Ancient Rome is an ancient state centered in the city of Rome (Lazio region, Italy), which gradually expanded to the entire Apennine Peninsula, most of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Ancient Rome existed for about eight hundred years.
Kingdom Period
2000 BC e. Indo-Europeans related to the Greeks invade the Apennine Peninsula from the north.
900-800 BC e. The Etruscans arrived on the Apennine Peninsula by sea, probably from Asia Minor.
753 BC e. According to legend, the twin brothers Romulus and Remus founded Rome, a city on seven hills (Aventinus, Viminal, Capitol, Quirinal, Palatine, Caelius, Esquiline).
753-715 BC e. According to legend, the reign of Romulus, the first king of Rome.
616-510 BC e. The reign of the Etruscan kings from the Tarquin dynasty. The emergence of the classes of patricians and plebeians, as well as slaves.
Republic period
510-509 BC e. Overthrow of Etruscan rule. The Romans gained state independence. Military-political power passed to the Senate and elected consuls (aristocratic republic).
508 BC e. The treaty between Rome and Carthage recognizes the exclusive interests of Rome in the Apennine Peninsula and Carthage in Africa.
451-449 BC e. A written recording of Roman law was carried out (“Laws of 12 tables” - the basis of Roman legislation over the next 600 years).
445 BC e. The legality of marriages between plebeians and patricians was recognized. Merger of the plebeian elite into one class with the patricians (nobility).
406-396 BC e. The third and final war of the Romans with the Etruscan city of Veii (north of Rome).
390 BC e. Invasion of the Celts (“Gauls”) from the north into the Apennines. Defeat of the Romans and temporary capture of the city.
343-265 BC e. Wars of Rome with other Italic tribes (Aequi, Volscians, Samnites, Latins) and Greek city-states in Italy (including with Pir, king of Epirus). Rome seized dominance over the entire peninsula.
287 BC e. Full legal equality of plebeians and patricians was accepted.
264-146 BC e. The Punic Wars of Rome and Carthage (modern Tunisia) for dominance over the Mediterranean Sea:
First (264-241 BC). Annexation by Rome of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica (the first Roman provinces);
Second (218-201 BC). Initially - the victory of the Carthaginians under the command of Hannibal, and finally - the victory of the Romans at the walls of Carthage. Later (183 BC) Hannibal preferred death to surrender to Rome;
Third (149-146 BC). Siege and destruction of Carthage. Formation of the Roman province of Africa. Annexation of Iberia (part of modern Spain).
229-146 BC e. Expansion of Rome into the Eastern Mediterranean. Capture of Greece, Macedonia, Syria.
138-101 BC e. Slave revolts in Sicily and Pergamon. Suppressed by the Roman army.
88 BC e. Civil war between the consuls Gaius Marius and Sulla due to a clash of interests within the ruling class. Final victory for Sulla and the Senate nobles supporting him.
82-79 BC e. The dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, directed against all democratic changes, was aimed at overcoming the state crisis of Rome. The social basis of the dictatorship was the senatorial oligarchy and the army. In 79 BC e. Sulla, admitting that he had “not achieved his goals,” resigned and returned to private life.
73-71 BC e. The revolt of Spartacus, the largest uprising of slaves in the Roman state. The army of Spartacus was defeated by the Roman army of Marcus Licinius Crassus. Spartak died in battle.
70 BC e. Marcus Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Pompeii were elected consuls.
67 BC e. Having received special powers, a strong fleet and the necessary troops, Gnaeus Pompeii eliminated piracy in the Mediterranean within 60 days.
66-62 BC e. Eastern campaigns of Gnaeus Pompey. As a result, a victory was won over Mithridates VI Eupator, king of Pontus. The Romans moved further into Syria, where Pompey legally abolished the former Seleucid kingdom and formed the new Roman province of Syria, to which he annexed the Phoenician cities and Judea.
60 BC e. The first triumvirate. An unspoken agreement between Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompey on a joint fight against the Senate oligarchy.
59 BC e. Gaius Julius Caesar was elected consul.
58-51 BC e. Gallic campaigns of Gaius Julius Caesar. He conquered all of Gaul, defeated the Germanic tribes, and launched two invasions of Britain (55-54 BC). The campaigns were distinguished by the merciless mass extermination of the vanquished.
52 BC e. Gnaeus Pompeii became sole consul and established a virtual dictatorship.
49-45 BC e. Civil war between Caesar and Pompey for power. Caesar's troops crossing the river
Rubicon (January 49 BC). Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus (August 48 BC). Pompey's flight to Egypt and his death. Caesar's wars in Egypt and Asia Minor, return to Rome.
45-44 BC e. Dictatorship of Gaius Julius Caesar. Introduction of the Julian calendar (solar calendar, “old style”). Assassination of Caesar in the Senate (March 44 BC).
44-31 BC e. Civil wars for power in Rome. Ended with the victory of one of the members of the second Gaius Octavius (Gaius Julius Caesar)
Empire period
27 BC e. The Senate gives Gaius Octavius the title "Emperor Caesar Augustus." Changing the form of government in the Roman state to authoritarian. The emergence of the Roman Empire; The first emperor, Caesar Augustus, ruled until 14 AD. e.
19 BC e. Completion of the Roman conquest of all Spain.
14-37 BC e. Reign of Tiberius, stepson of Augustus. Relying on the imperial guard, he pursued an autocratic policy. Achieved an improvement in the financial situation of the empire.
37-41 Reign of Caligula. It was characterized by massive confiscations of property and increased taxes. His desire for unlimited power and demand for honor for himself as a god aroused the discontent of the Senate; was killed by the guard.
40-41 The Romans occupied Mauretania (modern Morocco and Western Algeria), inhabited by Berber tribes. Dividing it into two parts, they were declared Roman provinces.
41-54 Reign of Claudius. He laid the foundations of the imperial bureaucracy, improved the financial position of the state, streamlined taxation, and distributed the rights of Roman citizenship to provincials. Poisoned by his wife Agrippina, mother of Nero.
43 The Romans begin their conquest of Britain. Southern Britain declared a Roman province
48-79 The Romans conquer Wales.
54-68 Reign of Nero. All kinds of buildings and games absorbed huge amounts of money from the state treasury. Through repressions and confiscations, the emperor alienated different layers of Roman society. After betraying the guard, he committed suicide.
64 The most severe fire in Rome, destroying 10 of the 14 districts of the city. To ward off the suspicion of arson, Nero blamed it on Jews and Christians (the first persecution of Christians).
69-79 Reign of Vespasian. He extended the rights of Roman and Latin citizenship to provincials much more widely than his predecessors.
78-85 Gnaeus Julius Agricola, Roman governor in Britain, extends Roman rule to the highlands of Scotland.
79 The eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which destroyed the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae.
79-81 Reign of Titus, son of Vespasian. In Roman historiography, Titus is considered one of the best emperors; continued Vespasian's policy towards the provincial population, showed concern for the people after natural disasters (fires in cities, the eruption of Vesuvius), built public buildings in Rome (Thermal Baths, Colosseum, etc.).
81-96 Reign of Domitian, younger brother of Titus. The strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus and the infringement of the rights of the Senate caused discontent among the aristocracy. Killed as a result of a palace conspiracy.
98-117 Reign of Trajan. As a result of the victorious wars, the empire expanded its borders to the maximum: the territories of Dacia (101-106), Arabia (106), Greater Armenia (114), and Mesopotamia (115) were conquered. Now the eastern border of the Roman Empire ran along the Tigris River. In the eyes of the Roman slave-owning nobility, Trajan was the ideal ruler.
117-138 Reign of Hadrian. Under him, imperial power and centralization of government institutions increased. Hadrian moved away from the aggressive policy of his predecessor; in 117 he ended the war with the Parthians, abandoning Armenia and Mesopotamia. A system of powerful fortifications and defensive ramparts was created on the borders of the empire.
138-161 Reign of Antoninus Pius. He continued the policies of Hadrian, avoided wars and erected defensive structures on the borders.
161-180 Reign of Marcus Aurelius. Marked by defensive battles, marking the end of the quiet development of the empire. Domestic policy is characterized by the agreement of Marcus Aurelius with the Senate while simultaneously strengthening the state apparatus and expanding its functions. Marcus Aurelius went down in the history of philosophy as one of the most prominent representatives of late Stoicism.
162-166 War between Rome and the Parthians over influence in Armenia. The outbreak of the plague forced the Romans to retreat. The plague, brought into the empire by troops, raged until 189 (Emperor Marcus Aurelius himself died from it). According to the peace treaty (166), Northern Mesopotamia joined the Roman Empire, and Armenia, while nominally maintaining independence, actually became dependent on Rome.
180-192 Reign of Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius. He relied on the guard, persecuted senators, confiscating their property. He demanded his deification. Participated in gladiator battles. Killed by conspirators from among the courtiers.
193-211 Reign of Septimius Severus. Tried to overcome the internal political crisis of the Roman Empire by establishing an open military monarchy. He pursued a policy aimed at weakening the Senate, executed his many enemies, and confiscated their property. Strengthened the borders of the empire.
195-198 Septimius Severus repelled the Parthian invasion of Armenia and Syria, and then captured all of Mesopotamia. A new province was organized on the occupied lands.
205-211 Septimius Severus repelled the attack of the Scottish mountain tribes on the province of Britain and restored the system of Roman defensive structures. Died in Britain from illness.
211-217 Reign of Caracalla, eldest son of Septimius Severus. In 212 he issued an Edict granting the rights of Roman citizenship to the entire free population1 of the Roman Empire. The policy of putting pressure on the Senate, the execution of the nobility, and the beating of the inhabitants of Alexandria who opposed additional recruitment into the army caused discontent and led to the murder of Caracalla by the conspirators.
222-235 Reign of Severus Alexander from the Syrian side branch of the dynasty. The state was actually ruled by the emperor's grandmother and mother with the help of their advisors. State policy was carried out in agreement with the Senate, expenses for the needs of the army were reduced. The aggravation of relations between the emperor and the military led to a mutiny in the legions. The Emperor, his mother and their advisors were killed by their disgruntled soldiers during the war with the Alemanni on the Rhine.
235-238 Reign of Maximin. The son of a Thracian peasant, who rose from an ordinary warrior to the commander of an army, which proclaimed him emperor. His policies, which affected the interests of the Senate and large landowners and aimed at satisfying military needs, caused the uprising. In the war with the Senate party, Maximin died during a rebellion that broke out in his own camp.
238-244 Reign of Gordian III. In 242-244 he led the fight against the Persians in Syria and Mesopotamia and repelled their invasion (241-244). He died at the hands of conspirators from his inner circle on the Euphrates.
244-249 Reign of Philip the Arab. Came to power by killing Emperor Gordian III. He made peace with the Persians and repelled the attack of the Goths (245-247). He fell in battle with Emperor Decius near Verona.
249-251 The reign of Decius Trajan. Proclaimed emperor by his troops in opposition to Philip. Organized the first systematic persecution of Christians throughout the state. Killed in battle against the invading Goths.
253-259 Valerian's reign. He declared his son Gallienus as co-ruler, who ruled until 268. The persecution of Christians continued. A sharp deterioration in the situation on the borders of the empire, continuous invasions from across the Danube by the Goths and other tribes, on the Rhine border by the Franks and Alemanni, in North Africa by the Blemians and nomads of Mauretania, in the east by the Persians, who captured the emperor himself. Valerian died in captivity.
260-268 The period of political anarchy in the Roman Empire. Local military leaders proclaimed themselves emperors. Gallienus's authority was actually recognized only in Rome and Italy. The increasing frequency of invasions by hostile neighbors was aggravated by a series of uprisings. Earthquakes and outbreaks of epidemics occurred in different provinces. The Emperor was killed by conspirators.
268-270 Reign of Claudius, nicknamed Gothic for his successful war with the Goths. The period of restoration of the military power of the Roman Empire (strengthening the army, reorganizing the Danube provinces, forced settlement of uninhabited Roman territories by the Goths). Died of the plague.
270-275 The reign of Aurelian. He fought off several major invasions of the Roman Empire, restored its political unity (274), for which the Senate presented him with the honorary title “restorer of peace.” Aurelian was the first to be officially called “lord and god” and wear a diadem. He fell victim to a conspiracy during a campaign against the Persians.
276-282 Reign of Emperor Probus. Strengthened the power of Rome in Gaul and along the entire Rhine border. He died during a revolt of the military, outraged by the fact that the emperor forced them to build large defensive structures in peacetime.
285-305 Reign of Diocletian. He carried out reforms that stabilized the position of the empire; appointed himself three co-rulers; divided the empire into 4 parts, and those, in turn, into 12 new provinces; strengthened the army; streamlined taxation. The establishment of an unlimited monarchy is associated with Diocletian. Trying to stop the spread of Christianity throughout the empire, in 303-305 he organized a general persecution of Christians. In 305 he abdicated the throne.
312-337 Reign of Constantine I the Great. After many years of struggle with his co-rulers, he became the sole ruler of the empire. He consistently centralized the state apparatus. He supported the Christian Church, while also preserving pagan cults. In 321 he declared Sunday an official "day of rest." In 330 he founded Constantinople on the site of the ancient city of Byzantium.
325 Council of Nicaea. Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire.
359-361 The war between Rome and Persia, which ended with a peace treaty beneficial for Persia.
361-363 Reign of Julian. Having received a Christian upbringing, he, having become emperor, declared himself a supporter of paganism. He issued edicts against Christians, for which he received the nickname “Apostate.” He died during the campaign against the Persians.
363-364 Reign of Jovian. He canceled all of Julian's decrees on religious issues and completely restored the dominant position of Christianity. Shortly before his death he was forced to cede Mesopotamia to the Persians.
383-395 Reign of Theodosius I the Great. In 380 he established the dominance of orthodox Christianity and persecuted adherents of paganism. Under him, the Olympic Games were canceled (as pagan ones), the Library of Alexandria was burned, and many pagan sanctuaries were destroyed.
395 After the death of Theodosius I the Great, the entire Roman Empire, according to his will, was divided between his sons: 11-year-old Honorius became Emperor of the West, 18-year-old Arcadius, the first ruler of the Byzantine Empire, became Emperor of the East.
Western Roman Empire period
395-423 Reign of Honorius. In fact, the country was ruled by the commander Stilicho until 408, and then real power passed to the courtiers.
404 Transfer of the capital of the empire from Rome to Ravenna, a city in Northern Italy at the mouth of the Padus River, a port on the Adriatic Sea.
407 The Romans effectively abandoned Britain.
425-455 Reign of Valentinian III. Until 437, his mother served as regent. Until 454, he was under the influence of the commander Aetius, who in 451, with the help of the Visigoths, defeated the Huns who invaded Gaul. In 454, Valentinian executed Aetius, but soon after that he was himself killed by the latter’s adherents, who allied with the Senate nobility. Intensification of the process of collapse of the empire. Conquest of Africa by Vandals; Spain, Gaul and Pannonia (Danube Province) became almost independent.
454 Pope Leo I the Great seeks from Emperor Valentinian III recognition of the pope's supreme judicial powers (subordination of bishops to the papal court, giving the decisions of the pope the force of law), which contributed to the transformation of the bishop of Rome into the head of the Church in the West.
476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire. The commander of the imperial guard, Odoacer, deposed the 16-year-old emperor Romulus Augustulus, who, ironically, bore the name of the founder of the city of Rome and the Roman state.
One of the main reasons for the rapid growth and rise of Rome was its exceptionally advantageous location. Rome was located at the intersection of the most important land routes, next to it were sea routes from the Eastern Mediterranean to the Western and from Africa to Europe. Rome is located in the center of the Apennine Peninsula; The earliest settlements on the site of the future city were located on hills with steep slopes standing on a marshy plain, which is why Rome was often called the “city of seven hills.” The warm, mild climate, fertile soils, and rich flora favored the emergence and development of human settlements in this place.
Italy's peninsular position led to the development of shipbuilding, fishing, maritime trade, and naval military activity in Rome. The mountains in Italy occupied a significantly smaller part of the territory than in Greece and Macedonia, were not so high and did not serve as a serious obstacle to the development of close contacts between different regions and to the unification of the country. The natural resources of Italy were richer than in Greece, which allowed the peoples of the Apennine Peninsula to more successfully develop agriculture, cattle breeding, and crafts. An important consequence of all this was the high population of Ancient Italy, which was certainly important for the state in the conditions of constant wars waged by the Romans.
Volcanoes
The ancient Romans believed that they could conquer the whole world, but they could not cope with the formidable volcanic forces of nature at home.
Most of the Apennine Peninsula is occupied by mountains. Some of these mountains - volcanoes, composed of cooled ash and lava ejected from the hot bowels of the Earth to the surface. A series of volcanic mountains rise directly from the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea, and their surface peaks form islands. The ancient Romans thought that the god Vulcan worked underground in his forge. From the blows of his hammer, the earth begins to shake, a strong underground rumble is heard, from crater - depressions at the top of the volcano - fire, smoke, ash burst out. Fiery lava begins to flow down the slopes of the volcano. A volcanic eruption occurs. People were afraid of volcanoes, but often settled at their foot, because volcanic ash fertilized the earth well. Eruptions occurred rarely, sometimes once every hundred, or even once every thousand years, and everyone hoped that there would be no eruption during his lifetime.
Those Romans who lived next to the volcano thought so too. Vesuvius. A strong eruption in the 1st century AD began unexpectedly, many people died. Two cities were burned and filled with lava. The third city, Pompeii, was covered with volcanic ash. Today, the streets and houses of Pompeii have been dug out from the ashes, and we can imagine how people lived about 2,000 years ago.
When the last king was expelled from the city, Rome was declared a republic. The Roman Republic was governed by the Senate - a group of individuals (senators) who came from the most noble Roman families. Under the leadership of the Senate, the Romans gradually conquered all of Italy.
Roman Senate
At meetings in the Senate, issues important to the Roman Republic were decided. The Senate was headed by two consuls. They were the highest representatives of power. There were always guards near them. Every year, special officials - magistrates - were elected from the senators. Each senator had responsibilities for a specific part of the government or organization. Also among the senators were eight praetor judges. All senators wore a toga (loose robe) with a wide purple stripe.
Punic Wars
From 264 BC e. The Romans and the inhabitants of Carthage fought with each other several times. Both sides fought a bitter struggle for control of trade in the Mediterranean.
In 218 BC. e. The Carthaginians invaded Italy. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal led his troops through the Alps. During the campaign in the mountains, 10 thousand soldiers died. Only two war elephants out of forty survived the hardships of this journey.
The wars between Rome and Carthage went down in history as the Punic. They ended with the fall and complete destruction of Carthage in 146 BC. e.
Julius Caesar
While the Romans conquered more and more territories, senators argued about ways to govern them. Opposing groups of senators resorted to the help of troops in the struggle for power. In 49 BC. e. The commander Julius Caesar, approaching Rome with his legions, seized supremacy in it. Caesar brought peace. However, several senators, fearing that he would proclaim himself king, stabbed him to death.
The Roman Empire
After the death of Caesar, the struggle for power intensified even more. In 31 BC. e. Caesar's grandnephew Octavian, having defeated his rival Mark Antony, subjugated the entire Roman state to his influence. Octavian adopted the nickname Augustus, which means “sacred, exalted by the deity.”
The Rise of Ancient Rome
By the time Augustus became emperor, most of the Mediterranean was subject to Rome. Over the next 150 years, the Romans conquered even more territory. They created a colossal empire - from Britain to the countries of the Middle East.
During the reign of Emperor Trajan, in 117 AD. e., the Roman Empire reached its maximum limits.
Decline of Rome
Around 200 AD e. The power of the Roman Empire began to weaken. The emperor was now chosen by the army, and skirmishes broke out between different groups of warriors. The Roman Empire was invaded by tribes from the northeast. They were called Germans. The Romans called these people barbarians.
Reign of Diocletian
In 284 AD e. The military leader Diocletian became emperor. To protect the empire from barbarians, he reorganized the army, increasing its number.
Division of the Roman Empire. Diocletian understood that such a huge empire could not be ruled by one person. So he divided it into two parts. Diocletian himself ruled the Eastern Roman Empire, and his military leader Maximian ruled the Western. Each emperor had a deputy who helped him manage the administration.
Reign of Constantine
When Diocletian voluntarily renounced the throne, a serious struggle for power broke out. In 312 AD e. Constantine becomes Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
Unification of the Roman Empire. Later, Constantine took control of the Eastern Roman Empire, recreating the state within its former borders. Constantine moves the capital of the Roman Empire to the city of Byzantium on the Black Sea. He rebuilds Byzantium, fills it with treasures from all over the empire and renames the city in his honor as Constantinople.
Fall of Ancient Rome
Invasion of the Huns on Rome
Around 370 AD e. Eastern Europe was invaded by the Huns who came from Central Asia. Moving across Europe, the Huns drove the Germanic tribes out of their lands and forced the latter to occupy the territories of the Roman Empire.
The Romans allowed some Germanic tribes, including the Visigoths, to settle in the lands of the empire. The latter, in gratitude, were supposed to help the Romans fight the barbarians.
Collapse of the Roman Empire
In 395 AD e. The Roman Empire finally split into Western and Eastern. Since then, many waves of barbarian invasions have swept through Western Europe. In 410 AD e. The Visigoths captured Rome, and in 455 AD. e. the city survived the invasion of Vandal warriors. They killed many Romans, burned most of the buildings, smashed the statues and plundered all the treasures.
Death of the Roman Empire
In 476 AD e. The Visigothic leader Odoacer proclaimed himself king of Italy. The Western Roman Empire collapsed. The Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at Constantinople, better known as Byzantium, lasted for another thousand years.
Culture of Ancient Rome
Painting in Ancient Rome
Portrait
Fun and Games in Ancient Rome
Pictures (photos, drawings)
Statue of a she-wolf feeding Romulus and Remus (Capitolian she-wolf)
Ancient settlement in the Tiber Valley
Map of the Roman Republic
Meeting in the Senate (some of the benches have been removed)
Coin depicting the Senate building
Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. e.
The city of Carthage is in flames
Julius Caesar
Statue of Emperor Augustus. Augustus is depicted in the armor of a Roman commander
Statue of Jupiter, supreme Roman god
German warrior
Statue of Diocletian and Maximian with their two deputies
Constantine holds a model of Byzantium in his hands. Late mosaic
Huns warriors in battle
Visigothic settlers
Map of barbarian invasions
Destruction of Rome by Vandal warriors
Ancient Rome, nicknamed “Italy” (“Land of the Calves”) by the Greeks, was located on the Apennine Peninsula. The island of Sicily adjoins the southern tip of ancient Rome. The Apennines have rich mineral deposits. The Alpine mountains protect Ancient Rome from the northern winds.
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. Among the many tribes and peoples in the Apennines, the Etruscans began to stand out for their development. They lived in free cities and had a written language of ten thousand characters.
In the center of the Apennine Peninsula, in the region of Lazio, lived a tribe of Latins, whose language became common Italian. In 753 BC. The city of Rome was founded 25 kilometers from the Tiber River. The earliest inhabitants of ancient Rome called themselves patricians (pater - father). Arable land and pastures were their property. People who moved to ancient Rome from other places and their descendants were called plebeians (common people). They had to serve in the army, but did not receive land on the common field. The plebeians rented land from the patricians and gave half the harvest for it.
The elders of the patricians formed the “council of elders” - the senate. The senators of ancient Rome elected a king for life from among their ranks. 
A fortress was built on Capitol Hill, which the population used as a refuge during enemy attacks. The market square in ancient Rome was called the forum.
Slave labor was used in the most difficult jobs, in crafts, in agriculture, and in domestic work.
To ancient Rome 509 BC. The Romans abolished royal power and established a republic in the country (“a common cause”). Every year, the people's assembly elected two rulers from among the patricians - consuls, who ruled Rome, were judges, and in case of war, commanded the army. The Senate enjoyed enormous power: it was in charge of the treasury, decided issues of war and peace, and proposed ready-made decisions to the people's assembly for voting. The establishment of the republic did not improve the situation of the plebeians; they continued to remain powerless and threatened the patricians that they would leave Rome.
The patricians, fearful of the weakening of the army, made concessions to the plebeians. In ancient Rome, early 5th century BC. The plebeians received the right to annually elect their defenders - the tribunes of the people. The tribune could cancel the orders of the consuls and the Senate concerning the plebeians. All he had to do was say the word “veto” (“I forbid”). The murder of a people's tribune was considered the most serious crime. Over time, the plebeians gained the right to hold consular positions and own land in the common field. It was forbidden to turn them into slaves for debt.
The 244-year (509-265 BC) struggle between the plebeians and patricians ended in favor of the plebeians. From the middle of the 3rd century BC. they became full citizens. Every citizen of ancient Rome could occupy any position. But unlike Greece, in Rome there was no pay for holding office, and therefore the poor had no incentive to strive for office.
Relying on the strength of its legions, each of which had 4,500 heavily armed infantry, Rome, after more than 200 years of continuous fighting, by the first half of the 3rd century BC. subjugated all the peoples living in Italy.
At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Greek cities in southern Italy were captured. In ancient Rome, Latin script appeared on the basis of Greek writing. Latin became the official language.
The Romans implemented the principle of “divide and conquer” in politics. In the process of capturing all of Italy, two catchphrases appeared:
1) “Geese saved Rome” (in 390 BC, the Gauls attacked Rome at night. For some reason, the geese made a noise and woke up the defenders of Rome, the enemy’s attack was thwarted); 
2) “Pyrrhic victory” (victory equivalent to defeat. This refers to the victory of the king of Epirus, who came to the aid of the Greek cities in southern Italy and defeated the Romans at the cost of great losses).
Between ancient Rome and Carthage, located in North Africa, which has a large number of colonies on the islands and the Mediterranean coast, a struggle developed for the possession of the island of Sicily. Gradually, individual clashes developed into the Punic Wars, as the Romans called the Carthaginians Punes.
The First Punic War (264-241 BC) ended with the victory of the Romans, who got Sicily. Rome then attacked Sardinia and Corsica, and Carthage in 219 BC. attacked the city of Saguntum, an ally of ancient Rome in Spain. This became the reason for Rome for the second Punic War (218-201 BC). The Carthaginian commander Hannibal unexpectedly made a campaign from Spain to Italy. In northern Italy, in the Po Valley, he was joined by the Gaul tribes. Some tribes and cities believed Hannibal's promise to free them from the power of Rome and also sided with him. In 216 BC. At the Battle of Cannae, the Carthaginians used their advantage in cavalry and won. Tens of thousands of Romans died or were captured. The Romans mobilized all able-bodied men into the army and changed their battle tactics. In 204 BC. The Roman army under the command of Scipio landed in Africa. Hannibal was forced to leave Italy to defend Carthage.
In 202 BC. In the battle of Zama, south of Carthage, the Romans were victorious again. In 201 BC. a peace was concluded according to which Carthage:
- surrendered his navy;
- paid reparations;
- renounced territorial claims outside Africa.
Wanting to put an end to the trading power of Carthage, the Romans began the Third Punic War (149 -146 BC). As a result, Carthage was captured and turned into a Roman province. In 190 BC. Ancient Rome conquered Syria and captured its lands in Asia Minor. Then, with the help of the Greeks, promising them independence, Rome defeated Macedonia, and in 146 BC. occupied Greece. Thus, Ancient Rome became the most powerful state in the Mediterranean Sea.
By decision of the Senate, the victorious commander was awarded a triumph. The triumphant triumphantly rode into the city on a cart drawn by four white horses, followed by his troops, carrying rich booty, and leading prisoners. The captured territories became an ancient Roman province, ruled by Roman governors.
Numerous wars of conquest, as well as an increase in the number of slaves, led to the ruin of the peasantry in ancient Rome. In 133 BC. Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune of the people, who realized the danger of impoverishment of the peasantry for ancient Rome and proposed a new land law, according to which:
1) each rich Roman was entitled to no more than 250 hectares of land; excess land was taken away and distributed to the poor;
2) the received land was prohibited from being sold. It remained the property of the peasants forever.
In ancient Rome, the Senate rejected this bill, and the people's assembly accepted it. Then the senators falsely accused Tiberius of wanting to usurp power and killed him.
In 123 BC. Tiberius's brother, Gaius Gracchus, was also elected tribune of the people. He tried to continue his brother's work, and tens of thousands of poor people received land. However, in the next battle on the streets of Rome, Guy Gracchus and three thousand of his supporters were killed. After this, the Senate stopped the distribution of land and passed a law allowing peasants to sell land received from the state.
The rich again began to increase their land holdings, buying up the plots of poor peasants.
Plundering the conquered territories, the Romans brought a lot of booty and slaves. The largest slave market was on the island of Delos in the Aegean Sea. Slave labor was used in agriculture and construction, on the estates of the rich, and in the silver mines of occupied Spain. In ancient Rome, tools of labor were called “dumb” oxen – “mooing”, and slaves – “talking tools”.
From the 3rd century BC. In ancient Rome they began to hold gladiator fights (“gladius” - sword). These brutal competitions went back to the Etruscan custom of staging battles in honor of fallen warriors. Strong and dexterous slaves were trained in special schools to use weapons and were forced to fight each other. Such slaves were called “gladiators”. For gladiatorial fights, an amphitheater was built, in the center of which there was a sand-covered area - an arena. The fate of the defeated gladiator depended entirely on the spectators.
To ancient Rome 74 BC. At the gladiator school in Capua, a group of gladiators led by the Thracian Spartacus rebelled and took refuge on Mount Vesuvius. Spartacus did not allow the troops of the two consuls sent against him to unite, and, trying to leave Italy, he fought in the north to the Po River valley. However, unexpectedly, Spartacus turned back and went to southwestern Italy with the goal of raising an uprising on the island of Sicily. The pirates who contracted to transport the rebel slaves to the island deceived Spartacus. The Roman army led by Crassus surrounded his fighters. Pompey also came to help Crassus. Spartak fell into a trap, and famine began among the rebels. Deciding that “death from iron is better than from hunger,” Spartacus attacked Crassus, but was defeated in 71 BC. and died. The lack of unity of opinion, the inability to unite to solve a common problem, and the poor armament of the slaves became the reason for the defeat of the uprising.
Successful wars of conquest strengthened the influence of military leaders in Rome. The soldiers obeyed only the commander, who paid them for their service and allocated a portion of the looted booty. After the defeat of Spartacus in ancient Rome, there was a struggle for power between Crassus, Pompey and Caesar. Caesar achieved his election as consul, and was then appointed governor of the province of Gaul. He gathered an army of mercenaries and waged war against the Gauls for 8 years to conquer their entire country. Caesar knew how to flirt with the poor. To become consul, he demanded the free distribution of bread and land to the poor, and organized gladiatorial fights. He also flirted with mercenaries, doubling their wages from booty and promising land plots after the war. After capturing Gaul, Caesar turned his troops towards Rome and crossed the border river Rubicon. This was regarded as a rebellion against the republic. While crossing the river, Caesar said: “The die is cast.” Having overcome the resistance of Pompey, Caesar in 49 BC. entered Rome and captured all of Italy. Pursuing Pompey, Caesar defeated him in the Balkans. The fighting between Caesar's supporters and Pompey's supporters was called a civil war (military action between citizens of the same country). To strengthen his power in Rome, Caesar waged wars in Asia, Africa and Spain for three more years. The Senate proclaimed Caesar “emperor” (“overlord”). The emperor was given honors as a king. His portrait was minted on coins, his statues stood next to the statues of the gods. Only candidates approved by him were elected to the positions of consuls and tribunes of the people. In 44 BC. Some senators, led by Caesar’s friend Brutus, formed a conspiracy to preserve an aristocratic republic in Rome. Caesar was assassinated in the Senate. The murderers, fearing retribution, fled to Macedonia. Caesar's heir Octavian and Caesar's comrade-in-arms Antony overtook the fugitives near the city of Philippi and dealt with them. The winners divided the administration of the Roman state among themselves: Antony ruled the eastern provinces, Octavian ruled the western ones. Subsequently, Anthony married the Egyptian queen Cleopatra.
Over time, relations between Octavian and Antony worsened and escalated into war. In 31 BC. Antony was defeated at the Battle of Cape Actium. In 30 BC. Octavian's troops occupied Alexandria. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Egypt was turned into a province of Rome. Octavian's victory over Antony ended the civil wars in Rome. During the reign of Octavian (30 BC -14 AD), the form of republican government was preserved (Senate, People's Assembly, Consuls, People's Tribunes), but Emperor Octavian ruled the country alone. The Senate awarded him the honorary title “Augustus” (“sacred”). Since the reign of Octavian, Rome has become an empire, and the ruler has become an emperor.
In the 1st-2nd centuries AD. ancient Rome reached the pinnacle of power. But the method of management using unproductive slave labor led to the decline of the empire’s economy.
Slave labor was hard and irrational. Slaves were not trusted with expensive tools, so slavery hampered the development of technology.
In order to interest a slave in the result of his work, some slaves were allocated a plot of land, given tools, allowed to build huts and start a family. Such slaves were called “hut slaves.” They gave the owner a certain payment and part of the product of their labor, and kept the rest for themselves. Owners of large estates divided their lands into small plots and leased them to free peasants. Such small tenants were called colones (“farmer”). Colon gave the landowner only the rent. But having received a loan of tools, livestock and seeds, the colon became dependent on the landowner. In the 2nd century BC. Emperor Hadrian banned the killing of slaves.
In the 1st century, legends appeared that the son of God, Jesus Christ, “chosen by God,” was born in Palestine; the stories written about him were called “gospel” (“good news”). According to the Romans, Jesus was a troublemaker who wanted to destroy the foundations of Roman rule in Palestine. At first, only the poor and slaves accepted Christianity. Gradually, the teaching about Christ spread throughout the Roman Empire. Then the Christian communities united into a single organization - the Christian Church. At the beginning of the 4th century, Emperor Constantine came to power in Rome, who:
1. in 313 he legalized Christianity and himself adopted this religion. For his services to Christianity, he was subsequently canonized;
2. in 330, on the site of the former Greek colony, Byzantium founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and moved the capital there.
In the 4th century, barbarian raids (“speaking an unknown language,” “strangers”) on Rome intensified. Among them, the Gothic tribes stood out. In the second half of the 4th century, they could not resist the onslaught of the Huns and entered the boundaries of the Roman Empire. Committing to defend the borders of the empire, the Goths received permission to settle in its depopulated areas. The Empire promised to supply them with food, but deceived them. The hungry Goths rebelled, the Roman army was defeated and Emperor Valens died.
In 395, Emperor Theodosius I, before his death, divided the Roman Empire between his two sons, and two empires were formed:
1. Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) with its capital in Constantinople (this included the Balkan Peninsula, Egypt and Asia Minor);
2. Western Roman Empire with its capital in Rome (this included Italy, Europe and the western provinces in Africa).
In 410, the German tribes of the Goths, under the leadership of Aparich, captured Rome and plundered it for three days. In 451, the troops of the leader of the Huns, Attila, and the troops of Rome met near Orleans. A year later, Attila approached the city of Ravenna and the Pope humbly asked him for peace.
Another Germanic tribe, the Vandals, marched through Spain to Africa and formed their own kingdom there. In 455, the Vandals captured Rome and plundered it for 14 days. After this event, the word “vandal” became a common noun (“wild”, “cruelly destroying cultural monuments”).
Finally, in 476, Germanic tribes overthrew the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and brought an end to the Western Roman Empire. At the same time, the slave system collapsed here. Therefore, the year 476 is considered the end of the history of the ancient world.
Ancient Rome was called the “Eternal City of Gold”. At the beginning of our era, more than a million people lived here. To prevent unrest among the poor, emperors distributed bread and small coins to the poor. By order of the emperor, baths (therms) with cold and hot water were built. An artificial lake was created in the vicinity of Rome to demonstrate naval battles.
Palaces rose on the Palatine Hill, near the Forum. Among the majestic buildings of Rome, the Colosseum (“great”) with an amphitheater for 50 thousand people stands out. The Pantheon was considered the “temple of all gods.” On the Capitoline Hill stood the temple of the god Jupiter. In the 2nd century, in honor of Emperor Trajan for his victory, a 40-meter column was erected on the banks of the Danube.
Period from the 1st century BC and until the 1st century AD. considered the “golden age” of Roman poetry. At this time, Virgil's Aeneid, Lucretius's On the Nature of Things, and Pliny's Natural History were written. In 79, while trying to better study the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Pliny died.
The ancient Romans invented concrete. The architecture abounded in triumphal arches for the meeting of victorious commanders. The Latin script of the Romans is used today by many peoples. The calendar, compiled under Caesar, with minor changes, is still used today. The Latin names of many months have been preserved. July is named after Julius Caesar, August - after Octavian Augustus.
Ancient Rome in subsequent eras served as the basis for the development of the culture of European countries.
Our story today is dedicated to Ancient Rome, which during its peak years was one of the most powerful states of the ancient world. His possessions extended from England in the north to Ethiopia in the south, from Iran in the east to Portugal in the west.
How did the Roman Empire arise, what is the secret of its power? What did it give to the world and how did it enrich itself from neighboring states?
Birth of the Roman State
…Mild climate and convenient geographical location The Apennine Peninsula, where the Roman state was born, has long attracted numerous tribes. Over time, these tribes found a common language, united and became the basis of the population of Ancient Rome, and their representatives began to be called patricians. Later settlers formed the plebeian class. The source of replenishment of the Roman nation were also its neighbors, called Italics, as well as foreign slaves.
The patricians had all the power in a nascent state. For a long time, the plebeians had very limited rights and did not have access to power. This gave rise to their discontent and led to an open struggle for their rights. In the end, the patricians and plebeians were able to come to an agreement with each other and merged into a single Roman people. They called their state the same as its main city - Rome. The history of Ancient Rome dates back to 753 BC. e. and ends in 476 AD. e.
Why is the she-wolf the symbol of Rome?
How did the Romans explain the emergence of their city?
In ancient times, genuine knowledge was often replaced by myths and legends. One of these legends explains the emergence of Rome.
... The daughter of one of the murdered rulers gave birth to twin sons Remus and Romulus. But out of fear of revenge, the new ruler ordered the destruction of the newborns. However, they were saved and fed by a she-wolf. The brothers grew up in a shepherd's family and became strong, seasoned warriors. And in the place where the she-wolf found them, they decided to found a city. The city was founded, but the brothers quarreled: Romulus kills Remus, and names the city by his own name, Rome (Roma)...
The she-wolf who saved the brothers became a symbol of Rome. Grateful descendants erected a monument to her in the National Museum of Italy - the Capitol.
What did the ancient Romans do?
Rome was originally a small city-state. His the population consisted of three classes:
- patricians- indigenous people who occupied a privileged position in society;
- plebeians- later settlers;
- foreign slaves- they were captured as a result of numerous wars waged by the Roman state, as well as their own citizens who became slaves for breaking the law.
A new day for all classes began at dawn. Slaves did housework, did the hardest work in agriculture, and worked in quarries.
The patricians received servants, communicated with friends, studied law, the art of war, and visited libraries and entertainment venues. Only they could hold government positions and be military leaders.
The plebeians were dependent on the patricians in all spheres of life. They were not allowed to govern the state and command troops. They had only small plots of land at their disposal. And for the most part, they were engaged in trade and various crafts - stone, leather, metal processing, etc.
All work was carried out in the morning. The afternoon was used for relaxation and visiting thermal baths. Noble Romans at this time could visit libraries, theatrical performances and other spectacles.
Political system of ancient Rome
The entire 12-century path of the Roman state consisted of several periods. Initially, it was an elective monarchy headed by a king. The king ruled the state, both in peacetime and wartime, and served as the high priest. Along with the royal unity of command, there was a senate, which included 300 senators elected by the patricians from among their elders. Initially only patricians participated in popular assemblies, but in a later period, plebeians also achieved these rights.
After the expulsion of the last king at the end of the 6th century. BC, a republican system was established in Rome. Instead of a single monarch, 2 consuls were elected annually, ruling the country together with the Senate. If Rome was in serious danger, a dictator was appointed who had unlimited power.
Having created a strong, well-organized army, Rome conquers the entire Apennine Peninsula, defeats its main rival, Cargafen, and conquers Greece and other Mediterranean states. And by the 1st century BC, it turned into a world power, the borders of which ran across three continents - Europe, Asia and Africa.
The republican system could not maintain order in the expanded state. Several dozen of the richest families began to dominate the Senate. They appointed governors to rule over the conquered territories. The governors shamelessly robbed both ordinary people and rich provincials. In response to this, uprisings and civil wars began that lasted almost a century. In the end, the ruler who won the struggle for power became the emperor, and the state under his control began to be called an empire.
What and how children were taught in ancient Rome
The Roman educational system was greatly influenced by experience. Its main goal was to raise a strong, healthy, self-confident generation.
Boys from low-income families were taught by their fathers to plow and sow and introduced to various crafts.
Girls were prepared for the role of wife, mother and housewife - they were taught the basics of cooking, the ability to sew and other purely female activities.
In Rome There were three levels of schools:
- Elementary schools that gave students only basic skills in reading, writing and mathematics.
- Grammar schools that educated boys from 12 to 16 years old. The teachers of such schools were more educated and held a fairly high position in society. Special textbooks and anthologies were created for these schools.
- Aristocrats sought to give their children classical education in rhetoric schools. Boys were taught not only grammar and literature, but also music and astronomy. They were given knowledge of history and philosophy, taught medicine, oratory and fencing. In short, everything that a Roman needed for his career.
All schools were private. Only the richest and most noble Romans could pay for tuition in rhetoric schools.
What ancient Rome left for future generations
Despite numerous wars with external enemies and internal strife, ancient Rome left humanity with a most valuable cultural and artistic heritage.
This elegant poetic works, oratory works full of pathos and conviction, philosophical works of Lucretius Cara, striking in the depth of thought, but presented in poetic form.
The Romans created great architecture. One of its most grandiose buildings is the Colosseum. The most difficult construction work was carried out by 12 thousand slaves from Judea; engineering calculations and design were entrusted to the most talented architects and artists of Rome. They used the new building material they created - concrete, new architectural forms - the dome and the arch.
This capital's amphitheater could accommodate more than 50,000 spectators. In the arena of the Colosseum, gladiators shed their blood for centuries, fearless bullfighters entered into single combat with angry bulls. The gladiators fought until one of their opponents died, causing delight and horror among the crowd of thousands of spectators.
The next architectural masterpiece is the Pantheon, i.e. temple complex of Roman gods, which were largely “borrowed” from the ancient Greeks. This is a dome-shaped structure about 43 m high. One of the most interesting engineering solutions is a hole in the top of the dome with a diameter of 9 m. Through it, daylight penetrated into the huge hall.
The Romans were rightfully proud of their aqueducts - water pipelines that brought the purest water to the city from sources located in elevated areas. The total length of the aqueducts leading to Rome was 350 km! Some of them headed to the thermal baths - ancient public baths.
The most famous building of this purpose was the Baths of Emperor Caracalla. Their scale and interior decoration amaze with their grandeur and splendor. In addition to swimming pools, there are places for relaxation and communication, and libraries. Now they have been turned into a tourist attraction, which does not prevent them from being used for theatrical performances.
The creative genius of Roman masters found its expression in monuments of sculpture, depicting prominent people of ancient Rome in bronze and marble. Wall paintings, mosaic floors, and beautiful jewelry evoke admiration for the art of ancient masters.
This great empire gave to the modern world and Roman law, regulating the relationship between man and the state, as well as the Latin language, which is still used in medical and pharmacological terms.
But why did this great empire fall at the height of his power? If we summarize the opinions of researchers on this issue, the answer will be as follows: the state and military power of the Romans was not able to manage such a huge empire.
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Ancient Rome(lat. Roma antiqua) - one of the leading civilizations of the Ancient World and antiquity, got its name from the main city (Roma - Rome), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. The center of Rome developed within a marshy plain bounded by the Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and ancient Greeks had a certain influence on the formation of ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached the peak of its power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control came the space from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Persia in the east to Portugal in the west. Ancient Rome gave the modern world Roman law, some architectural forms and solutions (for example, the arch and the dome) and many other innovations (for example, wheeled water mills). Christianity as a religion was born on the territory of the Roman Empire. The official language of the ancient Roman state was Latin. The religion for most of its existence was polytheistic, the unofficial emblem of the empire was the Golden Eagle (aquila), after the adoption of Christianity, labarums (a banner established by Emperor Constantine for his troops) with a chrism (pectoral cross) appeared.
Story
The periodization of the history of Ancient Rome is based on forms of government, which in turn reflected the socio-political situation: from royal rule at the beginning of history to the dominant empire at its end.
Royal period (754/753 - 510/509 BC).
Republic (510/509 - 30/27 BC)
Early Roman Republic (509-265 BC)
Late Roman Republic (264-27 BC)
Sometimes the period of the Middle (classical) Republic 287-133 is also highlighted. BC e.)
Empire (30/27 BC - 476 AD)
Early Roman Empire. Principate (27/30 BC - 235 AD)
Crisis of the 3rd century (235-284)
Late Roman Empire. Dominat (284-476)
During the royal period, Rome was a small state that occupied only part of the territory of Latium, the area inhabited by the Latin tribe. During the Early Republic, Rome significantly expanded its territory during numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supreme over the Apennine Peninsula, although a vertical system of governing subordinate territories had not yet developed at that time. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean, which soon brought it into conflict with Carthage, a major state founded by the Phoenicians. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began expanding to the East, subjugating Illyria, Greece, and then Asia Minor and Syria. In the 1st century BC. e. Rome was rocked by a series of civil wars, as a result of which the eventual winner, Octavian Augustus, formed the foundations of the principate system and founded the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which, however, did not last a century in power. The heyday of the Roman Empire occurred in the relatively calm time of the 2nd century, but already the 3rd century was filled with a struggle for power and, as a consequence, political instability, and the foreign policy situation of the empire became more complicated. The establishment of the Dominat system by Diocletian stabilized the situation for some time by concentrating power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the 4th century, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the entire empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of active resettlement of Germanic tribes, which completely undermined the unity of the state. The overthrow of the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustulus, by the German leader Odoacer on September 4, 476 is considered the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire.
A number of researchers (S. L. Utchenko worked in this direction in Soviet historiography) believe that Rome created its own original civilization, based on a special system of values that developed in the Roman civil community in connection with the peculiarities of its historical development. These features included the establishment of a republican form of government as a result of the struggle between patricians and plebeians and the almost continuous wars of Rome, which turned it from a small Italian town into the capital of a huge power. Under the influence of these factors, the ideology and value system of Roman citizens took shape.
It was determined, first of all, by patriotism - the idea of the special chosenness of God of the Roman people and the victories destined for them by fate, of Rome as the highest value, of the duty of a citizen to serve him with all his might. To do this, a citizen had to have courage, perseverance, honesty, loyalty, dignity, moderation in lifestyle, the ability to obey iron discipline in war, established law and custom established by ancestors in peacetime, and honor the patron gods of their families, rural communities and Rome itself .
