1. Historical and cultural prerequisites for the formation of non-classical philosophy of the 19th century.
2. Philosophical irrationalism of A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche.
3. Philosophy of life of A. Bergson.
4. The philosophy of positivism of the 19th century.
1. In the first half of the 19th century, the development of Europe seemed to be a natural and progressive movement forward. The development of science, economic modernization, and the overcoming of the political fragmentation of national states testified to the progress of the human mind and the inviolability of the foundations of rationalism. Philosophical rationalism - from Descartes to Hegel - sought the laws of “pure reason”, i.e. a mind cleared of delusions and capable of changing people’s lives according to its own laws. It was believed that the principles of reason could form the basis of morality, politics, and freedom, that it was worth building a perfect state on the principles of reason.
However, historical circumstances have indicated that the arguments of reason do not always turn out to be actual engines of social development and wider than the Universe. Already the French Revolution of 1789-1793. showed the world terrible paradoxes. The revolution, prepared on the ideas of Enlightenment philosophy, gave rise to senseless terror, which especially intensified during the Jacobin dictatorship of M. Robespeier. The question arose - what really drives the masses - the desire for a reasonable reorganization of reality or the desire for their own profit and the desire for power. History has shown that the development of science and technology is also not always positive. This was especially evident during the Napoleonic Wars, which showed the effectiveness of new types of weapons - buckshot, rapid-fire rifles. Charles Darwin’s concept of the biological prerequisites for the emergence of man also served as a certain background in the mid-19th century. Western civilization has entered a period of crisis that has also affected the spiritual sphere. There was a need to reassess values, including the values of classical philosophy. All this could not help but be reflected in contemporary trends in philosophy, which was expressed in the emergence of a new type of philosophizing - philosophical irrationalism.
2. One of the earliest irrationalist philosophers is the German philosopher A. Schopenhauer (1788-1860). His major work, The World as Will and Representation, was published as early as 1819, but did not gain recognition until late in his life. Schopenhauer relies on the philosophy of Kant, but noticeably irrationalizes his doctrine of the “thing in itself” and absolutizes the irrational nature of the productive power of imagination. He is also influenced by Indian philosophy.
Schopenhauer views the world in two aspects: as representation and as will. The entire “existing for knowledge” world is an object in relation to the subject, my idea, which does not exist without the subject (“There is no object without the subject”). Considering representation as the unity of subject and object, Schopenhauer anticipates an idea common in modern philosophy. The world is represented in the forms of space and time, causality, and multiplicity. The world as a representation is the world of phenomena, the world of science. Scientific knowledge explores the relationships between things, but the essence of things, the reality, is hidden. The world of phenomena is an illusion, a veil of Maya. Already the human body shows the lack of understanding of man only in the aspect of the world as a representation. The body is not just a body among other objects, but also a manifestation of the will. (“An act of will and bodily movements are one and the same”). The body is the visible will, the essence of practical actions is in the will. Schopenhauer concludes that will is the essence not only of an individual person, but of the world as a whole. Will is free and irrational, it is outside of time, space of multiplicity - a thing-in-itself. The will is one, but it is possible to distinguish “stages of objectification” of the will – the ideas of Plato. Will manifests itself in different ways - from the unconscious stages of objectification to the formation of an idea of the world. Cognition and reason are secondary, derivative in relation to the will.
Will as the will to live is the basis of suffering, it is continuous tension. A person's life passes between suffering from unsatisfied needs and boredom. The world is a place of suffering, optimism is shameless. Schopenhauer's ethics - ethics pessimism. This is a new phenomenon in Western European philosophy. Suffering can be reduced through art, by contemplating unchanging ideas. But suffering can be completely eliminated only through asceticism, taming the will. Along with the extinction of the will to live, the world of appearance is also abolished, dissolution into nothingness and tranquility of the spirit occurs.
Philosophical teaching F. Nietzsche (1844-1900) inconsistent and contradictory, but it is united in spirit, tendency and purpose. It is not limited to the philosophy of life. His main works: “Thus Spake Zarathustra” (1885), “Beyond Good and Evil” (1886) and others. The early Nietzsche was influenced by Schopenhauer, but unlike the latter, he paid much less attention to issues of being and knowledge. His work is mainly devoted to criticism of European culture and moral problems. Irrational will, “life” in its opposition to scientific reason, forms the original reality. The world is the world of our life. There is no world independent of us. The world is considered in a process of continuous formation, it is a world of constant struggle for existence, a clash of wills. Nietzsche, like other contemporary philosophers, biologizes the world, which for him is basically the “organic world.” Its formation is a manifestation of the will to power, which gives rise to a relatively stable order of reality, since the greater will defeats the lesser. Unlike Schopenhauer, Nietzsche proceeds from a pluralism of wills, their struggle shapes reality. “Will” is understood more specifically – as the will to power. Finally, he defends the need to strengthen the will, criticizing Schopenhauer for his desire to calm the will. It is necessary to strive not for non-existence, but for the fullness of life - this is the principle of the philosophy of F. Nietzsche. He is critical of the idea of development: there is only formation and "eternal return" Periodically, an era comes nihilism, chaos reigns, there is no meaning. The need for will arises, reconciliation with oneself appears, and the world repeats itself again. Eternal return is the fate of the world, and on its basis “love of fate” is formed. Knowledge of the world is inaccessible to logic, generalizing science; knowledge is a means of mastering the world, and not obtaining knowledge about the world. Truth is only a “useful delusion.” In the process of cognition, we do not penetrate into the essence of the world, but only give an interpretation of the world; the will to power is manifested in the creation of its own “world” by the human subject.
Criticizing his contemporary culture, Nietzsche notes the special historical place of his era. This is the era when "God is dead" and Nietzsche proclaims a new era of coming superman. His Zarathustra is the prophet of this idea. Modern man is weak, he is “something that needs to be overcome.” The Christian religion, as a religion of compassion, is the religion of the weak; it weakens the will to power. Hence Nietzsche's anti-Christianity (with a high assessment of the personality of Jesus). The Christian Church, he believes, has turned everything upside down (“turned any truth into a lie”). Required "change of world view". Traditional morality is also subject to reassessment. Modern morality is the morality of the weak, “slaves”, it is a tool of their domination over the strong. One of the culprits of the moral revolution is Socrates, and therefore Nietzsche idealizes the Pre-Socratics, whose morality was not yet perverted. Nietzsche extols aristocratic morality, which is characterized by courage, generosity, and individualism. It is based on the connection between man and the earth, the joy of love, and common sense. This is the morality of the superman, a strong, free person who frees himself from illusions and realizes a high level of “will to power,” returning “to the innocent conscience of the predatory beast.” The “immoralism” declared by Nietzsche is associated with the replacement of “slave morality” with “master morality.” A new morality, in essence, is a new interpretation of the world. Nietzsche's philosophy often received ambiguous assessments: ideologists of fascism tried to use it, and they saw it as the ideology of the imperialist bourgeoisie. At the same time, she influenced a number of movements in modern philosophy and culture
3. At the beginning of the 20th century, the tradition of irrationalist criticism of scientific reason was continued by the French philosopher A. Bergson in his philosophy of life(work “Creative Evolution”). Bergson's focus is on the world of consciousness. The philosopher psychologizes reality, and therefore notes the limitations of natural scientific methods of cognition. In the spirit of a number of trends in modern philosophy, Bergson proceeds from the unity of the subject and object of knowledge; reality for him is a single stream of experiences - “images”. Matter is also a sequence of images taken in relation to the action of “one specific image - my body.” The French philosopher distinguishes two series of “images” (two types of experience) as two sides of reality: matter and life. The differences between them are in the direction of the processes. Matter is a process of falling down, life is directed upward, like life impulse, the process of creative evolution, a single flow of psychic energies. Bergson criticizes the positivist theory of evolution of G. Spencer. The impulse of life is thought of as a bundle of actions that give rise to things. Material things are extinct remnants, sparks of an energetic “sheaf” of actions. Life does not depend on matter, as a special experience it is based on memory, connecting the past and the present. Memory allows us to consider time not as a sequence of events, mechanically, but as a holistic experience of a single form - duration. Bergson believes that only in relation to life can we actually talk about time. His concept of time is original and occupies a prominent place among modern theories.
In the process of evolution, two alternative ways of knowing are formed: intelligence and instinct. The first one cognizes matter, life in its integrity is not accessible to him, the intellect is mechanical, puts together a picture of the world from individual fragments, like a movie from frames. Intelligence is related to human practice, and science is based on it. Bergson, in essence, gives preference to instinct as the highest form of knowledge, the highest form of instinct is intuition. Intuition is opposed to the intellect, pushing the intellect “outside itself.” She experiences the world as life, as “superconsciousness.” Human freedom is based on the experience of reality as a vital activity independent of matter, as a bundle of actions. philosophy of action. Practical activity and freedom can be realized in open society, based on free communication . Bergson's philosophy in form and content is opposed to the scientific worldview; it is sometimes characterized as evolutionary spiritualism.
4. However, the ideological crisis of classical thinking also resulted in other - rationalistic forms. The point was that the culprit of the crisis is philosophy - abstract knowledge, which must be replaced by the development of science. Only science can solve all problems and lead humanity out of the crisis. The rationale for this program of action was laid down by a special direction of European philosophy - positivism.
Positivism– a fairly wide set of similar schools and approaches that have become widespread in the world. Some forms of positivism remain influential today. The most general feature of positivism is its orientation towards science, towards the norms of scientific knowledge and, in connection with this, towards the experimental verification of knowledge. Positivism 1) asserts the primacy of science: our knowledge is the results of scientific knowledge; 2) believes that scientific knowledge is based on the unity of the method - the natural scientific method, based on the identification of general laws, extends to the knowledge of society (sociology); 3) replaces other forms of knowledge with science (hence the criticism of philosophy); 4) puts experience understood in a certain way as the basis of knowledge, all forms of knowledge are reduced to experience; 5) exaggerates the role of science and scientific progress in solving human problems. Positivism is thus one of the forms scientism and empiricism in solving worldview issues. Criticizing metaphysics (philosophy), positivism itself is a form of philosophy.
The founder of positivism is considered O. Comte (1798-1857), who outlined the main provisions of the new approach in the “Course of Positive Philosophy” (1830-1842). The central idea of Comte's philosophy is the “law of three stages.” Both the individual and humanity as a whole go through three stages in their development: 1) theological, or fictitious; 2) metaphysical, or abstract; 3) scientific, or positive. The explanation of phenomena by supernatural and abstract entities in the first two stages is replaced at the positive stage (starting in 1800) by the rejection of theology and metaphysics, the dominance of positive sciences, and a scientific explanation of all phenomena. The main means of knowledge is science. Comte pays great attention to the classification of sciences. In his classification, he also includes the new science he created - sociology, which reveals the laws of the functioning of society. Philosophy plays the role of methodology of sciences. Comte creates a project of a society in which the religion of love for Humanity plays a significant role.
J.St. Mill develops the problem of experimental knowledge: criticizes the theory of syllogism and develops the theory of induction outlined by F. Bacon. He gave the final formulation of the methods of scientific induction: similarities, differences, concomitant changes and residues, based on the causal uniformity of nature. G. Spencer considered philosophy as the final product of the generalization of these sciences. Based on Darwin's theory, Spencer developed the theory of evolution, understood simplistically as the unity of differentiation and integration. Spencer has a desire to biologize the understanding of the world and the process of cognition.
In the last third of the 19th century, a new form of positivism was formed - empirio-criticism, or the philosophy of critical experience. Its largest representatives sought to critically rethink the concept of experience, giving it, in essence, a subjective idealistic interpretation. From the point of view of empirio-critics, everything is just experience. In experience there are no differences between physical and mental; when they are separated, according to Avenarius, experience is destroyed (“introjection”). E. Mach, like Avenarius, considered cognition, including science, as a form of adaptation to the environment. Adaptation requires adherence to the principle of “economy of thinking,” that is, the rejection of metaphysical (inexperienced) statements. A clear and precise description of phenomena is necessary; language is a means of economy. The world is formed from elements of experience grouped into events. The elements of experience are understood as Feel, that is, the world is reduced to a set of sensations. Sensation is the most important form of adaptation of the body to the environment. Mach, on the one hand, biologizes the understanding of cognition, on the other, subjectivizes it as a process of combining sensations.
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Questions for self-control:
1. Indicate the main historical and cultural prerequisites for the formation and development of non-classical philosophy of the 19th century.
2. What were the main features of the philosophical irrationalism of F. Nietzsche and A. Schopenhauer?
3.What is philosophy of life and why can it be classified as non-classical philosophy?
4. What are the main provisions of the philosophy of positivism? What representatives of early positivism do you know?
Non-classical philosophy is a collection of various movements, schools, and concepts that have emerged since the mid-19th century. This philosophy reflects all the radical changes in society that were undergoing at that time. First of all, it is worth noting the French Revolution of 1789, which dealt the first blow to the minds of people. The civil war and terror forced many thinkers of the time to think about the possibilities of science and reason. Individual philosophers, such as Nietzsche and Schopenhauer, began to talk about the dubiousness of progress, the irrationality of history and the relativity of truth.
The 20th century was marked for humans not only by great successes in science and art, but also by a number of revolutions, wars, the collapse of the colonial system, the formation and collapse of the socialist system and the emergence of a large number of global problems that called into question the existence of the entire human race.
The war showed that scientific knowledge can be used to the detriment of humanity, which also contributed to the rethinking of many spiritual values. There was a so-called revolution in people's consciousness, which was facilitated by the emergence of computer technology and also a huge leap in science. This is how non-classical philosophy was born.
All these processes were able to cause a departure from the classical perception of the world. Many scientists and thinkers have reconsidered the problems of the meaning of human life, and man’s attitude towards religion and death has changed. Philosophy began to change very quickly; there was a transition from old values to new ones. New problems and ways to solve them came first. The philosophy of rationalism fades into the background and is almost completely replaced. Thinkers of that time began to pay more attention to the existence of man himself and his freedom.
Non-classical philosophy is conventionally divided into several programs that are aimed at a complete rethinking of classical philosophy:
- A socially critical program focused primarily on changing society. This includes such teachings as post-Marxism and Marxism.
- Philosophical irrationalism (irrationalist tradition). Supporters of this direction can be called such great thinkers as A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche and
- Analytical program, which consists of revising scientific-rationalist priorities and various values. This program includes such teachings as pragmatism,
- Existential-anthropological program. It includes existentialism, psychoanalysis, phenomenology and hermeneutics.
The processes of collapse of the classical model of philosophy occurred against the backdrop of fundamental changes in culture and society. Society is divided into 2 parts; one part fights for scientific and technological progress, while the other opposes it. Thus, two societies are formed that perceive scientific and technological progress differently - scientism and anti-scientism.
Representatives of scientism viewed scientific progress as the highest value, while anti-scientists saw science as an evil force that threatens all of humanity. Today, science is far from the only method of understanding the world, although it is considered the most important. That is why, probably, many philosophers are trying to re-understand the teachings of the East and find the secret meaning in primitive religions.
Modern non-classical philosophy is a completely new stage in the development of all mankind. With the advent of new philosophy, new spiritual values and
It emerges as a set of philosophical schools, movements, and concepts that arose from the mid-19th century.
The emergence of non-classical philosophy was influenced by:
Democratization of life.
Accelerated economic development
Rapid scientific and technological progress
Urbanization
Conventionally, in non-classical philosophy one can distinguish several programs aimed at rethinking the classical type of philosophizing:
1) irrationalist tradition in non-classical philosophy (S. Kierkegaard, A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche);
2) social-critical program (Marxism, neo-Marxism, post-Marxism);
3) critical-analytical program (neopositivism, postpositivism, analytical philosophy, structuralism);
4) existential-anthropological-psychological program (phenomenology, hermeneutics, existentialism, psychoanalysis).
Non-classical philosophy is characterized by:
1) Limitation of the principle of rationalism - true reality is heterogeneous and contradictory
2) Derationalization of a person - Reason is not a fact that defines a person.
3) Rethinking the relationship between man and the world.
Main representatives:
Kierkegaard
Nietzsche - sharply criticized religion.
The philosopher seeks to present all processes of physical and spiritual life as various modifications of the action of the will to power. Nietzsche believed that all those ideals that have been imposed on us by philosophy over the centuries are all false. The new philosophy and the new man are called upon to rehabilitate meanings consigned to oblivion, overcome the ambitions of reason and reason and try to open for humanity a world “beyond good and evil”: “God is dead, and I want - let the superman live.”
Kierkegaard - Kierkegaard creates a subjective or existential dialectic, which traces the process of formation of personality in its gradual ascent to God. The concept of “existence” (from the Latin “existence” - existence).
The existential maturation of a person is his path to God, during which he successively passes through three stages: aesthetic, ethical and religious. An aesthetically living individual achieves emotional pleasure by refusing to find the “truth” of his existence; this refusal inevitably entails dissatisfaction and despair. At this stage, a person is determined by the external, his goal is pleasure. The principle of the ethical stage is duty, however, the true achievement of existence is achieved only at the highest - religious - stage.
The main thing in existence is the Decisive choice, in which the “whole person” participates and which determines his entire life destiny, and an absolutely free choice, not dependent on anything external.
Basic ideas of the philosophy of Marxism.
Time of occurrence – second half of the 19th century
Representatives – Marx, Engels
The main focus of philosophy is an orientation towards the analysis of social reality and the prospects for its reconstruction.
Basic principles:
– materialistic understanding of history – the idea of the material unity of the world, according to which the social life of people determines their social consciousness, worldview, and their value guidelines. Those. social being determines social consciousness.
The mode of production is the forces of production and the relations of production.
Production forces are tools, means of labor and people involved in production.
Industrial relations are relationships between people that develop during the production process.
The forces of production and relations of production are in unity. Production forces develop faster than production relations, therefore, when production forces are much ahead of production. relations up to a certain point, then they require a change in production relations, and after this, other spheres of society also change. Those. the consequence is social revolution.
Historical forms of positivism.
Classical positivism
Representative - O. Kont.
Key ideas:
Criticism of traditional philosophical problems. They are unable to form true knowledge.
Proclaiming as true only that knowledge that has been tested by experience and formed within the framework of science.
The task of philosophy is to classify the knowledge of individual positive sciences and identify the laws common to them.
Empiriocriticism
Representative – E. Mach
Key ideas:
The principle of economy of thinking - knowledge should describe facts and avoid terms that have no correspondence in experience, such as “law”, “cause”.
Concepts based only on rational judgments will not be true; they will be so only after they have been studied experimentally.
Neopositivism
E year 20th century.
Representative – R. Bertrand
Key ideas:
A linguistic turn is taking place. Philosophy is considered as a means of language and science, separating scientific positions from non-scientific ones.
All scientific knowledge is of empirical origin, with the exception of mathematics and logic, cat. They are a conditional result of the agreement of scientists.
Postpositivism
Second half of the 20th century.
Representatives – Popper, Kuhn
The subject of philosophy is the history of science.
The principle of relativity of all knowledge. Popper put forward the principle of falsifiability, according to which modern scientific knowledge is extremely abstract in nature; the main thing is not the confirmation of scientific knowledge, but the possibility of its refutation.
General characteristics and main directions of non-classical philosophy. The period in the history of Western European philosophy from the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries is usually called non-classical. The development of philosophical ideas of this time took place in the general context of comprehension and reinterpretation of the achievements of the classics. The construction of any philosophical system was carried out either based on the conceptual ideas of the previous classical tradition, or was based on their total negation and rejection, but one way or another, a new - non-classical - type of philosophizing was formed as a result of the development, deepening and addition of the classical philosophical systems of Kant, Fichte , Schelling, Hegel.
The noted trends make it possible to draw a typology of all philosophical trends of the non-classical period according to the principle of acceptance or non-acceptance of the conceptual foundations of classical philosophy. Thus, all areas of non-classical philosophy can be divided into two large groups:
Directions that support the general principles of rationalist philosophy. This group can include all neoclassical schools, such as neo-Kantianism (K. Fischer, O. Liebmann, F. Lange and others - in the 19th century, the Marburg and Baden schools of neo-Kantianism in the 20th century), neo-Heglianism (F. Bradley, R. Collingwood, A. Kozhev, etc.), Marxism (K. Marx, F. Engels) and neo-Marxism (G. Marcuse, T. Adorno, J. Habermas, etc.), as well as directions, the conceptual foundations of which are generally built on traditional-classical understanding of rationality, such as structuralism (C. Lévi-Strauss), positivism (O. Comte, G. Speneser, E. Mach, R. Avenarius), neopositivism (M. Schlick, R. Carnap, B. Russell) and analytical philosophy (L. Wittgenstein, D. Moore, D. Austin), phenomenology (E. Husserl, M. Heidegger).
Directions of an irrationalistic nature: “philosophy of life” (F. Nietzsche, W. Dilthey, G. Simmel, O. Spengler), psychoanalysis (Z. Freud, K. Jung), existentialism (S. Kierkegaard, K. Jaspers, J. Sartre, A. Camus).
Within the framework of non-classical philosophy, an attempt is made to revise and supplement previous (classical) ideas about rationality, based on the principles of unity and integrity of the cognizing subject and the absolute certainty of the existence of the objective world. The main attention of philosophers is directed to the sphere of the subjective, the understanding of which also significantly expands previous ideas about man: if in classical philosophy thinking (in a verbal, discursive form, ideally logical thinking) was considered the dominant, specific characteristic of the subject, then in this period philosophers turn to understanding such manifestations of subjectivity that were usually considered secondary, or even completely excluded from the sphere of consciousness (will, intuition, unconscious, etc.). In general, we can say that the main problem of non-classical philosophy is the problem of consciousness. The objectivist attitude, questioned by Descartes and Kant, in the non-classical period finally loses confidence on the part of the majority of philosophers, and it is in consciousness that the only undoubted basis for reliable knowledge is found. The interpretations of consciousness presented in the teachings of this period demonstrate a wide variety of views on the nature of this phenomenon.
The main representatives of non-classical philosophy. Of the representatives of irrationalist movements, special mention should be made of such philosophers as F. Nietzsche and S. Kierkegaard. Philosophical trends in which the world and man are understood on the basis of a primal essence that is foreign to reason and inaccessible to it are generally considered irrational. The term “irrationalism” unites various philosophical systems, the authors of which put forward as a fundamental principle something that lies beyond the limits of reason: will, intuition, instinct, contemplation, insight, etc.
The entire European culture, starting with Socrates, instills false values and imposes false meanings on people. From Nietzsche’s point of view, man forgot the unity and fullness of life, abandoning himself to the search and justification of entities alien to his nature - knowledge, morality, religion, thereby turning the beauty and element of life into something that must be assessed, measured, limited. Everyday life is strictly regulated, there are fewer and fewer opportunities for personal expression, and mediocrity increasingly triumphs. Consciousness, thus, deceives itself, focusing on the prejudices of reason, and the history of philosophy from Socrates to Hegel “turns out to be the history of man’s long subjugation, as well as the history of the arguments that man invented to justify his subjugation.” (Deleuze J. Nietzsche. - St. Petersburg, 1997, p. 34) “Life” in its completeness, integrity, immediacy is opposed to the dimensionality and formality of “being” (the subject of study of rationalistic metaphysics), it is an “eternal becoming” devoid of attributes, in which there is no purpose and which cannot be assessed as true or false, good or evil, bad or good. Becoming cannot be the subject of scientific research, since its essence is always deeper than we can express through language.
That is why science, knowledge, morality, etc. distort life and impose false values on the consciousness. Religion plays a particularly negative role in this process, sharp criticism of which is characteristic of all of Nietzsche’s works.
The philosopher seeks to present all processes of physical and spiritual life as various modifications of the action of the will to power. The will to power is not the lust for domination; this understanding of it, the most widespread in modern culture, is characteristic of the psychology of slavery. The will to power expresses the triumph of strength and creativity as integral characteristics of life. In other words, the essence of life is the embodiment of will, manifested in the active, active, creative - affirming - nature of its constituent forces. The oblivion of life has led to the fact that modern norms and stereotypes have replaced true values, and the history of European culture demonstrates the triumph of negative, denying force, resulting in the formation of a society that cultivates the ideals of slavery, weakness, illness instead of the beauty, strength and health inherent in life. The new philosophy and the new man are called upon to rehabilitate meanings consigned to oblivion, overcome the ambitions of reason and reason and try to open for humanity a world “beyond good and evil”: “God is dead, and I want - let the superman live.”
In contrast to Hegel's objective dialectic, Kierkegaard creates a subjective or existential dialectic, which traces the process of the formation of personality in its gradual ascent to God. The concept of “existence” (from the Latin “existence” - existence), first proposed by Kierkegaard, is accepted to designate the singularity, uniqueness and specificity of the individual’s being, as opposed to the concept of “essence” (from the Latin “essence” - essence), relating to the world of things and phenomena. In contrast to classical (primarily Hegelian) panlogism, which dissolves being in thinking and is confident that being, down to the smallest detail, is permeable to thought and fits into concepts, Kierkegaard argues that existence is that which always eludes understanding through abstractions , it is a deep, internal, individual expression of personality. Existence is inaccessible to understanding through scientific methods, it can be achieved in the only way - by making a choice and abandoning the sensory-contemplative way of being, determined by external factors of the environment towards oneself. This is the path to acquiring existence Kierkegaard reveals in his doctrine the three stages of subjective dialectics.
The existential maturation of a person is his path to God, during which he successively passes through three stages: aesthetic, ethical and religious. An aesthetically living individual achieves emotional pleasure by refusing to find the “truth” of his existence; this refusal inevitably entails dissatisfaction and despair. At this stage, a person is determined by the external, his goal is pleasure. The principle of the ethical stage is duty, however, the true achievement of existence is achieved only at the highest - religious - stage.
Existentialism is a philosophical movement whose representatives highlight the absolute uniqueness of human existence, inexpressible in the language of concepts. In the strict sense, existentialism is not a philosophical school; this term is used in relation to quite different thinkers, so it is more correct to talk not about a direction in philosophy, but about a special - existential - thinking. Kierkegaard is considered the predecessor and founder of existentialism, however, his views existed for a long time as an isolated phenomenon. Existentialism became popular only after the 1st World War, and in the 40-50s. After World War II, it acquired the status of the most widespread worldview. In the 20-30s, the main representatives of this movement are such thinkers as K. Jaspers, G. Marcel, M. Heidegger; in the 40-50s, new ideas were formed in the teachings of A. Camus and J.P. Sartre.
Existentialism is characterized by special attention to ontological issues, which means that existential thinking develops exclusively in the sphere of being, and all other traditional philosophical problems acquire secondary importance as private consequences of the solution to the main ontological question. This is a question about the definition of existence in the general structure of existence, i.e. concretization of the ontological nature of human reality in relation to the rest of the principles of the universe. The fundamental property of human reality is its “intermediate” character, emphasizing its lack of independence, dependence on something else that is not a person.
Existentialists understand the nature of this “other” differently. Religious existentialists (Berdyaev, Shestov, Jaspers, Marcel, etc.) define this otherness as “transcendence” (aspiration beyond one’s own limitations to something higher and true), revealed in the act of faith. Despite all the differences among themselves, religious existentialists insist that the Divine is revealed only in the act of faith and exists only in it and only while this act lasts, and is not a prerequisite for faith. Only through the effort of maintaining this act is it possible to achieve “true existence.” On the contrary, outside the aspiration to transcendence, the degradation of personality occurs, its depersonalization and dissolution in the routine of everyday life. But even in such a situation, no matter how humiliated a person is in social reality, he at least vaguely feels his involvement in something higher, since existence is an existential, irreducible characteristic of human reality. A person’s focus on the world means inauthentic existence, “abandonment,” and the desire for the transcendental means genuine. A person hears the “call of being”, the “cry of being” in such phenomena as “fear” (Jaspers, Heidegger), “existential anxiety”, “nausea” (Sartre), “boredom” (Camus). All of these phenomena have not a psychological, but an ontological meaning, which lies in the fact that a yawning abyss of existence is revealed to a person, which he had not noticed before, calmly vegetating in the hustle and bustle of everyday affairs. Now his destiny is not well-fed peace with guaranteed rations, but the risk of personal decision and personal responsibility for his own existence. This is “authenticity,” which is more difficult to bear than mindlessly existing within the established order of things. Thus, religious existentialism calls a person from the world to God, to self-deepening, which allows him to gain a new, transcendental dimension of being, overcoming the limitations of the individual Self.
Representatives of atheistic existentialism A. Camus and J.P. Sartre considers being to be self-sufficient, self-sufficient and autonomous, denying God as its absolute expression. The main problem for these thinkers is the question of identity - human self-determination (“Who am I?”). Man exists in a state of “abandonment”; the world does not give him an answer to this question. There are no prescriptions, no script for our life, and a person is free to choose who he should be, free to determine his identity. This means that man is the only creature in the world whose existence precedes his essence (definition). The opportunity given to him to be free is realized in the corresponding choice of authentic or inauthentic being. Representatives of atheistic existentialism understand these categories differently than religious ones. Thus, for Sartre, an existence that strives for “positivity”, for limitless self-affirmation at the expense of others, is inauthentic, which, according to Sartre, is equivalent to the desire to become God. True existence, on the contrary, is the recognition of the inalienable freedom of another along with my own freedom, so that every act of my choice becomes a choice for all and for the sake of all.
Phenomenology is a philosophical direction, the founder of which was the German thinker E. Husserl (1859-1938). Literally translated, "phenomenology" means: the theory of phenomena or appearances. Representatives of this trend criticize the traditional objectivist position of classical science, believing that the only reliable reality is the reality of pure consciousness. “Pure” in phenomenology is a consciousness freed from the prejudices of psychologism and naturalism, i.e. consciousness purified from the “natural attitude” through the procedure of phenomenological reduction. Consciousness is usually in a state of “natural attitude”, i.e. is influenced by schemes and templates that set a rigid framework for studying the world. Phenomenology represents an attempt to build a new type of science – a science that is unpremised and unbiased. The biggest misconception of consciousness in a “natural attitude” is the belief in the existence of an objective reality outside and apart from our consciousness, a reality that “really exists.” In order to be able to know what really is and what a new science should be based on, it is necessary to carry out the procedure of phenomenological reduction - purification of consciousness from all prejudices. To do this, it is necessary to mentally exclude from the space of reality ("bracket") those fragments of it, the reliability of which can be doubted. Thus, the external world (perhaps this is a collective illusion), other people’s opinions and knowledge (misconception), feelings, emotions, etc. are consistently left out of brackets. The only reliable reality that cannot be doubted is the reality of pure consciousness after the procedure; it can serve as the basis for further construction of knowledge.
The whole world, called objective in the “natural attitude,” is only a phenomenon of consciousness. Therefore, for a phenomenologist there is no objective-material reality “in itself”; accordingly, there are no standards for its study. An object, from the point of view of a phenomenologist, can only exist as a phenomenon given to our consciousness, and its study comes down to the study of the methods of givenness. Thus, a real thing is not a material reality, but the reality of those meanings and meanings that an object acquires in the horizon of consciousness. Thus, by describing givens and manifestations of these meanings, we describe the objects themselves in all the diversity of their manifestations. Thus, phenomenology tries to overcome the one-dimensionality of science, proclaiming the need to return “back to the objects themselves.” The life world is diverse in manifestations, they cannot be studied through the scientific method, they can only be described phenomenologically.
Lecture 8. Non-classical philosophy of the 19th century.
General foundations of non-classics.Irrationalism.Positivism.Materialist philosophy of K. Marx.Nihilism of F. Nietzsche.Traditions of classical philosophy in the era of non-classics.
General foundations of non-classics . It is impossible to determine the period of non-classical philosophy with any priority. Its retreat into “not” begins through the negation of idealization and abstraction in that highest manifestation that is achieved in the philosophy of I. Kant and G. Hegel. The universal sketchiness was overcome by a real movement of the spirit - the philosophy of life. The affirmation by all previous philosophy of the understanding of being and thinking through essence began to clearly limit both thought itself and reality as a whole. “An essence that does not act does not exist” (St. Gregory Palamas) - through this thesis, expressing the essence of the patristic philosophical tradition, one can identify the aspirations of non-classics. Her main priorities are impulse, movement, creation, even self-destruction. And, at the same time, it is an ontological impulse that overturns the spiritual essence of a person who understands and defines himself differently: in the existential duration of living, in the intuition of grasping, in vague desires, in social freedom.
However, it is impossible to assert an unambiguous priority of “life” in non-classical literature of the 19th century. R. Tarnas notes this very correctly, identifying the “two cultures” of non-classical philosophy - the Enlightenment and the Romantic. “Unlike the spirit of enlightenment, the romantic spirit perceived the world not as an atomistic machine, but as a single organism, extolled not the enlightenment of the mind, but the inexpressibility of inspiration, and raised not the clear predictability of static abstractions, but the inexhaustible theme of human life” 1. Scientism or scientism, with its apodictic foundation and method, based on objectivity and rationality, was the core of the classical era (J. Locke, D. Hume, I. Kant, etc.), and as an unconditional basis, they “grew up” the thought of non-classics. The spirit of reformation hovered over both romanticism and positivism. But in the first, having shaken traditions, he encroached on the “empty” place of God to put a new absolute - man, and in the second, he invested the material, empirical, material principle with superiority. In philosophy, these trends were expressed by two major trends that developed during the 19th - early 19th century. XX centuries: irrationalism And positivism . Through them, it will ultimately become possible to comprehend all the contradictions, all the nuances, the emerging meanings of non-classics.
Irrationalism . The current of irrationalism emerged at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, defending the primacy of feeling, imagination, intuition over reason and perception. Interest in the spirit was associated not only with the light ideal sides of individual human nature, but also with the unconscious, dark, demonic sides. Irrationalism takes ratio as its basis, overcoming it through an attempt to discover deeper roots that determine the possibility of true knowledge, being in general, human essence, etc. A prominent representative of this phenomenon was Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). His main works: “The World as Will and Idea” (1819), “On Will in Nature” (1836), “Two Basic Problems of Ethics” (1841), “Aphorisms of Worldly Wisdom” (1851), etc. Truth that defines being The real thing is, as Schopenhauer notes in his work “The World as Will and Representation,” that there is neither sun nor earth, but only “the eye that sees the hand that touches the earth” 2 . The surrounding world exists only in imagination, i.e. always and only in connection with another being – the perceiver. Its (the world's) presence is structured by a priori forms of consciousness - space, time and causality (Latin causa - cause). The derivation of objective laws of reality is, according to Schopenhauer, the sphere of activity of the mind, the sphere of phenomena. However, “things in themselves” (I. Kant), the essence of which is will. “Will is an internal substance, the core of any particular thing and everything together, a blind force in nature, it is also manifested in the rational behavior of a person - there is a huge difference in manifestations, but the essence remains unchanged” 1. Will is that irrational element that rules the world, appearing before a person in a direct way. The body is will made tangible and visible. Through the body, a person senses the inner essence of his own phenomenon. The essence of the world is irrational, boundless will, the essence of will is conflict, pain and suffering. “Man is the only animal capable of torturing others for the very purpose of making them suffer” 2. Rationalism and progress in history are fiction. From Schopenhauer's point of view, history is destiny. But you can get rid of domination and pressure of the will, and the path to salvation lies through art and asceticism. In aesthetic contemplation, genius discerns eternal ideas and thereby crosses out will, desires, and fear. The essence of asceticism is liberation from fatal suffering, which is achieved through free and complete chastity; poverty, humility and sacrifice. As a result, will becomes reluctance.
The theme of irrationalism in the form of existential philosophy of personality is developed by Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), who still remains an unsurpassed exponent of the philosophical mood of pessimism. His main works: “Fear and Trembling” (1843), “Philosophical Pieces” (1844), “Diary” (1833-1855), etc. “A life of pleasure, protected from suffering, humiliation, fear and despair... does not give the right to bear witness in the name of truth... The truth is brought by the one who is poor, humiliated and does not complain, showered with curses and slander, the one who was persecuted for his daily bread, who was treated as an outcast” 3 - this saying reflects the strategy of Kierkegaard’s philosophy and life. All of his work contains a central idea - the idea of protecting the individual as an individual, separate. “Faith is precisely the paradox that the individual stands above the universal... stands in absolute relation to the absolute...” 4 Only in faith is the true final existence revealed, seen by the philosopher as a meeting of the individual personality and the unique one God. Like Schopenhauer, he builds his philosophical system through criticism of G. Hegel and his system of universalism. Kierkegaard sees an alternative to it precisely in the individual and declares the essence of the Christian faith precisely through the individual. Fundamental for philosophical reflection is the moment of initially determining one’s relationship to God, and only then to another.
The essence of a person’s relationship with the world is determined by fear, while a person’s relationship with himself and a lack of understanding of his essence gives rise to despair. “Despair is an internal discrepancy in synthesis, when the attitude refers to oneself” 5 and not to the real. This continues until we turn to ourselves and want to be ourselves. Kierkegaard's philosophy reveals the limits of man's existential world in its foundations of the Fall, freedom, fear, rebirth, his personal tragedy of loneliness. “In endless self-denial lies peace and tranquility..., reconciling with existing existence...” 1
The ideas of irrationalism are not lost in the vast stream of emerging non-classical trends, but are developed in the theories of creative evolution and intuition of A. Bergson, the “dialogical principle” of M. Buber, the currents of existentialism, the philosophy of psychoanalysis, etc. It is irrationalism that ultimately turns philosophy to the essence of life and its manifestations in pure acts of the movement of will, suffering, freedom...
Positivism . Positivism is a “wing” that implements different philosophical attitude during the period of non-classical philosophy. This complex movement dominated European culture from about the 40s of the 19th century until the 1st World War. It clearly indicated the primacy of science in achieving true knowledge. This statement, of course, grew out of the classical rationalism of Descartes and Kant, but at the same time, the achievements of practical knowledge of individual sciences also played an important role in this process. In the 19th century physics entered the threshold of new discoveries thanks to M. Faraday, J. Maxwell, H. Hertz, G. Helmholtz, J. Joule, R. Clausius and J. Thompson. Mathematics was updated by L. Cauchy, K. Weierstrass, G. Cantor. D. Mendeleev, J. von Liebig advanced chemical science. At the beginning of the twentieth century, M. Planck isolated quantum phenomena, E. Rutherford and N. Bohr discovered the structure of the atom, A. Einstein proposed a new physical understanding of reality within the framework of the special and general theories of relativity. All this predetermined the establishment of a single method of cognition - the natural science one, its mechanisms became generally significant; faith in the fact and limitlessness of human ratio was strengthened; progress has become the determining force in understanding reality.
Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857) is the founder of the movement of positivism and a representative of the French school. His main works: “Course of Positive Philosophy” (1830-1842), “System of Positive Politics” (1851-1854), etc. The cornerstone of Comte’s philosophy was the law of three stages. According to this law, humanity (as well as the soul of an individual) goes through theological, metaphysical and positive stages. 1. Theological (childhood). It views phenomena as creations of the direct action of supernatural forces. 2. Metaphysical (youth). Phenomena are explained using the action of abstract entities and ideas. 3. Positive. The essence of phenomena is revealed through combining reasoning with observations, laws are formulated, the basis of which is the essence of reason 2. The current development of history and humanity is at a positive stage. “It is in the laws of phenomena that science really lies...” 3, for only their knowledge will make it possible to foresee events and direct activity to change the course of life development along the path of progress. The most important thing is the theoretical foundation of scientific knowledge. And if in nature it is established by physics, then in social life - by sociology, to which Comte assigns a very special role - the role of the pinnacle in the development of sciences. When studying sociology, he highlights the following points: 1. Its division into social statics and social dynamics, which study the order and progress of society, respectively. 2. The history of mankind is the history of the development of human nature, which is essentially progressive. 3. Only knowledge of tradition, as well as social patterns, presupposes the possibility of changing the conditions of development of society. The result of Comte's philosophy can reveal a special attitude towards ratio and humanity, which he elevates to the place of the Absolute. Science and its theoretical knowledge become a universal dogma. In England, the movement of positivism was led by J. Mill and G. Spencer. The latter argues that science and religion are compatible, because they recognize the absolute and the unconditional. However, “if the task of religion is to maintain the meaning of mystery, then the task of science is to further expand the knowledge of the relative” 1 . It was Spencer who first used the term “evolution” in 1857 in relation to the Universe, which was later used by Charles Darwin in relation to living beings. Evolution has metaphysical foundations, accumulating hereditarily transmitted experience of behavior, setting a priori moral standards. Philosophy is realized as a science about universal principles and ultimate generalizations.
Two grandiose personalities stood as completely separate figures in the non-classical period - K. Marx and F. Nietzsche. Perhaps their philosophical ideas were, at the same time, the most popular socio-historical strategies in the entire history of thought. The “implementation” of these teachings once again proves how important it is to distinguish between knowledge by truth (episteme) and knowledge by opinion (doxa) and how freely it is possible to interpret, interpret and use philosophical meanings.
Materialist philosophy of K. Marx . Karl Marx (1818 - 1883), main works: “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts” (1844), “Manifesto of the Communist Party” together with F. Engels (1848), “Capital” (1867-1894), “Critique of Political Economy” ( 1859) and others. Marx proceeds from a critique of Hegel’s system, arguing that legal and political institutions cannot be explained either from themselves or from the development of the Absolute Spirit, for they are consequences of the material conditions of life. He posits the metaphysical basis of being and thought within the boundaries of the private human mind, the objective essence of which is rooted in sociality, and he sees sociality itself in the manifestation of self-moving, self-substantiating eternal matter, which is constituted in dialectical development. “Consciousness can never be anything other than conscious existence, and the existence of people is a real process of their life” 2.
For Marx, it is obvious that private property cannot be absolutized, that it is a phenomenon produced from appropriation. Capital, at a certain stage of development of social relations, takes ownership of the product of the labor of others. In the production process, labor becomes the object of the transaction and a person no longer belongs to himself. “Labor produces not only goods: it produces itself and the worker as a commodity, and in the same proportion in which it produces goods in general” 1 .
In explaining the meaning of religion and religious faith, Marx uses the position of L. Feuerbach: “Theology is anthropology,” thereby deducing the idea of the Absolute from the essence of the human mind. It is the state and society, creating negative conditions for the existence of the individual, that give rise to religion and the type of consciousness that affirms it; that is why the fight against religion is a fight against the society that supports it. The history of any society is the history of the struggle of classes - the oppressors and the enslaved. The former are owners of private property, the latter are forced to sell their labor. Resolution of the constantly arising conflict between classes is possible only through a social revolution, in which private property is abolished, equality of rights, freedoms, etc. is established. Marx substantiates the inevitability of the victory of the proletariat in Capital. The labor of the worker, as an object of purchase and sale, forms surplus value, which is disposed of by the bourgeoisie. D – C – D", where D is money for the purchase of means of production and labor; T is goods produced as a result of labor; D" is initial capital plus surplus value. Thus, the accumulation of capital in one hand gives rise to material and social imbalance in society. Political power is nothing more than organized violence of one class over another. In the production process, people enter into necessary relationships, often independent of their will, which form the economic and material structure of society. Political, legal, and ideological structures are built above it. Marx's main conclusion is this: the mode of production determines socio-political institutions, which entails a change in socio-economic formations (primitive communal, slave, feudal, capitalist and communist). The concentration of power in the hands of the proletariat should become an intermediate link on the path from bourgeois society to a model of free development for everyone. The task is to change the world, not to explain it.
Speaking about the assessment and legacy of Marxism, it is impossible not to note that the special view given by Marx on the world and history was so unusual and deep that there could be no talk of returning to the old categories of social sciences. We must not forget that Marx presented precisely a philosophical theory, therefore criticism of it from economists (not the state of explanation of the mechanism of price formation), politicians (resolution of class conflicts through social means), theologians is often one-sided and unfounded.
Nihilism of F. Nietzsche . The second iconic figure of non-classics was Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) - the great subverter of traditions and conventions, a nihilist, an opponent of historicism and idealism, Christian and social morality. Nietzsche understands himself as a man of destiny - one who resists everything. “I love those who do not look beyond the stars for a reason to perish and become a victim - but sacrifice themselves to the earth, so that the earth will one day become the land of the superman” 1. In Nietzsche’s work, several central works can be distinguished, each of which expresses a special message and a significant idea: “The Birth of Tragedy” (1872), “Untimely Reflections” (1873-1876), “The Gay Science” (1882), “Thus Spoke Zarathustra” (1883-1885), “Beyond Good and Evil” (1886), “Genealogy of Morals” (1887), “The Will to Power” (1888) is not finished, etc. The development of his work is associated with the movement of thought from ancient origins to ascension to one’s own unique philosophical ideas - the essence of morality, the doctrine of the superman, the will to power, etc. At the same time, Nietzsche had a constant debate with the “real” classics in the person of Hegel, Schopenhauer, positivists, theologians, etc. A special place in his life is occupied by his friendship with R. Wagner, who influenced his understanding and appreciation of art. The result of their relationship was the work “The Birth of Tragedy.” In it, he reverses the romantic image of Greek culture, turning to the main engine of a healthy vital spirit - the Pre-Socratics (VI century BC). He connects their creative potential with the so-called “Dionysian spirit” - reflecting and absorbing sensual passion, health, energy, based on harmony with nature. The spirit of Apollo was the opposite principle, expressing proportionality, form, logic, which were reflected in Socrates, Plato, Aristotle. The opposition of these two principles became the source of the contrast between plastic art (Apollo) and non-plastic art - music (Dionysus), until they united in Greek tragedy. “Untimely Reflections” became a kind of response to the criticism leveled at the unconventional view of ancient philosophy. In them he protests against the illusions of historicism, built on facts, the meaning of which is given only by theory or interpretation. Nietzsche denies blind faith in history, science and places everything on man, his faith in himself.
The Dionysian instinct, affirming the earthly, moves Nietzsche to announce the “death of God.” “God turned out to be the longest lie” 2. In addition, in traditional morality he sees “the morality of slaves and the vanquished.” The “Death of God,” for which people themselves are guilty, is not just the death of an idea, but a metaphysical event, liberating from the absolute, the secret, sweeping away all boundaries and limits of the unknowable. Christianity declared all earthly values sinful, but it is they that determine the essence of man. Compassion is the core of Christian culture, leading to powerlessness, denial of will, life, nature, and at the same time, Christ is recognized as the bearer of the highest manifestation of the spirit. Morality is a mechanism for influencing and enslaving one’s own kind. It is needed only by the weak and those in need of justification for their weakness and inadequacy. “All the sick and ill, trying to shake off their dull discontent and feeling of weakness, instinctively strive for a herd organization,” 1 writes Nietzsche. The world has always been dominated by will, imbued with power - both in the desire of the weak towards each other, and the strong from each other (a “tyrannical whim” always lurks here). In Nietzsche's philosophy, it is the will that appears as the highest manifestation of the need for reconciliation with oneself, self-realization, repetition. Will carries ontological meaning and this is a new cosmology of “return” (expressing the new European interpretation of myth). The ideal in this world is the superman, precisely the person who loves earthly things, whose values are health, will, and Dionysian creativity. Man is a tightrope over the abyss between the animal and the superman (the path is terrible, but the passage is even more terrible). The “New Protagoras” again remembered that the measure of all things is a person filled with the will to win.
Nietzsche managed to see something special in the approaching twentieth century, who described both “rising nihilism” and the era of monstrous wars and collapses, explosions: “... the era of barbarism begins; sciences will be put at her service”; “...the time will come for the struggle for dominance over the globe - it will be waged in the name of basic philosophical teachings”; “The crushing and leveling of European man is fraught with our greatest danger...” Nietzsche managed not only to guess the future, he managed to discover something completely new in philosophical thinking: having crossed out traditions, smashing idols, he discovered “unknown paths” along which only a strong, courageous, “new man” can travel.
Traditions of classical philosophy in the era of non-classics . However, in the historical era of non-classical philosophy, the classical school continued its development, promoting and transforming the ideas of I. Kant, D. Hume, G. Hegel and others. The most famous was the direction of neo-criticism, led by the Marburg and Baden schools, in which the value ratio and empirio were defended under the influence of positive philosophy. The Marburg school was represented by G. Cohen, who defended the absolute value of fact, combined with a prioriity, the transcendental basis of reason. In Baden, a special role was given to the consideration of the categories of value and norms that define and structure the essence of the subject’s cognitive activity (W. Windelband, R. Rickert). Empirio-criticism (R. Avenarius, E. Mach) in a new form returned to the concepts of experience, a complex of impressions, ideas, sensations, but on the basis of scientific knowledge. Completely separate directions were developed by researchers of the socio-philosophical school, which during this period turned into a kind of pinnacle of the humanities: German historicism (W. Dilthey, G. Rickert, M. Weber, G. Simmel, etc.), pragmatism (C. Pierce, W. James) and others.
Thus, the era of non-classics opened up completely new horizons of human thought, which, on the one hand, clarified its own self-sufficiency, including truth and absoluteness, searching for universal foundations through the objectivity of judgments (positivism), or, on the contrary, the unconscious, instinctive principles (irrationalism) , social foundations of being and reason (Marxism), but on the other hand, it made a conceptual and theoretical revolution, rejecting the transcendental foundation (metaphysical, existential, divine) and proclaimed its presence in the superhuman (F. Nietzsche), as a new absolute idea. This period states the impossibility of staying within the previous limits of classical thinking and philosophizing, and therefore, through a return to the origins of Greek metaphysics and religious tradition, it further brings philosophizing thought to a completely new round of “life”: the postmodern stage.
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