Ancient Rome was one of the greatest empires. An empire that conquered most of the then known world. This state had a tremendous impact on the entire further process of the development of civilization, and the perfection of some of the structures and organizations of this country has not been surpassed so far.

We can safely say that since its inception, the words Roman Empire and the concepts of "order", "organization", "discipline" have become synonymous. This fully applies to the ancient Roman army, the legionnaires, who inspired awe and respect for the barbarian peoples ...

A fully equipped and equipped fighter was armed with a sword (in Latin “gladius”), several darts (“plumbatae”) or spears (“pila”). For protection, the legionnaires used a large rectangular shield ("scutum"). The battle tactics of the ancient Roman army were quite simple - before the start of the battle, the enemy was thrown with spears and darts, after which hand-to-hand combat began. And it was in such hand-to-hand fights, in which the Romans preferred to fight in a very dense formation, consisting of several rows, where the back rows pressed against the front rows, simultaneously supporting and pushing forward, and the advantages of the legionnaires' sword appeared, i.e. gladius

gladius and spatha

The fact is that the gladius was an almost ideal weapon for working in close formation: the total length of the weapon (not exceeding 60 centimeters) did not require room for a swing, and the sharpening of the blade itself made it possible to deliver both chopping and stabbing blows (although preference was given to strong stabbing blows from behind the shield, which gave quite good protection). Also, the gladiuses had two more undoubted advantages: they were all of the same type (in modern terms - “serial”), so a legionnaire who lost his weapon in battle could use the weapon of a defeated comrade without any inconvenience. In addition, usually ancient Roman swords were made from fairly low-grade iron, so they were cheap to manufacture, which means that such weapons could be made in very large quantities, which in turn led to an increase in the regular army.

Very interesting is the fact that, according to historians, the gladius is not originally a Roman invention and was most likely borrowed from the tribes that once conquered the Iberian Peninsula. Around the 3rd century BC, the ancient Romans borrowed from the barbarian tribes (presumably the Gauls or Celts) a straight short sword called Gladius Hispaniensis (i.e. "Spanish sword"). The very word gladius quite possibly comes from the Celtic “kladyos” (“sword”), although some experts believe that this term may also come from the Latin “clades” (“damage, wound”) or “gladii” (“stem” ). But, one way or another, it was the Romans who “immortalized” this short sword.

Gladius is a double-edged sword with a wedge-shaped tip, used for stabbing and cutting blows to the enemy. A strong hilt was a convex handle, in which there could be recesses for fingers. The strength of the sword was provided either by batch forging: joining together several steel strips with the help of blows, or by the diamond-shaped cross-section of the blade when made from a single high-carbon steel billet. In the manufacture of batch forging, a channel descending down was located in the center of the sword.
Very often, the name of the owner was indicated on the swords, which was knocked out on the blade or applied by engraving.

Stab wounds had a great effect during battles because stab wounds, especially in the abdominal cavity, as a rule, were always fatal. But in some situations, cutting and chopping blows were delivered with a gladius, as evidenced by Livy in the accounts of the Macedonian wars, which speaks of the frightened soldiers of Macedonia when they saw the chopped bodies of the soldiers.
Despite the main strategy of the infantrymen - to inflict stabbing blows to the stomach, during training they were aimed at obtaining any advantage in battle, not excluding the possibility of hitting the enemy below the level of the shields, damaging the kneecaps with slashing and cutting blows.

There are four types of gladius.

Spanish gladius

Used no later than 200 BC. before 20 BC The length of the blade is approximately 60-68 cm. The length of the sword is approximately 75-85 cm. The width of the sword is approximately 5 cm. It was the largest and heaviest of the gladiuses. The earliest and longest of the gladius, it had a pronounced leaf-like shape. The maximum weight was about 1 kg, the standard one weighed about 900 g with a wooden handle.

Gladius "Mainz"

Mainz was founded as a Roman permanent camp at Moguntiacum around 13 BC. This large camp provided a population base for the growing city around it. Sword-making probably began in the camp and continued in the city; for example, Gaius Gentlius Victor, a Legio XXII veteran, used his demobilization bonus to start a business as a gladiarius, arms maker and dealer. Swords made in Mainz were sold mainly to the north. The variation of the gladius "Mainz" was characterized by a small waist of the blade and a long tip. Blade length 50-55 cm. Sword length 65-70 cm. Blade width about 7 cm. Sword weight about 800 gr. (with wooden handle). The Mainz-type gladius was designed primarily for stabbing. As for the slasher, clumsily applied, it could even damage the blade.

Gladius Fulham

The sword that gave this type its name was excavated from the Thames near the town of Fulham and must therefore date from after the Roman occupation of Britain. This was after the invasion of Auliya Platia in 43 AD. It was used until the end of the same century. It is considered an intermediate link between the Mainz type and the Pompeii type. Some consider it a development of the Mainz type, or simply that type. The blade is slightly narrower than the Mainz type, the main difference being the triangular point. Blade length 50-55 cm. Sword length 65-70 cm. The width of the blade is approximately 6cm. The weight of the sword is about 700g. (with wooden handle).

Gladius "Pompeii"

Named in modern times for Pompeii, a Roman city that lost many of its inhabitants - despite the efforts of the Roman fleet to evacuate people - which was destroyed by a volcanic eruption in 79 AD. Four examples of swords were found there. The sword has parallel blades and a triangular tip. It is the shortest of the gladiuses. It is worth noting that it is often confused with the spatha, which was a longer slashing weapon used by auxiliaries on horseback. Unlike its predecessor, it was much better suited for cutting with the enemy, while its penetrating ability during stabbing decreased. Over the years the Pompeii type has become longer and the later versions are referred to as semi-spaths. Blade length 45-50cm. The length of the sword is 60-65cm. The width of the blade is about 5 cm. The weight of the sword is about 700g. (with wooden handle).

By the third century, even the Pompeii-type gladius was not effective enough.
The tactics of the legions became more defensive than offensive, as in earlier centuries. There was an urgent need for longer swords suitable for single combat or fighting in relatively free formation. And then the Roman infantry armed with a cavalry sword, known as "spat".

A long sword invented by the Celts, but actively used by the Roman cavalry. Initially, the spata was created and used by the Celts as a sword for infantrymen, which had a rounded tip and was intended for inflicting slashing and cutting blows, but over time, appreciating the gladius tip, intended for stabbing blows, the Celts sharpened the spata, and the Roman horse warriors admired with this long sword, they took it into service. Due to the center of gravity shifted closer to the point, this sword was ideal for mounted battles.
The Roman spatha reached 2 kg in weight, the width of the blade varied from 4 to 5 centimeters, and the length was approximately from 60 to 80 centimeters. The handle of the Roman spatha was made in the same way as that of the gladius, made of wood and bone.
When the sword appeared in the Roman Empire, first the cavalry officers began to arm themselves with it, then the entire cavalry changed their weapons, they were followed by auxiliary detachments that did not have a formation and they participated in the battle more in a fragmented form, that is, the fight with them was divided into fights. Soon, the officers of the infantry units, appreciated this sword, over time, not only armed themselves with them, but also armed ordinary legionnaires. Of course, some legionnaires remained loyal to the gladius, but it soon completely faded into history, giving way to a more practical spatha.

Pugio

A dagger used by Roman soldiers as a personal weapon. It is believed that the pugio was intended as a secondary weapon, however the exact combat use remains unclear. Attempts to identify the pugio as a utility knife are misguided because the blade shape is not suitable for this purpose. In any case, there were many knives of various shapes and sizes on the Roman military installations, in this regard, there was no need to use the pugio alone for universal purposes. Officials of the Roman Empire wore richly decorated daggers while on duty at their workplaces. Some wore daggers discreetly, to protect against unforeseen circumstances. In general, this dagger served as a weapon of murder and suicide; for example, the conspirators who dealt the fatal blow to Julius Caesar used the pugio to do so.

The pugio was ultimately derived from Spanish originals of various types. However, by the early 1st century AD, replicas of this Roman dagger typically had a wide blade that could be leaf-shaped. There could also be an alternative shape of the blade with a narrowing to the tip of the wide blades of the tip from about half the length of the blade. Blades vary in size from 18 cm to 28 cm in length and 5 cm or more in width. The central rib ran the entire length of each side of the blade, either in the middle or forming an extension on both sides. The shank was wide and flat, the handle plates were riveted on it, as well as on the shoulders of the blade. The pommel was originally round, but by the beginning of the 1st century AD, it acquired a trapezoidal shape, often topped with three decorative rivets.

The pugio was fitted with its own scabbard. In the second quarter of the 1st century AD, three types of scabbards were used. All had four fastening rings and a bulbous extension to which a large rivet was attached. Judging by the samples of wearing examples that have survived to us, the two lower rings were not used to secure the scabbard. The first type was made from curved metal (usually iron) plates. These plates were located on the front and back sides of the scabbard and, as it were, sealed the wooden “lining”. The front part was usually richly decorated with brass or silver inlay, as well as red, yellow or green enamel. A sign of these scabbards was the free movement of ring pendants attached by riveted bifurcated fasteners. Modern reconstructions of these scabbards, which are made of copper plates fixed with rivets, are not correct, samples of this type have never been found. This common error occurs due to a misinterpretation of the design line in an archaeological report of the "A" iron scabbard type, which was merely decorated with silver inlay and decorative rivets.
The second type of scabbard was made of wood, and also, presumably, covered with leather. Metal plates (almost always iron) were attached to the front of such scabbards. This plate was made quite even and richly decorated with inlaid silver (sometimes tin) and enamel. The hanging rings resembled small Roman military buckles and were hinged to the sides of the case. The third type ("frame type") was made of iron and consisted of a pair of curved skids that went together and expanded at the lower end of the scabbard, forming a spherical end. The runners were connected by two horizontal stripes in the upper and middle parts of the scabbard.

gasta

The main type of infantry spear in ancient Rome, although at different times the name gasta denoted different types of spears, for example, the Roman poet Ennius, around the 3rd century BC, mentions gasta in his works as a designation for a throwing spear, which actually had time is a common value. Following the modern judgment of historians, it was initially customary to arm the legionnaires with heavy spears, which are now commonly referred to as just the same gasts. At a later time, heavy spears were replaced by lighter darts - pilums. Ghasts are divided into three types, each of which can be safely called a separate type of spear:
1. Heavy infantry spear, intended exclusively for close combat.
2. A shortened spear, which was used both as a melee weapon and as a throwing weapon.
3. A light dart designed exclusively for throwing.

Until the 3rd century BC, gasta was in service with heavy infantry soldiers who were on the front lines. These soldiers were called so, in honor of the spear with which they went into battle - hastati, although later the spear went out of general use, the soldiers continued to be called hastati. Despite the fact that ordinary soldiers were replaced with gasta by pilum, the heavy spear remained in service with the principles and triarii, but this also lasted until the beginning of the 1st century BC. There was light infantry (velites), which did not have a combat order, which was always armed with light throwing hasta (hasta velitaris).
The gasta was about 2 m long, of which the lion's share was taken by the shaft (a completely different ratio compared to the pilum), which was about 170 cm long, and was made mainly of ash. The tip was originally forged from bronze, but later bronze was replaced by iron (as in many other cases related to weapons in the ancient Roman army), the length of the tip was on average 30 cm. assignments, had spears of a special form, emphasizing their status. The tips of their spears were decorated with iron rings. It is known that the Romans had a special military award - a gold or silver spear (hasta pura). In the era of the Empire, they were awarded, as a rule, to officers of the legions, starting with senior centurions.

Pilum

Polearms of the Roman legionnaires, a type of dart, designed to be thrown from a short distance at the enemy. Its exact origin has not yet been clarified. Perhaps it was invented by the Latins, or perhaps borrowed from the Samnites or the Etruscans. Pilum gets its distribution in the republican army of Rome and is in service with legionnaires until the beginning of the 4th century AD. e. It is mainly used by infantrymen, and during the period of the existence of the Republican army (the end of the 6th century BC - 27 BC), it is used by a certain type of troops - lightly armed velites and heavy infantry hastai. Around 100 B.C. the general Marius introduces a pilum as part of the armament of each legionnaire.

Initially, it consists of a long iron tip, equal in length to the shaft. The shaft was half driven into the tip, and the total length was about 1.5–2 meters. The metal part was thin, up to 1 cm in diameter, 0.6-1 m long and with a serrated or pyramidal point. During the reign of Caesar, there were various variants of the original type - the tip either lengthened or shortened. Pilums were also divided into light (up to 2 kg) and heavy (up to 5 kg). Its main difference from the spear was the long iron part. This served to ensure that when it hit the enemy's shield, it could not be cut with a sword.

The tip of the pilum could be fastened with a tube at the end or a flat tongue, which was fastened to the shaft with 1-2 rivets. For many darts with a “tongue” along the edges of the flat part, the edges were bent and covered the shaft so that the tip fit better to it. ) and in Oberraden (northern Germany). Thanks to these finds, it is confirmed that by the middle of the 1st century BC. the pilum becomes lighter. Earlier copies of it were found in northern Etruria, near Telamon. The tips of these samples were very short - only 25-30 cm in length. There were also pilums with a flat part 57-75 cm long. During the well-known military reforms of the commander Gaius Marius, he noticed that the spear did not always bend upon impact, and the enemy could pick it up and use it. To prevent this, one of the rivets is replaced by a wooden pin, which breaks on impact, and the sides of the tongue did not bend.

Heavy pilums have a shaft tapering towards the end, at the junction with the tip there is a round heavy counterweight, which should increase the impact force of the spear. This type of pilum is depicted in the relief of the Cancilleria in Rome, which shows the Praetorians armed with them.
Basically, the spear was intended for throwing at the enemy, as a piercing weapon was used much less frequently. They threw it before the start of hand-to-hand combat at a distance of 7 to 25 meters, lighter samples - up to 65 meters. Even despite the fact that the pilum simply stuck in the enemy's shield, without causing significant damage to him, it made it difficult for the enemy to move in close combat. At the same time, the soft core of the point often bent, excluding the possibility of quickly pulling it out or cutting it. Using the shield after that became inconvenient and had to be discarded. If the shield remained in the hands of the enemy, the legionnaire who came to the rescue stepped on the shaft of the stuck pilum and pulled the enemy's shield down, forming a convenient gap for striking with a spear or sword. Heavy pilums could, with the force of impact, pierce not only the shield, but also the enemy in armor. This has been proven by modern tests. From a distance of 5 meters, a Roman pilum pierces a three-centimeter pine board and a two-centimeter layer of plywood.

Later, the pilum gives way to a lighter spiculum. But there is a possibility that these are different names for the same type of weapon. With the decline and collapse of the Roman Empire, regular infantry - legionnaires - disappear into the past, and with them the pilums disappear from the battlefield. The era of dominance on the battlefield of heavy cavalry and a long spear begins.

lancea

Spear of the Roman cavalry.

Josephus Flavius ​​mentions that the Roman cavalry defeated the Jewish one thanks to the long lances. Later, after the crisis of the 3rd century, new models of spears were introduced in the infantry, instead of pilums. Throwing spears of new types (which appeared after the reforms of Diocletian), according to Vegetius, are vertullum, spicullum and plumbata. The first two were 1-meter darts, and the plumbata was a 60-centimeter lead-weighted feathered dart.
Praetorians were supplemented by detachments of lanciarii (lanciarii) - spear bodyguards, similar units appeared in the legions to protect especially important persons. The lancea was a service weapon, but they did not use a spear indoors, and the lanciarii were not limited in the choice of additional weapons; during the collapse of the empire, such a guard was an attribute of any important commander or, less often, a senator.

Plumbat.

The first mention of the combat use of plumbats dates back to ancient Greece in which warriors used plumbats from about 500 BC, but the use of plumbats in the late Roman and Byzantine army is most famous.

In the description, Vegetia Plumbata is a long-range throwing weapon. The heavily armed warriors who served in the Roman legion, in addition to traditional equipment, were equipped with five plumbats, which they wore on the inside of the shield. Soldiers used plumbats as an offensive weapon during the first onslaught and as a defensive weapon during an enemy attack. Constant exercise enabled them to achieve such prowess in the use of weapons that the enemy and their horses were struck down before it came to hand-to-hand combat, and even before they came within the range of a javelin or arrow. Thus, at the same time, the warriors on the battlefield combined the qualities of heavy infantry and shooters. The skirmishers, who fought in front of the formation at the beginning of the battle, also had plumbats in service. Departing with the beginning of hand-to-hand combat back under the cover of their own, they continued to fire at the enemy. Plumbats at the same time threw them along a high trajectory, over the heads of their front ones. Vegetius specifically stipulates the need to arm the triarii standing in the back rows of the formation with plumbats. He also recommended to his readers the use of plumbats in siege work, both in protecting walls from enemy attacks and in storming enemy fortifications.

The appearance of the plumbata is due to the development of the same tendency to increase the mass of the weapon to increase the energy of its throw. However, if the pilum, equipped with a lead sinker, could be thrown only 20 m, and at this distance it pierced through the shield and the shield-bearer hiding behind it, then lightened by reducing the size of the shaft and the massiveness of the iron part of the tip of the plumbate, it flew 50-60 m , which is comparable to the range of a light dart throw. The plumbatu is distinguished from the latter by its smaller size and a special throwing technique, in which the warrior took the shaft with his fingers by the tail section and threw it with a shoulder swing of his hand, like throwing a throwing club or club. At the same time, the shaft of the plumbate became an extension of the thrower's hand and increased the throw lever, and the lead sinker imparted additional kinetic energy to the projectile. Thus, with dimensions smaller than that of a dart, the plumbata received a larger initial supply of energy, which made it possible to throw it at a distance at least not inferior to the distance of throwing a dart. Moreover, if the dart at the end almost completely wasted the initial energy of the throw communicated to it and even when it hit the target could not cause any noticeable damage to it, then the plumbata, even at the maximum range of its flight, retained a supply of energy sufficient to hit the victim.

An important advantage of the opponents of the Romans was the possession of more long-range weapons, with which closely lined up legions could be shot from extreme distances. The damaging effect of such a shelling was probably quite insignificant, and the effectiveness was achieved by weakening the enemy's stamina and his self-confidence. An adequate response from the Romans was the use of projectiles that had a greater distance than the enemy, the distance of the shot and the force of destruction. As noted earlier, the plumbata was thrown at a distance equal to the range of the dart. But if the dart at the maximum distance turned out to be completely powerless, then the plumbata, even at the end, retained enough energy to hit its victim and incapacitate it. In particular, this property of the plumbata is pointed out by Vegetius when he says that the Romans "wounded the enemies and their horses before it came to hand-to-hand combat, and even before they came within the flight distance of a dart or arrow."

The short shaft of the plumbate and the throwing technique, which did not require much space, allowed the rear ranks of the formation to fire at the enemy during hand-to-hand combat as well. In order not to hurt those in front, the shells were sent upwards at a high angle. Due to the high angle of incidence, the plumbat pierced the target from top to bottom, at an angle of 30 to 70 degrees, which made it possible to hit the head, neck and shoulders of a warrior hiding behind a shield. At a time when all the attention of the combatants was turned to the enemy, the shells falling from above were especially dangerous, because "they could not be seen or evaded."

During the African campaign of 530, a plumbat thrown by the spear-bearer of Belisarius John of Armenia pierced the helmet of the nephew of the Vandal king Gaiseric and inflicted a mortal wound on him, from which he soon died, and it was from the armor that the helmet was made of metal of the greatest thickness.

It has become traditional. The army lost in flexibility, but in the absence of serious external enemies, this did not become a problem: the Roman Empire sought to defeat the enemy in one decisive battle. Therefore, during the fighting, she moved in a dense army column. This arrangement simplified the task of deploying troops to line up before battle.

The traditional basis of the Roman battle order was the legions, which consisted of ten cohorts, up to about 500 people each. Since the reign of Octavian Augustus, the acies duplex system has been used - two lines of five cohorts. The depth of the formation of the cohort was equal to four soldiers, and the legion - eight. Such a formation provided good stability and effectiveness of troops in battle. The old, three-line system (aies triplex) fell into disuse, since during the years of the empire, Rome did not have an enemy with a highly organized army against which it could be needed. The formation of the legion could be closed or open - this made it possible, depending on the situation, to occupy more or less space on the battlefield.

An important aspect of the construction of the legion was the protection of the flank - traditionally the weak point of any army at all times. To make flank bypass difficult for the enemy, it was possible to stretch the formation or hide behind natural obstacles - a river, a forest, a ravine. The best troops - both legions and auxiliary - the Roman generals put on the right flank. On this side, the warriors were not covered by shields, which means they became more vulnerable to enemy weapons. The defense of the flank, in addition to being practical, had a great moral effect: a soldier who knew that he was not in danger of being outflanked fought better.

The construction of the legion in the II century. AD

According to Roman law, only citizens of Rome could serve in the legion. Auxiliary units were recruited from among free people who wanted to obtain citizenship. In the eyes of the commander, they were of less value than the legionnaires, due to the difficulty of recruiting replacements, and therefore were used for cover, and were also the first to engage in battle with the enemy. Since they were lighter armed, their mobility was higher than that of the legionnaires. They could start a fight, and in the event of a threat of defeat, retreat under the cover of the legion and reorganize.

The Roman cavalry also belonged to the auxiliary troops, with the exception of the small (only 120 people) cavalrymen of the legion. They were recruited from a variety of peoples, so the construction of the cavalry could be different. The cavalry played the role of skirmishers of the battle, scouts, could be used as a strike unit. Moreover, all these roles were often assigned to the same unit. The most common type of Roman cavalry was the contarii, armed with a long lance and dressed in chain mail.

The Roman cavalry was well trained, but not numerous. This prevented her from being truly effective in battle. During I – In the 2nd century AD, the Romans constantly increased the number of cavalry units. In addition, new varieties of them appeared at this time. So, in the time of Augustus, horse archers appeared, and later, under the emperor Hadrian, cataphracts. The first detachments of cataphractaries were created on the basis of the experience of wars with the Sarmatians and Parthians and were shock units. It is difficult to say how effective they were, since there is little evidence of their participation in battles.

The general principles of preparing the army of the Roman Empire for battle could change. So, for example, if the enemy dispersed and avoided a general battle, then the Roman commander could send part of the legions and auxiliary troops to destroy enemy territory or capture fortified settlements. These actions could lead to the surrender of the enemy even before the big battle. In a similar way, even during the time of the Republic, Julius Caesar acted against the Gauls. More than 150 years later, Emperor Trajan chose a similar tactic when he captured and sacked the Dacian capital of Sarmizegetusa. The Romans, by the way, were one of the ancient peoples who made the process of robbery organized.

The structure of the Roman centurion

If the enemy did take the fight, then the Roman commander had another advantage: the temporary camps of the legions were an excellent defense, so the Roman commander himself chose when to start the battle. In addition, the camp made it possible to wear down the enemy. For example, the future emperor Tiberius, when conquering the region of Pannonia, seeing that the hordes of his opponents entered the battlefield at dawn, gave the order not to leave the camp. The Pannonians were forced to spend the day in the pouring rain. Then Tiberius attacked the weary barbarians and defeated them.

In 61 AD commander Suetonius Paulinus entered into a decisive battle with the troops of Boudicca, the leader of the rebellious Briton tribe of the Iceni. The legion and auxiliaries, some 10,000 in all, were cornered by superior enemy forces and forced into battle. To protect the flanks and rear, the Romans took up position between the wooded hills. The Britons were forced to launch a frontal attack. Having repelled the first onslaught, Suetonius Paulinus lined up the legionnaires with wedges and fell upon the Iceni. The correct tactics and the superiority of the Romans in armament brought victory to Rome. A noteworthy moment: usually the legions tried to save, but because of the small forces, it was they who bore the brunt of this battle. An uncharacteristic moment for Rome.

In 84 AD, fighting at the Graupia Mountains, Gnaeus Julius Agricola lined up his troops in such a way that the result was a well-layered defense. In the center was the auxiliary infantry, covered from the flanks by three thousand horsemen. The legions were located in front of the camp rampart. On the one hand, because of this, it was precisely the auxiliary troops that had to fight, "without the shedding of Roman blood". On the other hand, if they were defeated, then Agricola would have troops left to rely on in this case. Auxiliary troops fought in open formation in order to avoid a flank bypass. The commander even had a reserve: "Four cavalry detachments, reserved ... in case of possible surprises in the battle."

Battle with the Dacians (Trajan's Column)

Deep echeloning of troops over a wide stretch of terrain was used by Lucius Flavius ​​Arrian during the battles against the nomads in 135 AD. In front he placed detachments of Gauls and Germans, behind them - foot archers, then four legions. With them was the Emperor Hadrian, with cohorts of the Praetorian Guard and selected cavalry. Then followed four more legions and lightly armed troops with mounted archers. The formation provided the Romans with stability in battle and the timely arrival of reinforcements. Arrian, by the way, built the legions in a phalanx of two lines of five cohorts (eight people deep, as described earlier). Archers served as the ninth row of the formation. Auxiliary troops were stationed along the flanks on the hills. And the weak Roman cavalry, unable to resist the nomadic Alans, took cover behind the infantry.

What was weak in the army of Rome at that time was tactical maneuvering. It was used either by outstanding commanders, or when there was no other way out, for example, due to the numerical superiority of the enemy. At the same time, the interaction of units in battle has become more difficult due to the increase in the number of their varieties.

Sources and literature:

1. Arrian. Tactical art / Per. from Greek N.V. Nefedkina. M., 2004.
2. Arrian. Disposition against the Alans / Per. from Greek N.V. Nefedkina. M., 2004.
3. Vegetius Flavius ​​Renat. Brief summary of military affairs / Per. from lat. S. P. Kondratiev.- VDI, 1940, No. 1.
4. Tacitus Cornelius. Annals. Small works. History/Edition prepared by A. S. Bobovich, Ya. M. Borovsky, G. S. Knabe et al. M., 2003.
5. Flavius ​​Joseph. Jewish War / Per. from Greek Ya. L. Chertka. SPb., 1900.
6. Caesar Gaius Julius. Notes of Julius Caesar / Per. and comment. M. M. Pokrovsky; Gaius Sallust Crispus. Works / Per., article and comments. V. O. Gorenshtein. M., 2001.
7. Golyzhenkov I. A. Army of Imperial Rome. I – 2nd century AD M., 2000.
8. Le Boek J. The Roman army of the era of the early empire / Per. from fr. M., 2001.
9. Rubtsov S. M. Legions of Rome on the Lower Danube. M., 2003.
10. Varry J. The Wars of Antiquity from the Greco-Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome. Illustrated history / Per. from English. M., 2004.

By the 3rd century BC. Rome became the strongest state in Italy. In continuous wars, such a perfect instrument of offensive and defense was forged - the Roman army. Its total strength usually amounted to four legions, that is, two consular armies. Traditionally, when one consul went on a campaign, the other remained in Rome. When necessary, both armies operated in different theaters of operations.

With the legions were allied contingents of infantry and cavalry. The legion of the era of the Republic itself consisted of 4500 people, 300 of them were horsemen, the rest were infantrymen: 1200 lightly armed soldiers (velites), 1200 heavily armed soldiers of the first line (hastati), 1200 heavy infantry made up the second line (principles) and the last 600, the most experienced warriors represented the third line (triarii).

The main tactical unit in the legion was the maniple, which consisted of two centuries. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion, one of them was at the same time the commander of the entire maniple. The maniple had its own banner (badge). Initially, it was a bundle of hay on a pole, then a cast bronze image of a human hand, a symbol of power, began to be attached to the top of the pole. Below, military awards were attached to the flagpole.

The armament and tactics of the Roman army in ancient times did not differ significantly from those of the Greeks. However, the strength of the Roman military organization was in its exceptional flexibility and adaptability: in the course of the wars that the Romans had to fight, they borrowed the strengths of the armies of the enemy and changed their tactics depending on the specific conditions in which this or that war was fought.

Infantryman's armament. Thus, the traditional heavy armament of an infantryman, similar to the hoplite among the Greeks, has changed as follows. A solid metal shell was replaced by chain mail or plate, lighter and less restrictive of movement. Leggings were no longer used, because. instead of a round metal shield, a semi-cylindrical (scutum) appeared, about 150 cm high, covering the entire body of a warrior, except for the head and feet. It consisted of a plank base covered with several layers of leather. Along the edges, the scutum was bound with metal, and in the center it had a convex metal plaque (umbon). On the legs of the legionnaire were soldiers' boots (kaligi), and his head was protected by an iron or bronze helmet with a crest (for a centurion, the crest was located across the helmet, for ordinary soldiers - along).

If the Greeks had a spear as the main type of offensive weapon, then the Romans had a short (about 60 cm) sword made of high-quality steel. The traditional Roman double-edged, pointed sword (gladius) has a rather late origin - it was borrowed from the Spanish soldiers when the Romans experienced its advantages in hand-to-hand combat. In addition to the sword, each legionnaire was armed with a dagger and two throwing spears. The Roman throwing spear (pilum) had a long (about a meter), thin tip made of soft iron, ending with a sharply honed and hardened sting. From the opposite end, the tip had an inflow, where a wooden shaft was inserted and then fixed. Such a spear could also be used in hand-to-hand combat, but it was designed primarily for throwing: piercing the enemy’s shield, it bent so that it was impossible to pull it out and throw it back. Since several such spears usually hit one shield, it had to be thrown, and the enemy remained defenseless against the attack of a close formation of legionnaires.

Battle tactics. If initially the Romans acted in battle in a phalanx, like the Greeks, then in the course of the war against the warlike mountain tribes of the Samnites, they developed a special manipulative tactic, which looked like this.

Before the battle, the legion was usually built according to the maniples, in 3 lines, in a checkerboard pattern: the first was the maniples of the hastati, the second of the principles, and the triarii stood at a slightly greater distance from them. Cavalry lined up on the flanks, and in front of the front, light infantry (velites), armed with darts and slings, marched in loose formation.

Depending on the specific situation, the legion could form the continuous formation necessary for the attack, either by closing the maniples of the first line, or by pushing the maniples of the second line into the intervals between the maniples of the first. The maniples of the triarii were usually launched only when the situation became critical, usually the outcome of the battle was decided by the first two lines.

Having rebuilt from the pre-battle (chess) order, in which it was easier to follow the system, into the combat one, the legion moved at an accelerated pace towards the enemy. The velites made up the first wave of attackers: throwing darts, stone and lead slingshots at the enemy formation, they then ran back to the flanks and into the gaps between the maniples. The legionnaires, finding themselves 10-15 meters from the enemy, brought down a hail of spears-pilums on him and, drawing their swords, began hand-to-hand combat. At the height of the battle, the cavalry and light infantry protected the flanks of the legion, and then pursued the fleeing enemy.

Camp. If the battle went poorly, the Romans had the opportunity to find protection in their camp, which was always set up, even if the army stopped for only a few hours. The Roman camp was rectangular in plan (however, where possible, natural fortifications of the area were also used). It was surrounded by a moat and a rampart. The top of the shaft was additionally protected by a palisade and guarded around the clock by sentries. At the center of each side of the camp were gates through which the army could enter or leave the camp at short notice. Inside the camp, at a distance sufficient to prevent enemy projectiles from reaching there, tents of soldiers and commanders were set up - in a once and for all definite order. In the center stood the tent of the commander - the praetorian. In front of it was free space, enough to line up an army here if the commander required it.

The camp was a kind of fortress that the Roman army always carried with them. More than once it happened that the enemy, having already defeated the Romans in a field battle, was defeated when he tried to storm the Roman camp.

Subjugation of Northern and Central Italy. Constantly improving their military organization, using the troops of the conquered peoples (the so-called allies) for their own strengthening, the Romans at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. conquered Central and Northern Italy. In the struggle for the South, they had to face such a dangerous and previously unknown enemy as Pyrrhus, the king of the Greek state of Epirus and one of the most talented commanders of the Hellenistic era.

Ancient Roman warriors fought in cohesive and disciplined units. A group of 80 warriors was called a centuria. Several centuries were part of a cohort, and ten cohorts made up a legion.

An iron helmet was worn on the head of a Roman legionnaire (foot warrior). In his left hand he held a shield made of wood and leather, in his right - a throwing spear or sword, which was kept in a sheath on his belt. The breastplate of a Roman soldier was made of metal plates. A peculiar ancient Roman tunic hung from the waist. On the feet of the ancient Roman legionnaire, leather sandals were worn, which were nailed.

The Romans were determined warriors, they conquered even well-defended cities. The Romans surrounded the city in a dense ring, and then, using ingenious techniques, burst into it.

To approach the besieged city, Roman soldiers moved under a canopy of shields. Such a formation is called a "turtle". It effectively protected the attackers from arrows fired from the walls by the defenders of the city. Also, to approach the walls, the soldiers built a covered passage. According to it, without endangering their lives, they could approach the wall.

When the Roman army attacked the walled city, the warriors used special mobile wooden siege towers. The tower was sheathed with strong metal sheets. The warriors erected an inclined plane on an uneven piece of land, then rolled the siege tower against the wall. Then, along the inner stairs of the siege tower, the ancient Roman soldiers climbed up. After that, they lowered a swing bridge onto the wall, and broke into the city.

Simultaneously with the use of the siege tower, the ancient Romans used a battering ram to break through the wall, and also dug under the wall to destroy it. The warriors driving the ram were inside it.

At a long distance, the ancient Romans used catapults. Large catapults hurled heavy stones at the walls. Smaller catapults fired metal arrows at the enemy. From the same distance, skilful Roman archers, who were considered among the best in the Middle East, fired.

Breaking into the city, the ancient Romans set fire to the houses with burning arrows so that the whole city was engulfed in flames. All the surviving citizens were captured and sold into slavery. material from the site

The Roman Empire had to be kept in subjection, and therefore military units had to move quickly in order to keep up with where they were needed. A network of good roads was built to reach every corner of the empire. On such roads, the soldiers passed more than 50 km a day.

Camps and forts

After a long forced march, the soldiers set up camp for the night. The temporary camp of the ancient Roman soldiers was surrounded by a fence and surrounded around the perimeter by a defensive rampart (earth hill), in front of which a ditch was dug. The camp itself consisted of leather tents. The next morning, the camp was cleared, and the army continued on its way. On the borders of the empire, where the constant presence of garrisons was necessary, stone forts were built.

June 22, 168 B.C. The Romans defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna. The homeland of Philip and Alexander the Great has now become a Roman province.

Several Greeks from among the Macedonians on the battlefield were sent to Rome after the battle. Among them was the historian Polybius. He was placed under the protection of the Scipios, and then he became a close friend of Scipio Aemilian, accompanying him on campaigns.

In order to enable his Greek readers to understand how the Roman army functioned, Polybius took the trouble to describe the smallest details. This scrupulousness of description is absent in another work, which has become an important source of information for us - Caesar counted on the fact that much is familiar and understandable to his readers. The description given below is based almost exclusively on the story of Polybius.

A cohort of a legion, consisting of 4,200 people - according to the description of Polybius.

This unit consisted of three maniples, each of which included two centuries. The maniple was the smallest independent unit of the legion. Each triarii maniple consisted of 60 veterans and 40 velite skirmishers attached to them. Each maniple of principes and hastati consisted of 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites.

C - centurion, 3 - standard-bearer P - centurion assistant.

Those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of approximately the same age and physique were selected, who appeared before the stands. First he chose the tribune of the first legion, then the second and third; the fourth legion got the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the first soldier of the tribune of the second legion was chosen, and the first legion took the last one. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion. In the event of a dangerous situation, the number of soldiers could be increased to five thousand. It should be pointed out that in another place Polybius says that the legion consisted of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred horsemen, and this number could increase to five thousand foot and three hundred horse legionnaires. It would be unfair to say that he contradicts himself - most likely these are approximate data.

The set was completed, and the newcomers took an oath. The tribunes chose one man who was to come forward and swear to obey their commanders and to the best of their ability to carry out their orders. Then everyone else also stepped forward and vowed to do the same as he ("Idem in me"). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of the assembly for each legion, so that all were distributed to their squadrons.

While recruiting was taking place, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops required from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited and swore them in - just as in Rome. Then they appointed a commander and treasurer and gave the order to march.

Upon arrival at the appointed place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. In each legion, which consisted of four thousand two hundred people, the youngest and poorest became lightly armed warriors - velites. There were one thousand two hundred. Of the remaining three thousand, those that were younger formed the first line of heavy infantry - 1,200 hastati; those who were in their prime became principles, there were also 1,200 of them. The older ones formed the third line of battle order - the triarii (they were also called saws). They numbered 600 people, and no matter what size the legion was, there were always six hundred triarii. The number of people in other divisions could increase proportionally.

From each type of army (with the exception of the velites), the tribunes chose ten centurions, who, in turn, elected ten more people, who were also called centurions. The centurion chosen by the tribunes was the senior. The very first centurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. Centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed himself an assistant (optio). Polybius calls them "hurricanes", equating them with the "closing line" of the Greek army.

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (hastati, principes and triarii) into ten detachments-maniples, which were numbered from one to ten. Velites were distributed equally among all maniples. The first maniple of the triarii was commanded by a primipilus, a senior centurion.

So, before us appears a legion, consisting of 4,200 foot soldiers, divided into 30 maniples - 10 each for hastati, principes and triarii, respectively. The first two groups had the same structure - 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites. The triarii had 60 heavy infantry and 40 velites. Each maniple consisted of two centuries, but they did not have an independent status, since the maniple was considered the smallest tactical unit. The centurions appointed the two best warriors as standard-bearers (signiferi). In the Etruscan-Roman army there were two centuries of buglers and trumpeters, at the rate of one centuria. In the description of Polybius, nothing is said about such a connection, but he constantly mentions buglers and trumpeters. It seems that now every maniple had both a bugler and a trumpeter.

If necessary, one maniple of hastati, one maniple of principles, and one maniple of triarii could act together; then they were called a cohort. Both Polybius and Livy begin to use this term in the last stages of the second Punic War, calling this word a tactical unit of legionnaires. In the II century. BC. the term has become often used to name allied formations - for example, a cohort from Cremona, a cohort of Mars, etc.

How did this legion of the 2nd century. with the legion of the Latin War (340-338 BC)?

The army of Polybius is divided into 30 maniples: 10 hastati, 10 principes and 10 triarii. The former roraria completely disappeared, as a result of which the legion was reduced from 5,000 people to 4,200. One thousand two hundred lightly armed Akcens and Levis, who were now called velites, were distributed among 30 maniples.

The triarii maniple still numbered 60 people. The maniples of principles and hastati were doubled, which well reflects the new aggressive nature of the legion - from now on it did not fight for its existence, but conquered the world.

Armor and weapons

Legionnaires were armed with a piercing-chopping sword (gladius hispaniensis, Spanish gladius). The two earliest examples of such a sword were found in Smihel, Slovenia, and they date back to about 175 BC. They have slightly tapering blades 62 and 66 cm long. As the name implies, such swords first appeared in Spain and were possibly a variant of the Celtic sword with a pointed and elongated tip. They must have been adopted during the Second Punic War, since the swords from Smichel are certainly not the stabbing weapons that Polybius describes as being used in the Gallic War of 225-220. BC. However, these swords are quite suitable for the description of a weapon capable of cutting off a person’s head or letting out the insides - Livy wrote about him, talking about the second Macedonian war of 200-197. BC.

Polybius does not say anything about daggers, however, in the process of excavations at the site of Roman camps at the end of the 2nd century. BC. near Numantia, in Spain, several copies were found, clearly dating back to the Spanish prototypes. Hastati and principes also had two javelins each. At that time, there were two main types of pilum, which differed in the way the iron tip was attached to the wooden shaft. They could simply sit on it with the help of a tube located at the end, or they could have a flat tongue, which was fixed to the shaft with one or two rivets. The first type had a long history and was widespread, found in Celtic burials in northern Italy and in Spain. In fact, Roman specimens range in size from 0.15 to 1.2 m. The shortest was possibly the velite dart, "gasta velitaris". Polybius writes that he was bent by the blow, so he could not be picked up and thrown back.

All heavy infantrymen had a scutum - a large curved shield. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden plates glued together, which were covered first with coarse cloth and then with calfskin. On several monuments of the times of the republic, such a shield is shown. As in earlier times, it has an oval shape with an oval umbone and a long vertical rib. A shield of this type was discovered at Qasr el-Harith in the Fayoum oasis, in Egypt. At first it was considered Celtic, but it is undoubtedly Roman.

• 1, 2 - view of the shield from the Fayum oasis in Egypt - front and three-quarters behind. Cairo Museum.
• 3 - reconstruction of a part of the shield, which shows its structure and how it was folded in half and the felt was stitched at the edge,
• 4 - section of the umbon.

This shield, which is 1.28 m high and 63.5 cm wide, is made of birch planks. Nine-ten such thin plates 6-10 cm wide were laid out longitudinally and laid on both sides with a layer of narrower plates laid perpendicular to the first. Then all three layers were glued together. This is how the wooden base of the shield was formed. At the edge, its thickness was slightly less than a centimeter, increasing towards the center to 1.2 cm. Such shields were covered with felt, which was folded in half at the edge and stitched through the tree. The handle of the shield was horizontal and held with a full grip. This type of handle is clearly visible on many Roman monuments. Polybius adds that such a shield had an iron umbon and iron upholstery along the top and bottom edges.

In Doncaster, the remains of a shield were found, the reconstruction of which turned out to be about 10 kg in weight. The Roman shield of that time was intended to protect the body of a legionnaire, they did not need to maneuver. During the offensive, the legionnaire held him on a straightened arm, leaning on his left shoulder. Having reached the enemy, he brought down on him, along with the shield, the weight of his entire body and tried to overturn him. Then he put the shield on the ground and, crouching down, fought over it. The four-foot height of the shield was most likely regulated, since during the siege of Numantia Scipio Aemilian severely punished a soldier whose shield was larger.

The armor of the principes and hastati consisted of a small square chest plate of about 20 × 20 cm, which was called a breastplate, and greaves on one leg. This last feature is also confirmed by Arrian in his Art of Tactics. He writes: "... in the Roman style, greaves on one leg in order to protect the one that is put forward in battle." I mean, of course, the left leg. The breastplate goes back to the square chest plate of the 4th century BC. BC. Not a single plate has survived to this day, although the remains of a round plate of the same type have been found in Numantia. Wealthier legionnaires had chain mail. The appearance of such chain mail, which was made according to the model of linen shells, can be seen on the victorious monument of Aemilius Paul, installed in Delphi. It was erected after the victory of the Romans over Macedonia in 168 BC. Such chain mail was very heavy and weighed about 15 kg. Evidence of this severity can be found in the story of the Battle of Trasimene - the soldiers who tried to swim then went to the bottom, drawn by the weight of their armor.

The hastati and principes had a bronze helmet adorned with three vertical feathers of black or crimson color, which were about 45 cm high. Polybius says that they were intended to make the warrior appear twice his real height.

The most common at that time was the Montefortino type helmet, which originated from the Celtic helmets of the 4th and 3rd centuries. A wonderful example of such a helmet is in Germany, in the Karlsruhe Museum. It was found in Canosa di Puglia, the city to which many legionaries fled after the defeat at Cannae in 216. The helmet does indeed belong to this period, and it is very tempting to believe that it belonged to one of the Cannes legionaries.

This type of helmet had a hole in the pommel. The pommel was filled with lead, and a cotter pin was inserted into it, holding a horsehair comb. Under the back of the head was a double ring, to which two straps were attached. They crossed under the chin and fastened to the hooks on the cheek pads, holding the helmet in one position. Monuments confirm that at that time they continued to use the helmet of the Italo-Corinthian type, and the find in Herculaneum of the Samnite-Attic helmet of the 1st century. BC. indicates that this type was still widespread. Helmets were usually worn with a balaclava. On a Celtic copy of the Montefortino type, which is kept in Ljubljana, the remains of such a balaclava made of felt, the most common material for this purpose, are still visible.

The armament of the triarii was the same as that of the hastati and principes, with one exception: instead of pilums, they used long spears - gasta (hastae).

Velites had a sword, darts and a round shield (parma, parma) about 90 cm in diameter. Darts, "gasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25-30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (ca. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick. Of the armor, the velites wore only a simple helmet, sometimes with some distinctive feature, for example, covered with a wolf skin. This was done so that the centurions could recognize the velites from a distance and see how well they fought.

Cavalry and allies

The 300 horsemen were divided into ten turmas, 30 in each. In each turma there were three decurions, who were chosen by the tribunes, and three closing ones (optiones). It can be assumed that these units of 10 people were rows, which means that the cavalry was built in a line of five or ten people deep - depending on the circumstances.

The turma was commanded by the first of the selected decurions. The riders were armed according to the Greek model, they had armor, a round shield (parma equestris) and a strong spear with a pointed inflow, which could continue to fight if the spear broke. The Roman horsemen on the monument in honor of the victory of Aemilius Paul, erected in Delphi (168 BC), wear chain mail, almost similar to those worn by foot soldiers. The only exception is a cut in the thighs, which allowed sitting on a horse. The characteristic shields of the Italian cavalry can be seen on many monuments.

The tribunes dismissed the legionnaires to their homes, ordering them to arm themselves in accordance with the part in which they were supposed to serve.

The allies also formed detachments of four to five thousand men, which were joined by 900 horsemen. One such detachment was assigned to each of the legions, so the word "legion" should be understood as a combat unit of about 10,000 foot soldiers and about 1,200 horsemen. Polybius does not describe the organization of the allied troops, but it most likely was similar to the Roman one, especially among the Latin allies. In an ordinary army, consisting of two legions, the Romans fought in the center, and two detachments of allies (they were called alas, that is, wings - alae sociorum) - on the flanks. One detachment was called the right wing, and the other - the left. Each wing was commanded by three prefects appointed by the consul. A third of the best Allied cavalry and a fifth of their best foot soldiers were selected in order to form a special combat unit - extraordinaries (extraordinarii). They were a striking force for special assignments and were supposed to cover the legion on the march.

At first, the soldiers did not receive pay, but since the long siege of Veii at the beginning of the 4th century. legionnaires began to pay. In the time of Polybius, a Roman infantryman received two obols a day, a centurion twice as much, and a horseman had six obols. The Roman infantryman received allowances in the form of 35 liters of grain per month, the horseman - 100 liters of wheat and 350 liters of barley. Of course, most of this food went to feed his horse and groom. A fixed payment for these products was deducted by the quaestor from the salary of both foot and horse warriors. Deductions were also made for clothing and items of equipment requiring replacement.

The Allied infantry also received 35 liters of grain per person, while the horsemen received only 70 liters of wheat and 250 liters of barley. However, these products were free for them.

Assembling at a place set by the consul, the new legions went through a rigorous "training program". Ninety percent of the soldiers had already served in the army, but they also needed retraining, and new recruits needed to go through basic training. During the empire, they were forced to "fight the pillar" using weighted weapons; no doubt something similar must have taken place in the period of the Republic. A good idea of ​​what the process of retraining experienced soldiers looked like can be obtained from the story of Polybius. Scipio arranged such retraining for his soldiers after he captured New Carthage (209).

On the first day, the soldiers had to run six kilometers in full gear. On the second day, they cleaned their armor and weapons, which were checked by their commanders. On the third day they rested, and the next day they practiced with weapons. For this, wooden swords covered with leather were used. To avoid accidents, the tip of the sword was equipped with a nozzle. The points of the darts used for exercises were also protected. On the fifth day, the soldiers again ran six kilometers in full gear, and on the sixth they again took care of their weapons, and so on.

On the march

Having completed the training, the army acted towards the enemy. The order of removal from the camp was strictly regulated. At the first signal of the trumpet, the tents of the consul and tribunes were rolled up. The soldiers then packed their own tents and equipment. On the second signal, they loaded the pack animals, and on the third, the column set out.

In addition to their own equipment, each soldier was required to carry a bunch of stakes for the stockade. Polybius says that it was not very difficult, because the long shields of the legionnaires hung on leather straps at the shoulder and the only objects in their hands were javelins. Two, three or even four stakes could be tied together and also hung on the shoulder.

Usually the column was led by extraordinaries. They were followed by the right wing of the allies, along with their convoy; then followed the first legion and its convoy, and then the second legion. He led not only his convoy, but also the pack animals of the left wing of the Allies, which formed the rear guard. The consul and his bodyguards, mounted and on foot, specially selected from among the extraordinaries, probably rode at the head of the legions. The cavalry could form the rear guard of their unit or be placed on both sides of the wagon train in order to follow the animals. In the presence of danger from behind, the extraordinaries formed the rearguard. It should be borne in mind that 600 extraordinary riders moved in scattered formation and carried out reconnaissance - regardless of whether it was the vanguard or rearguard. Both legions, as well as both wings of the allies, changed places every other day - so that the right wing and the first legion were in front, then the left wing and the second legion. This allowed everyone in turn to enjoy the benefits of obtaining fresh water and fodder.

In the event that danger caught the legion in the open, the hastati, principes and triarii marched in three parallel columns. If an attack was expected from the right, then the hastati became the first from this side, followed by principes and triarii. This allowed, if necessary, to turn into a standard battle formation. The convoy stood to the left of each column. With the threat of an attack from the left, the hastati were built on the left side, and the convoy on the right. Such a system looks like a variant of the development of the Macedonian one. The turn into battle formation could be best done if the maniples marched not in columns, but in ranks - as the Macedonians did. In this case, the first rank was already ready to meet the enemy if necessary, and the ranks did not need to deploy the system. If the main formation of the centuria was in six ranks of ten people, then the soldiers could march six in a row. That's what they did during the empire. On the day the army could cover a distance of about 30 km, but if necessary, was able to move much further. Among those who went along with the vanguard in order to make sure that the way was open were the crossing specialists. Polybius mentions them, talking about how Scipio crossed the river. Ticinus in the winter of 218 BC