government. According to this strategy, every innovation must be balanced by an element of tradition.

The country began to rapidly become covered with a dense network of telegraph wires.

In October, the Justice Department issued a landmark decision banning human trafficking. Until that time, the sale of their daughters by the poor to the owners of brothels and entertainment establishments was quite common.

1873

Folk holidays in different villages were often celebrated at different times, their set did not match. Now national holidays were held on the same day throughout the country.

On January 10, the introduction of military service was announced. During the Franco-Prussian War, Japan declared its neutrality, but sent two observers to Europe. Their reports finally convinced of the need to introduce military service. The experience of Prussia looked especially impressive, which managed to mobilize 700 thousand people (see). The call was subject to young people who had reached the age of twenty. The term of service was determined in three years. Civil servants, students of state educational institutions, heads of families, the only sons in the family could avoid the call. It was also allowed to pay off the service. True, the amount was huge - 270 yen. A perfectly acceptable salary at that time was 12-14 yen a month. Young men whose height did not exceed 154.5 cm (two years later reduced to 151.5 cm) were also not subject to conscription. A book appeared on sale that told about how you can avoid military service. At first, 80-90% of young people managed to avoid the draft in one way or another.

The military reform, in the form in which it was actually carried out, had as its immediate goal to knock the ground out from under the feet of the samurai. The reform also had strategic goals. School classes were organized for illiterate soldiers in the army, young men from different prefectures communicated with each other while serving, they were united by one main goal - the protection of their emperor. It was assumed that this common goal would help create a new community called the "Japanese people". The future will show that this was the correct calculation.

Japan took part in the World Expo. It opened in Vienna in May. The public willingly bought fans and other handicrafts. So the inferiority complex was eliminated - the Japanese were imbued with the feeling that their hands and head were capable of much. And then there's the silk fabrics of the Tomioka factory received the second prize. For the first time, Japan has earned an award for industrial products.

On March 14, a decision was made to stop the practice of Buddhist rituals at the court. Under the new conditions, only Shinto rituals had the right to exist. The government banned Buddhist funerals. Now all Meiji subjects were ordered to end their earthly journey in the ground. And this despite the fact that the vast majority of Japanese preferred Buddhist cremation.

If under the Tokugawa shogunate, Japan avoided conflicts with its neighbors in every possible way, now it has shown a desire to become a local Far Eastern hegemon. The country learned from the West not only a new cut of clothes. Korea became the main object of imperialist sentiments.

Not to take money abroad was the policy of the government. The land tax was the main source of formation of the state budget. It accounted for about 80% of all tax revenues.

Meiji's intense communication with high-ranking foreigners required constant adjustment to suit their tastes. Meiji began to wear a short hairstyle with a parting, stopped blackening his teeth, grew a mustache, beard and "real" eyebrows. The emperor began to appear in public exclusively in a European-style military uniform invented especially for him, often on horseback. However, the reproduction of the Meiji image was forbidden. And in the future - up to the present day - we will not find images of emperors either on money or on stamps.

Rice. 2. Emperor Meiji, 1873

After a fire in Tokyo in April 1872, which destroyed 4,800 wooden houses in the Ginza area, they began to build the first street in Japan, on which all the houses were made of stone.

1874

The reformers were fantastically active. But the government refused to invade Korea. Dissatisfaction with his actions was great. On January 13, about a dozen samurai attacked the carriage of Minister Iwakura Tomomi. Iwakura escaped with a scar on his face. In February, a samurai rebellion broke out in Saga Prefecture. The southwest, which had played a decisive role in the restoration of imperial power, now opposed it. A striking fact: the estate, which lost the source of its former income as a result of the Restoration, was the least worried about its own financial situation. The samurai protested not so much against poverty as against the loss of status. In addition, the Saga samurai advocated an immediate "punishment" of Korea. The uprising was led by Eto Shimpei, who left the government due to the refusal to attack Korea. The telegraph connection between Tokyo and Nagasaki, established by this time, and a sufficient number of steamers allowed the government to act not only decisively, but also very quickly. The uprising was crushed in two weeks.

1875

In January, the government ordered Mitsubishi to open the Yokohama-Shanghai line. It was the first international line operated by a Japanese company. Until that time, the Americans held a monopoly here. In September, 30 steamships were donated to the Mitsubishi company, the government lent and money - at a ridiculous two percent per annum. The company reduced the price of first-class tickets on the Yokohama-Shanghai line from 30 to 8 yen and for some time transported people at a loss, but the result was positive: the Americans eventually could not stand it and sold their ships and port equipment to Mitsubishi .

On January 21, Emperor Meiji had a daughter from his concubine Yanagihara Naruko. Everyone breathed a sigh of relief: the death of the first two children of the emperor filled the hearts with anxiety. They arranged a feast, proclaimed toasts. The emperor named his daughter Shigeko. The princess lived for a year and a half. The most "productive" concubine was Sonno Sachiko, who gave birth to the emperor's last eight children (during the period from 1886 to 1897).

On March 1, England and France finally withdrew their troops from Yokohama. Their presence Iwakura Tomomi considered "the most humiliating for the empire." The situation in the country calmed down somewhat, there were fewer attacks on foreigners, the Meiji government behaved respectfully towards the Western powers, there was no need for the Western powers to conquer Japan, and the maintenance of the military contingent required considerable funds. According to the interim agreements of 1867, Sakhalin Island was jointly owned by Japan and Russia. This caused a lot of diplomatic inconvenience, conflicts arose between the Russian and Japanese inhabitants of the island. There were much fewer Japanese on the island than Russians. In addition, for the Japanese economy at that time, the development of Hokkaido was a higher priority, and for diplomacy - the Korean direction. And here the neutrality of Russia was important for the Japanese government. Therefore, Tokyo decided to give Sakhalin to Russia in exchange for the Kuril Islands. The agreement was signed in St. Petersburg. Having received Sakhalin, Russia did not find anything better than to turn the island into a place of exile.

This year, censorship has made a decisive breakthrough. Censorship also existed under the Tokugawa regime, but in the early years of the Meiji, it did not really get around to it. Now the government's efforts have become more systematic and consistent, the law on the press has been revised, it has been supplemented by a law on libel. The new rules for the press were worked out with an eye on the German law, adopted there quite recently. Germany has always been a good example for Japan when it comes to limiting freedoms. Non-information was punishable by law, informing became an act of persuasion. In the face of the newspapers, the authorities received a powerful tool to carry out their plans. Instrument of information terror.

In May, the government lifted the ban on cremation. Traditions were too strong. The government used to get carried away, but we must give it its due: mistakes were corrected quickly.

1876

On March 28, a decree was promulgated banning the carrying of swords. This meant that the samurai class disappeared completely.

Agrotechnologies, which are traditional in their basis, managed to ensure sustainable growth of agricultural production. Despite significant population growth (33.1 million in 1872, 41 million in 1892 and 52.1 million people in 1912), Japan at that time did not know massive cases of famine or food shortages, which during the period the transition from an agrarian society to an industrial one happens quite often.

The new government could in no way ensure peace within the country, and in this respect it differed little from the shogunate of the last years of its existence. All samurai uprisings were put down very quickly, but the ruthlessness (in relation to themselves and others) with which the rebels acted, and the lack of any well-thought-out strategy, speak of real desperation.

Due to the fact that the samurai turned out to be the most educated class, a significant number of them found themselves in purely "intelligent" professions - teachers, scientists, doctors. The vast majority of positions in the administrative apparatus also turned out to be occupied by former samurai. Unlike aristocrats, the glory of incorruptible people was firmly entrenched in the samurai. Their personal decency and commitment to a common cause created a situation that largely persists to this day.

1877

As early as the end of 1876, there were several major peasant uprisings in the prefectures of Mie, Aichi, Saitama, and Sakai. Already on January 3, the frightened government lowered the land tax to two and a half percent of the value of the land (local taxes to one fifth of this amount). In this regard, government spending and the bureaucracy were subject to reduction.

Saigo Takamori's rebellion broke out. The victory was given to the imperial troops at a high price. 65 thousand people took part in the war, 6 thousand of them died. The number of wounded was 10 thousand. Direct government spending reached 42 million yen - 80% of the country's annual budget. The government printed so much paper money that in a short time for 1 yen in silver they gave almost one and a half yen in banknotes. The rebels lost 18 thousand people killed. Saigo Takamori's uprising turned out to be the largest and the last in a series of mass samurai protests against the government (an artistic description of the uprising was reflected in the film The Last Samurai).

The speed with which Japan imported the latest achievements of Western technology is striking: the telephone, bicycles. The University of Tokyo was founded in the capital. It consists of four faculties: law, philology, natural sciences and medicine. One of the remarkable events of this year was the opening of the First Japan Industrial Exhibition. It was visited by more than 450 thousand people. A significant part of the exposition was devoted to modern high-tech products: watches, mechanisms, industrial equipment, instruments. At the same time, the main attention was paid not to the products themselves, but to how they are made. At this time, the government was concerned with production, not consumption. At the 2nd exhibition in 1881, already 28 thousand people presented their products, and at the exhibition of 1903 - 105 thousand! Just like schools, exhibitions created a common cultural and national memory.

Despite the high population density, from the point of view of the then world megacities, Tokyo seemed to be a very large village. The air was still so clear that in clear weather Mount Fuji could be seen from Tokyo (now one can only dream of).

1878

In June, Meiji opened a naval school. The fleet became one of the symbols of power that the country aspired to.

1879

Meiji decree establishing Okinawa Prefecture on the site of the former Ryukyu principality-kingdom. The operation to annex the archipelago to Japan, which did not want to join, was successful, but still many locals consider themselves not quite Japanese. With the accession of the Ryukyu, Japan contributed to the destruction of the Chinese Qing Empire and the Far Eastern international order it organized. So far, compared to the European powers, this contribution has been small, but still, Japan has taken a small step on the road to the club of "civilized" countries. Civilized in the sense that was implied by the then international law - the right to attack someone who is weaker than you.

On August 31, Yanagihara's concubine Naruko brought Meiji a third son, Prince Yoshihito. He suffered from prenatal meningitis, was ill a lot, but survived and became the next emperor - Taisho.

This year, the Ministry of Defense adopted a decree on compensations paid in the event of the death of military personnel who were on duty. Confucian Japan was indignant: the pension was paid to the widow and children! According to the establishment of traditional morality, the pension should have been due to the parents.

1880

It became completely clear that the policy of persecuting Buddhism pursued in the first years of the reign was a mistake. Yes, Shinto cults should form the ritual basis for the functioning of a “strong” state, but even this state was not able to abolish traditions and history, in which Buddhism played a significant role.

In December, the Senate revised the education law. The growth of the socialist and labor movement in Europe, the rampant political terrorism in Russia testified that the Western system of personality formation does not provide training for law-abiding subjects. It was decided to strengthen the moral component of school programs. First of all, devotion to the emperor and reverence for parents. Fukuzawa Yukichi's books, which emphasized human rights, were excluded from school curricula.

1881

The ban on turning one's back to the emperor was a very old rule. That is why during the audiences arranged in antiquity, after the end of the ceremony, those present did not leave the hall in the “usual” way - they backed away.

By this time, the fate of the former class of samurai became completely clear. They could not find themselves on the path of self-employment. But the public service was able to provide them with a decent existence. These people entered the state apparatus along with their values. These include honesty, decency, fidelity, discipline, self-sacrifice, pride, intolerance, resentment, a tendency to resolve conflicts by force. The Meiji state became a state in which the basic values ​​were developed by the military class. This fact explains much in the subsequent history of Japan.

After the schools were placed under tighter state control, it was the turn for higher educational institutions. Previously, the University of Tokyo was a hotbed of Westernism and liberalism, now its teachers turned from scientists into government officials. They were required to take an oath of allegiance to the government.

On October 12, a decree was promulgated, according to which Meiji promised the country a constitution. But not now, but in nine years. As was so often the case in Japan, the government sought a compromise. Supporters of constitutional government received a constitution, opponents received a reprieve in order to better prepare for change. Everyone knew what to expect in the future.

The opposition did not sleep, and at the end of last year, Itagaki Taisuke, together with Goto Shojiro, organized the Liberal Party, which advocated the "sovereign rights of the people."

1882

On January 4, an imperial decree addressed to the military was promulgated. Until the end of the Second World War, it was the main document in the education of the Emperor's loyal soldiers. From the military, Meiji demanded unconditional loyalty to himself and the country, modesty and honesty. The army was strictly forbidden to participate in political activities.

Japan had only four modern warships. But they turned out to be enough to demonstrate to the Far East their claims to the role of a local hegemon. After a series of negotiations held at gunpoint by Japanese naval guns, on August 30, an agreement was concluded in Chemulpo. The Korean king admitted his guilt for failing to ensure the safety of Emperor Meiji's subjects, promised to catch the criminals and pay compensation. On December 23, Meiji issued a decree stating Japan's intention to seek recognition of Korea as an independent state. Since until now the Korean king had been in vassal relations with the Chinese emperor, this meant that sooner or later war would break out between Japan and China.

A family code was adopted. The polygamous mores of the Japanese served as the subject of constant reproaches from the Europeans. Polygamy has now been officially abolished.

1883

Previously, Japanese wives never entertained guests, their lot was raising children and cooking. Another thing is a geisha, whose profession was communication. The geisha knew how to conduct a casual conversation, play musical instruments, sing and dance. Therefore, no one in Japan was better able to communicate than geisha. Apparently, this is the reason why so many leading Japanese politicians chose geisha as their wives. The balls at the Rokumeikan set an example for the women of the whole country that even a woman can come out into the world. This task was very relevant: the share of women even in such a “female” profession as a teacher was only about 4%.

This year began the implementation of the eight-year military plan. It included the construction of 32 warships and the modernization of coastal defenses in the Tokyo Bay area. No matter how the Europeans ridiculed the manners of the westernized Japanese, no one could deny that life in Japan was becoming more and more European. This year, the first electric lights appeared on the streets of the capital, and newspapers began to publish weather forecasts.

1884

The school taught to love the emperor and the motherland, in the schoolyards the students practiced with dumbbells and wooden swords. The school gradually became an instrument of "cultural terror", when everything serves one task: to educate the most obedient people to the government, and not a free person.

1885

In the late XIX - early XX century, the annual emigration from Japan was about 10 thousand people. Together with the accession of Hawaii to the United States, many Japanese began to settle in California. Their hard work and willingness to work for relatively low wages made the Japanese serious competitors for the local population. During World War II, more than 100,000 Japanese living in the United States ended up in concentration camps. A significant part of the Japanese workers who went to work settled in Hawaii, the west coast of the United States and South America, where many descendants of the settlers of that time still live. Some of them, to one degree or another, retained the Japanese language and ties with their historical homeland.

The Japanese were intoxicated with reforms, modernization and economic success. Fukuzawa Yukichi said that it makes no sense for "civilized" Japan to wait until its neighbors follow its example - it has come off so far that it is on the road not with Asian, but with European countries. Fukuzawa thought this idea through to the end - he proposed to treat China and Korea in exactly the same way as the West does in such cases. He called for the subjugation of these "backward" countries, in which "nothing has changed for centuries."

Rice. 3 Sleeping China

“Moving is good, standing still is bad” – such was the logic of the West in recent centuries. Immobility began to mean for the West not stability, but death. The general mood of Japanese society was gradually changing: journalists began to write more and more often about Koreans and Chinese with a sense of disgust and contempt.

1886

On July 30, Haruko made her first public appearance in a European dress. The Empress gave a sign to the whole country: now not only men, but also women should walk in European clothes. Yoshihito was the only surviving child of the emperor. Therefore, we decided to play it safe and resort to the usual practice: adoption. On May 1 of this year, Meiji adopted Prince Akihito's offspring, Yorihito. He was a naval officer.

On December 11, Nishimura Shigeki delivered the first of his three public lectures on Japanese morality. Nishimura rebelled against the "thoughtless" copying of Western models and the loss by the Japanese of the national moral foundations, by which he meant Confucianism and the "way of the warrior" (Bushido). The state became richer and stronger, but the crime curve crept up. The spirit of individualism and competitiveness undermined social foundations, duties gave way to rights. Rome fell due to its loss of moral principles. Poland was partitioned due to lack of internal unity. The task of Japan is to unite the Japanese people with the help of eternal moral principles.

This year, a terrible cholera epidemic broke out again in the country. 160 thousand people fell ill, 110 thousand of them died.

1887

The Japanese did not at all strive for systemic borrowing from one country. They behaved like in a supermarket, believing that each country ("manufacturer") has its own "horse". Japan began to build its industry and navy in accordance with British models; France set an example in the organization of the police and education; the American experience was useful in the development of Hokkaido; medical students and courtiers were taught by the Germans. In practice, this meant that the Japanese built their own civilization and culture, not beholden to anyone.

1888

In October, the construction of the imperial palace was completed. The complex consisted of 36 wooden buildings interconnected by covered galleries. In this respect, the palace resembled the traditional manor of a medieval aristocrat. The interiors are new. In front of the palace was a huge square. There were no squares in a traditional Japanese city. Public performances necessarily took the form of processions stretched out in space. Now the state has received a platform adapted for public ceremonies of the European type. On major holidays, the Japanese people could see their emperor here.

1889

This year entered the history of Japan as the year of the proclamation of the constitution. The elite had prepared well for this event. In particular, the land holdings of the imperial family were decisively expanded. The Ministry of the Court also acquired many shares. The Imperial House did not want to depend on budget allocations, which would be approved by the future parliament. The text of the constitution was prepared in the strictest secrecy, and there was no question of public discussion.

The dominant political life in Europe was Christianity, which is able to unite people to achieve the most important state goals. As for Japan, Shinto and Buddhism did not have the unifying potential of Christianity. There were too many Shinto deities, Buddhism was divided into many schools. In Japan, only the imperial family and its visible embodiment, the current emperor, had the potential to unite the entire population. The Japanese state was personalized. That is why the constitution was written "under the emperor."

The first article of the constitution, which consisted of 76 paragraphs, read: "The Great Empire of Japan is governed by an emperor who is a representative of the eternal dynastic line." The Japanese constitution recognized freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Despite crafty reservations (“if this does not harm peace and order”, “if this does not contradict the performance by subjects of their duties”). The lower chamber was elected, the upper chamber was appointed by the emperor from among the aristocrats. The Cabinet of Ministers was not accountable to Parliament. Japan became the first country with a constitution in Asia.

The Japanese constitution did not allow for diversity of opinion at all. Nakae Chomin called the people who celebrated the adoption of the constitution "fooled madmen", but there were millions of them, and the number of sane people was calculated in units.

Just four years ago, the majority of Japanese supported the idea of ​​free residence of foreigners throughout Japan, now such people are in the minority. Such a rapid change in public sentiment is only possible under conditions of developed mass media. In January, Japan's first long-distance telephone line went into operation. More and more people recognized the norms of samurai morality as a common Japanese value.

1890

The construction of the railway between the eastern and western capitals was completed, and now the journey from Tokyo to Kyoto took only 20 hours. On July 1, the first elections to the lower house of the Japanese Diet were held. The turnout was exceptionally high - 94% of voters considered that the future of the country depends on their will. The trouble was that only 1.14% of Japan's 40 million people had the right to vote. In the lower house, the majority were people who were opposed to the government. The lower house consisted of people who were younger than the ministers. Younger and more radical. There were 252 people in the upper chamber of peers: members of the imperial family, holders of hereditary titles, large landowners. All of them belonged to the government party and were a strong support of the regime.

The country and the army became stronger, the population grew, industry developed. Tokutomi Soho's Friend of the People magazine found that Japan was now ahead of Spain, but still behind Italy. The West no longer appeared as an undifferentiated and somewhat abstract unity. It was impossible to immediately lead the entire caravan, but it was already a feasible task to overtake one country after another (now Japan is the third after the USA and China).

If before the contemplation of the portrait of the emperor was the lot of a select few, now their circle has decisively expanded. Of particular note are the schools where since October of this year portraits of Meiji and his wife Haruko began to appear. Seeing the portrait of the emperor, his subjects shouted "Banzai!", wishing the monarch a long and prosperous reign.

Feelings and emotions were declared the highest value, which only the Japanese possess. Japanese morality, Japanese poetry and prose, Japanese art and aesthetics are beginning to make a significant contribution to the formation of the image of a "true Japanese". A Japanese mysterious soul, woven from a mystical fog, is born, which a European is not able to understand. Such an understanding was the realm of axioms; there was no place for pragmatic Europeans with their passion for theorems.

By this time, one of the main lines is being determined, along which the Japanese will hold the defense against the "pernicious" West. Compliance with laws is important, but since ancient times, the Japanese authorities have placed the main stake on the control of a person by the collective. Previously, it was a family, a village, an artisan workshop. Now all the inhabitants of the country acted as such a “collective”.

Public politicians agreed on one thing: in order for the country to become "respected" in the West, it is necessary to expand the territory of Japan. The government firmly knew that Japan was late for the division of the world, there were no more undiscovered lands left. Therefore, its practical redistribution was on the agenda. The intellectuals were inspired by the distant southern seas, the government was thinking about the nearby mainland.

1891

Between the government and the parliamentary opposition, a budget dispute broke out again. The Minister of the Navy delivered a heated speech in which he claimed that the oppositionists were trying to deprive him of all the funds needed to build warships. The opposition attacked the government, but the criticism did not extend to the emperor himself. Nevertheless, the Meiji dissolved the lower house.

1892

In February, new elections to the lower house were held. The government was irritated by the intractability of Parliament and this time tried to do everything to make its supporters win. During the election campaign, 83 people were killed in clashes with the police, 388 were injured. Despite numerous cases of violence and direct government intervention, despite bribery, the opposition celebrated victory.

In June, a new two-volume school history textbook was published. It was called "Teikoku shoshi" - "A Brief History of the Empire". It began with these words: “There are many countries in the world, but Japan is the best. The climate here is not too hot and not too cold, the soils are fertile and give birth to a lot of tea, rice and mulberry. Since ancient times, our people have highly valued respect, were distinguished by deep loyalty and have never been humiliated by other countries. From the very beginning of history to the present day, our imperial dynasty has not been interrupted and has constantly flourished. Nowhere else is there such a beautiful country as ours. We are lucky to be born in this country. Being blessed to be born here, you should learn well the events that have taken place in this country.

With the exception of the assertion that Japan grows a lot of tea, rice, and mulberry, none of the textbook's claims are either true or require significant qualifications. However, the requirement of truth is hardly applicable to works of this kind. It was about teaching faith. And faith cannot be substantiated with the help of rationalistic arguments; it appeals to feeling, not to fact. The study of history became part of the course on moral education. The education of subjects who are ready at any moment to sacrifice their lives for their emperor and his ancestors.

In Japan, the idea that geographical conditions determine the historical process has received the widest circulation. This postulate fell "to court". After all, then it turned out that if the geography of the country is “good” (temperate climate and fertile land, beautiful mountains and rivers), then its history simply must be excellent (the idea of ​​geographical predetermination is not alien to modern economists, see).

At the end of last year, Kume Kunitake published a serious scientific article in which he compared Shinto with other "primitive" religions of the East. He traced the origins of court rituals and the origin of imperial regalia. This year, he was accused of "disrespecting the emperor" and fired from Tokyo Imperial University. “People like Kume care about their reputation as scientists, but they often forget about their duties as subjects,” wrote Kuga Katsunan. The critic was not at all going to analyze Kume's work from the point of view of the correspondence of his calculations to reality, he openly admitted that the motherland was not interested in truth at all, but in higher considerations.

1893

The economic and military successes of Japan could be achieved only under one condition: the most serious limitation of the living standards of the population. The restrictions affected almost everyone: this year it was decided to deduct 10% from the salaries of all civil servants (with the exception of policemen and postmen) for 6 years, which were transferred to the development of the fleet. The emperor also reduced his allowance by one tenth.

1894

For foreigners, meanwhile, living in Japan was becoming more and more unpleasant. Nationalist sentiments spread more and more widely, newspapers, the public, both houses of parliament demanded from the government "an independent foreign policy." Nationalist exaltation within the country pushed the government to take decisive action. On August 1, the imperial Meiji decree on declaring war on China followed. It stated that Japan's goal was to gain independence for Korea and "reform bad government". The Great Japanese Empire began its first war. She was on foreign territory.

Japanese troops won victory after victory. In response to them, Meiji sent sake and cigarettes to the front. On October 18, he convened an extraordinary session of parliament in Hiroshima, which unanimously approved the military budget requested by the government. China, which for so many centuries stood as an unattainable cultural ideal, has now come to be seen as the epitome of stagnation and the enemy of "progress." The poor Korean people groaned under the Chinese yoke and allegedly asked the Japanese to win independence for them.

On November 22, Luishunkou (Port Arthur) fell. The foreign press raised a fuss: the Japanese, such polite and helpful houses, staged a wild massacre there. In Port Arthur, 60,000 Chinese were killed.

The war caused an unprecedented outburst of patriotic emotions. More than a hundred Japanese war correspondents covered this war. Newspaper lies were shameless, newspaper circulation grew, readers were waiting for victories and special issues, readers' eyes burned with delight. By attacking China, Meiji Japan finally did away with the politics of the shogunate, whose ideal was peace, both inside and outside the country.

1895

On March 20, negotiations began in Shimonoseki to end the war. The Japanese army won victory after victory, most of the Chinese fleet was destroyed. Li Hongzhang, the chief minister of the Chinese government, sailed to ask for peace, accompanied by 125 people. In the peace treaty concluded in Shimonoseki on April 17, Korea renounced vassal relations with China and became independent, Taiwan, the Pescadores and the southern part of the Liaodong Peninsula went to Japan, China paid an indemnity in the amount of 200 million taels (about 300 million yen) . It exceeded the annual income of the Chinese government three times! In addition, four Chinese ports were opened for the Japanese.

Meiji was somewhat hasty in his triumph. Although on May 29, Japanese troops landed in Taiwan, they were met there as uninvited guests. A republic was proclaimed on the island, local tribes organized a partisan movement. He managed to suppress only by the end of the year. The number of victims among the republican army, partisans and civilians amounted to 17 thousand people. The Japanese army lost 527 people killed, about four thousand people died from diseases.

For the first time in history, it wasn't Japan that learned from China - now the Chinese were reaching out to Japan, wanting to learn from the experience of modernizing the island country, which China had always considered "barbaric." Previously, Japan was the outskirts of China, now China has become the outskirts of the rapidly developing Japan. This became possible only because Japan abandoned the Chinese fixed model of the world, where the center and the periphery can never change places.

Japan became the first country in Asia that forced the Western world to reckon with itself. And this happened because all the inhabitants of the country in accordance with the orders of the government. The Japanese really began to perceive themselves as a single nation and blamed the shogunate for "suppressing the national consciousness" for centuries. Under Tokugawa, there were no wars, but now peaceful life no longer acted as an indicator of the well-being of the people and the state. "Unity" was considered the main thing. And the fact that it was bought with blood - both someone else's and one's own - did not bother anyone.

1896

In July, a tsunami hit the coast of northeastern Japan. More than 27 thousand people died. The construction of a plant for the production of steam locomotives began in Osaka, and modern shipyards were laid in Kawasaki. The land became more expensive. Those few peasants from the suburbs who dared to sell their tiny fields immediately became rich.

1898

In March, Russia "leased" the Kwantung Peninsula. And three months later, a contract was signed for the construction of the South Manchurian Railway, connecting the CER with Port Arthur and Dalniy.

1899

The first beer bar opened in Tokyo. On July 1, a regulation on the abolition of extraterritoriality for foreigners came into effect in Japan. This agreement was reached on the eve of the Sino-Japanese war. Now Europeans who committed crimes in Japan were subject to local courts, but they could live wherever they pleased.

Korea did not give rest to either Japan or Russia, the air already smelled of war, but the equipment of Port Arthur was still far from complete, and Russian warships continued to moor in Japan. The sailors needed rest and provisions, the ships needed repairs and coal.

1900

This year was marked by the first ever participation of the Japanese army in an international coalition. 45 thousand soldiers from eight countries (including America, England, Germany, Russia, France) participated in the suppression of the boxer uprising in China. About half of the contingent were Japanese troops.

The future hero of the Russian-Japanese war, D. I. Gurko, visited Japan and came to the conclusion that the local army was highly combat capable. He and two of his colleagues decided to convey this opinion to the Russian public. One of them lost his position because of his speech, the publication of a series of articles by the second was stopped by the Minister of War Kuropatkin.

This year, the four-year compulsory education finally became free. But for its own money, the state wanted to teach what it itself considered necessary.

1901

On April 29, Prince Yoshihito's first child was born. This was the future Emperor Showa. Although Yoshihito himself was not very healthy, his son was surprisingly strong and lived 87 years - much longer than his father and grandfather. Showa lived longer than all other Japanese emperors.

In Yawata, Kyushu, the construction of a giant steel mill was completed. Coal was mined here, and ore was delivered from China. Now Japan was no longer so heavily dependent on imports of iron and steel. But with the development of industry, it was increasingly dependent on sources of raw materials abroad. Despite the high growth rates of industry, the bulk of the country's population still lived in the bosom of nature. Only 14% of the employed worked in industry. On the other hand, 67% were employed in agriculture, forestry, and fishing.

1902

England becomes Japan's main military and political partner. On January 17, an agreement was signed with England providing for the independence of Korea and China. Proud England, which never enters into alliances with anyone, agreed to an agreement from purely earthly considerations. England feared that Russia would continue its "sliding" to the south, and then British interests in China and India could be in jeopardy. A Japanese shield was put up in the way of Russia. A significant part of the Japanese political elite agreed to become such a shield.

1903

The Hokkaido settlement policy was bearing fruit. Thirty years ago, only 110,000 people lived on the island. This year the population has exceeded one million.

The Minister of War, General A.N. Kuropatkin, noted in his diary that Nikolai wanted to “take Manchuria for Russia, go towards joining Korea with Russia. Dreams under his power Tibet. He wants to take Persia, to capture not only the Bosporus, but also the Dardanelles. Russian warships set off for Chemulpo. Newspapers and the public demanded war more insistently.

In November, the first tram was launched through the streets of Tokyo. One hundred wagons were on the route. Each of them was designed for 44 passengers. Trams ran at intervals of one minute. About 90 thousand people used the services of the new type of transport on the first day. The rickshaw business has been dealt a mortal blow.

1904

Japan wanted to make a "mutually beneficial exchange" with Russia: Russia would recognize Korea as a sphere of Japanese interests, but would gain freedom of action in Manchuria. However, Russia did not want to give up its Korean ambitions. On February 5, Naval Attache Yoshida cut the telegraph line north of Seoul. On February 6, the Japanese envoy in St. Petersburg, Kurino, announced the severance of diplomatic relations, but due to a damaged telegraph line, Russian diplomats and the military in Korea and Manchuria did not learn about it in time. Even having received this news, the governor of the Far East, General Alekseev, did not consider it necessary to notify Port Arthur and forbade publishing the message in the newspapers because of his unwillingness to "disturb society." On February 8, the Japanese squadron blocked the Varyag cruiser and the Korean gunboat in the Korean port of Chemulpo (Incheon).

On the night of February 8-9, the Japanese fleet attacked the Russian squadron, stationed on the outer roadstead of Port Arthur. Russian sailors in Chemulpo refused to surrender and accepted an unequal battle on February 9th. "Korean" was blown up, "Varyag" was heavily damaged and was flooded by its own crew.

For the second time in a decade, Japan attacked first. Although Japan severed diplomatic relations with Russia three days ago, few thought that Japan would "dare" to attack the European superpower. Despite the warnings of experts about the growing power of Japan, too many of Nicholas II's entourage lived with absolutely fantastic ideas about how the modern world works. The opinions of sober-minded politicians and military experts, who believed that, in view of Russia's weakness in the Far East, Japan should make decisive concessions, were ignored.

The Russian army entered the war completely unprepared. Neither numerically, nor technically, nor tactically. Russian gunners did not know how to fire from closed positions, mountain artillery was absent. At the beginning of the war, the Russian army had only eight machine guns. And what can we say about the fleet! In terms of strength, he was one and a half times inferior to the Japanese.

Prince Yoshihito meanwhile became interested in books on archeology. Family life did him good: he got rid of his temper and bouts of depression. At the very same Meiji at the end of this year, doctors discovered diabetes. He was rapidly decrepit.

1905

A revolution was unfolding in Russia, the state machine showed signs of incompetence and decay. In January, after a long and bloody siege, Port Arthur fell. After the fall of Port Arthur, many Russian officers taken prisoner were allowed to return home on acknowledgment that they would no longer take part in hostilities. In May, Tsushima happened - the Baltic fleet suffered a terrible defeat.

Now Russia could only wage war on land. However, despite all the victories, the immediate future seemed very vague to the Japanese command. It understood that the military, human and resource potentials of Russia, if we evaluate them from the point of view of the long term, were undoubtedly higher. Japan was the first to start the war, and it was the first to seek peace. Even before the outbreak of the war, the most sensible statesmen realized that Japan could only endure one year of hostilities.

Since Japan waged a predominantly offensive war, its human losses were much heavier (50,000 killed in Russia and 86,000 in Japan). According to the peace treaty, Russia recognized Korea as a sphere of Japanese interests and gave Japan the South Manchurian Railway built by Russia, which connected Port Arthur and Mukden. Russia also conceded the rights to lease the Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur. Russian troops left Manchuria. Japan received the southern part of Sakhalin.

As a result of Japan's crushing defeat in World War II, Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands came under the jurisdiction of the Soviet Union. Japan is currently demanding the return of the four southernmost islands (Habomai, Shikotan, Iturup and Kunashir). The treaties of 1855 and 1875 referred them to the territory of Japan.

For the subjects of the emperor and ordinary consumers, the vast majority of whom lived from pay to pay, the war, in addition to patriotic delights and funerals, meant another price increase. How could they not rise if the country spent seven pre-war budgets on the war - about two billion yen? This amount exceeded the cost of the war with China by eight and a half times.

1907

In February, miners rebelled at a private copper mine in Ashio, Tochigi Prefecture. They demanded higher wages and better working conditions. Copper mines poisoned all the water in the area. Almost for the first time in history, the Japanese had to think about the fact that industry can disfigure the land that they have sung for so many centuries in their songs and poems.

The population of the capital was now two million.

If at the beginning of the Meiji reign the main emphasis was placed on the slogan “Give European civilization!”, Now, after the victory in the recent war, Japan considered itself already quite civilized. Now the main task was to feel like a unique unit within the framework of Western civilization. As part of this project to build a “rice-growing myth”, an image of an ideal peasant was created - hardworking, modest, honest, thrifty, wise with his natural mind, constant in affections, faithful to his family, neighborly and state obligations.

Now they began to talk not only about the "Way of the Warrior" ("Bushido"), but also about the "Way of the Peasant" ("Nogyodo"). A peasant who acted as a keeper of traditions and was associated with the concepts of "ancestral land", "ancestral occupations", "ancestral customs". The four-year compulsory education was extended to six years. 7 million children went to schools. Only three percent of the underage boycotted the educational process. No other country in the world had such indicators. With "optional" education, things were not so impressive. Only 118,000 boys and 52,000 girls continued their studies in secondary school. Only slightly more than 3% of children wanted or had the opportunity to continue their education. Only 10 thousand boys and girls became students of higher educational institutions every year.

1908

In China, a boycott of Japanese goods began. As a result, Japanese exports fell by a third. The damage was significant, but Japan received another proof of its "powerfulness". In the past, the Chinese only resorted to boycotting products from Western countries. In April, Meiji's grandson, Prince Hirohito, entered the aristocratic Gakushuin school.

Despite Westernization, there was no place for body contact in Japanese society. Father Nikolai testified: “The custom of mutual kissing caused a lot of trouble: the newlyweds had to explain for a long time how to fold their lips, what to do with them; both the priest and the catechist, with their lips pressed together, held the young people by the backs of their heads and tried to bring their faces together for a kiss, while the young people, not understanding what they wanted from them, naively backed away from each other. The Japanese don't kiss, even parents don't kiss their children."

1909

Unlike the "classic" European totalitarian regimes of the 20th century - Italy, Germany and the Soviet Union - in Japan, the main stake was not on the townspeople, but on the peasantry. The participation of the population in voluntary pro-government associations was more active in the countryside than in the city.

One of the main achievements of Japanese management is the positioning of the workforce as a single family, which began in the 30s of the twentieth century. The main features of this type of management include: a rigid executive hierarchy with simultaneous collective discussion and decision-making, lifelong employment of an employee, loyalty to the work team, presentation of individual achievements as collective.

1910

This year, 34% of the budget was allocated to the army (in Russia - 14%). Japan now owned Taiwan, Sakhalin, Korea, and looked touchingly like a "real" colonial power. Both in terms of the methods of its foreign policy, and in terms of the picture of the world in which this world was presented as an object of forceful influence. Many Japanese people enjoyed it.

1912

Meiji passed away on July 29. The throne remained unoccupied for only 17 minutes. By morning, a decree was promulgated that the new emperor would rule under the motto Taisho - Great Justice. The speed with which the change of the motto of the board took place was unparalleled. Usually the new motto was adopted after observing a year of mourning. Meiji himself waited a year and a half to adopt his own motto.

Meiji was only three months short of his sixtieth birthday. The average life expectancy for a man was then about 42 years, so for his time, Meiji can be considered a long-liver. In accordance with the wishes of the Meiji, they decided to bury him on Mount Momoyama near his native Kyoto. Japanese newspapers compared Meiji with Peter the Great and Wilhelm I. He was credited with granting a constitution, a decree on education, victories over China and Russia, and the annexation of Korea. It has become commonplace to assert that the path that Western countries have traveled in several centuries, Japan slipped in the 45 years of the Meiji reign.

Epilogue

At the time of the Meiji infancy, Japan was in real danger of becoming a semi-colony and backyard of the West. The inability to cope with this threat, impotence in the political, economic and military spheres led to the collapse of the Tokugawa shogunate and the promotion of those young and active people who strongly advocated modernization.

These low-ranking samurai came mainly from the southwestern principalities, where, by the will of historical circumstances, an extremely energetic psychotype was developed. The determination of these people to direct Japan along the path of modernization was determined primarily by the fact that they soberly assessed the possibilities of the former Japan, which was not able to resist the onslaught of the West. As a shield that shielded them from the accusations of the "soilers" of neglecting centuries-old foundations, the Renovationists put up the young and beardless Meiji.

Meiji had no role to play in the decisions surrounding these events. It was positioned as a symbol of rebirth. Studying the materials available to us, one cannot get rid of the feeling that one is dealing not so much with a “living” person as with a priest who was breathed into life by rituals, ceremonies, and etiquette. Did Meiji's personality affect what happened in the country? The answer to this question will be rather negative. During the 45-year "reign" of his active environment pursued a variety of policies. From bewildered openness to Western trends - to undisguised expansionism, dictated by the same Western models.

During the Meiji lifetime, in just a few decades, Japan made the leap from feudalism to modernity. Meiji was surrounded by very capable people, and his country had indeed achieved many of the goals that the elite had. No matter how we feel about these goals today, we must admit that they have been achieved. Along the way, the people at the helm of power made many mistakes, but we must give them their due: they learned from mistakes and corrected them quickly.

Meiji's program of action was made public at the very beginning of his reign. It was recorded in the Five Article Oath. Meiji promised the gods to make decisions on the basis of "public meetings" - and a parliament was created in the country. Meiji promised that the rulers and the ruled would become closer to each other - and the medieval gap between power and subjects really narrowed, and the Japanese nation was formed from disparate territorial, estate, confessional and professional groups, possessing Japanese culture.

The third point on the development of personal initiative was also fulfilled. First of all, this applies to entrepreneurship in all its manifestations. It was thanks to this that Japan was able to carry out accelerated industrialization and become a powerful power. The fourth point was about reforming the "bad customs of the past" and introducing administration in accordance with the principles of Heaven and Earth, which is usually understood as just administration in accordance with the laws. Estate law was abolished, the law became one for all. The fifth point was about the greater openness of Japan to the world and the development of education. This goal was also achieved.

Extraterritoriality - the status of individuals who are not subject to local legislation, but are subject to the laws of the state of which they are citizens.

The most favored nation status is the establishment in international treaties of provisions under which one party undertakes to provide the other party with conditions no less favorable than those that it provides or will provide in the future to any third state.