Svyatoslav Igorevich (Old Russian: Svtoslav Igorevich). Born in 942 - died in March 972. Prince of Novgorod in 945-969, Prince of Kiev from 945 to 972, commander.
According to ancient Russian chronicles, Svyatoslav was the only son of the Kyiv prince and.
The year of his birth is not known exactly. According to the Ipatiev list, Svyatoslav was born in 942, but in other lists of the Tale of Bygone Years, for example, the Lavrentiev list, there is no such entry. Researchers are alarmed by the omission of such important information by census takers, although it does not contradict other messages.
In literature, 920 is also mentioned as the year of birth of Svyatoslav, but this contradicts the known information about the reign of Svyatoslav.
Svyatoslav - the first reliably known Kiev prince with a Slavic name, while his parents had names with presumably Scandinavian etymology.
In Byzantine sources of the 10th century, his name is recorded as Sfendoslavos (ancient Greek Σφενδοσθλάβος), from which historians, starting with Tatishchev, make an assumption about the connection of the Scandinavian name Sven (Danish Svend, ancient Scandal Sveinn, modern Swedish Sven ) with the Slavic princely ending -slav.
However, in foreign language transmission, other Slavic names begin with Svent-, for example, the name of Svyatopolk (in the sources of ancient German Zwentibald - Zventibald, or lat. Suentepulcus - Sventipulk), prince of Great Moravia in 870-894 years, or the Kyiv prince of 1015-1019 Svyatopolk Vladimirovich (lat. Suentepulcus by Thietmar of Merseburg).
According to Vasmer's etymological dictionary, the initial part of these names goes back to Praslav. *svent-, which after the loss of nasal vowels gives the modern East Slavic holy - holy. Nasal vowels have been preserved to this day in the Polish language (Polish święty - saint).
In the past, it was noted that the first part of Svyatoslav’s name correlates in meaning with the Scandinavian names of his mother Olga and the prince (Old Scandinavian Helgi - saint, Old Scandinavian Helga - saint), and the second - the name of Rurik (Old Scandinavian . Hrorekr - mighty in glory), which corresponds to the early medieval tradition of taking into account the names of other members of the princely family when naming. However, more modern researchers question the possibility of such a translation of names from one language to another. The female version of the name Svyatoslav - Svyatoslava - was borne by the sister of the Danish and English king Canute I the Great, whose mother was from the Polish Piast dynasty.
In 1912, D.V. Mileev conducted excavations on the territory of the Tithe Church in Kyiv. At the same time, a lead seal of the act was found, on which, in addition to the image of the princely bident, the Greek spelling of the name Svyatoslav was preserved.
The first mention of Svyatoslav in a synchronous historical document is contained in the Russian-Byzantine treaty of Prince Igor of 944.
Prince Igor Rurikovich, according to the chronicle version, was killed in 945 by the Drevlyans for exacting an exorbitant tribute from them. His widow Olga, who became regent for her three-year-old son, went the next year with an army to the land of the Drevlyans. The battle was opened by four-year-old Svyatoslav: “...[threw] a spear at the Drevlyans, and the spear flew between the horse’s ears and hit the horse’s legs, for Svyatoslav was still a child. And Sveneld [the governor] and Asmud [the breadwinner] said: “The prince has already begun; Let us follow, squad, the prince."(The Tale of Bygone Years).
Igor’s squad defeated the Drevlyans, Olga forced them to submit, and then traveled around Rus', building a system of government.
According to the chronicle, Svyatoslav spent his entire childhood with his mother in Kiev, which contradicts the remark of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus (about 949): “The monoxyls coming from external Russia to Constantinople are one of Nemogard, in which Sfendoslav, the son of Ingor, the Archon of Russia, sat.”
In Nemogarda, Constantine is usually seen as Novgorod, which the sons of the Kyiv princes traditionally owned later. Constantine also mentions Svyatoslav's name without a title when describing Olga's visit to Constantinople (957).
Princess Olga was baptized in 955-957 and tried to convert her son to Christianity. But Svyatoslav remained a pagan to the end, explaining that a Christian would not enjoy authority among the squad. The chronicler quotes the Apostle Paul: “To those who do not believe, the Christian faith is foolishness.”
During Olga’s embassy to Constantinople, her delegation also included “Svyatoslav’s people”, who received even fewer gifts at the first reception than Olga’s slaves, and were not mentioned at all in the protocol of the second reception. A.V. Nazarenko suggests that one of the goals of Olga’s negotiations was the marriage of Svyatoslav with a Greek princess and that after the refusal of such a marriage, “Svyatoslav’s people” were offended and left Constantinople after the first reception, and Svyatoslav decided to remain in paganism.
The Western European chronicle of the Successor Reginon reports in 959 about the ambassadors of Olga, “Queen of Rugov”, to the King of Germany Otto I the Great on the issue of the baptism of Rus'. However, in 962, a mission sent by Otto I to Kyiv failed due to Svyatoslav's resistance.
The Tale of Bygone Years reports about Svyatoslav’s first independent steps in 964: When Svyatoslav grew up and matured, he began to gather many brave warriors, and was fast, like a pardus, and fought a lot. On campaigns, he did not carry carts or cauldrons with him, did not cook meat, but thinly sliced horse meat, or animal meat, or beef and fried it over coals, and ate it like that; He did not have a tent, but slept on a sweatcloth with a saddle in his head - all his other warriors were the same. And he sent [envoys, as a rule, before declaring war] to other lands with the words: “I’m coming to you!”.
Appearance of Prince Svyatoslav
Leo the Deacon left a colorful description of Svyatoslav’s appearance during his meeting with Emperor Tzimiskes after the conclusion of peace: “Sfendoslav also appeared, sailing along the river on a Scythian boat; he sat on the oars and rowed along with his entourage, no different from them. This is what his appearance was: of moderate height, not too tall and not very short, with thick eyebrows and light blue eyes, snub nose, beardless, with thick, excessively long hair above his upper lip. His head was completely naked, but a tuft of hair hung from one side of it - a sign of the nobility of the family; the strong back of his head, broad chest and all other parts of his body were quite proportionate, but he looked gloomy and stern. He had a gold earring in one ear; it was decorated with a carbuncle framed by two pearls. His robe was white and differed from the clothing of his entourage only in its noticeable cleanliness.”
Some details of Lev the Deacon’s description of Svyatoslav’s appearance allow for ambiguous interpretation. So, instead of lat. barba rasa - beardless, let's say a translation with a sparse beard, and a tuft of hair can hang not from one, but from both sides of the head. This is exactly how Svyatoslav appears on the pages of S. M. Solovyov’s “History” - with a sparse beard and two braids.
A flat nose, not a snub nose, is indicated in the first translation into Russian by Popov D.
Noteworthy is the commentary by M. Ya. Syuzyumov and S. A. Ivanov regarding the description of appearance given by the Deacon: “Leo the Deacon describes the peace negotiations as if he himself were an eyewitness to them. But this is unlikely to be the case. He, perhaps correctly - according to eyewitnesses - draws the appearance of Svyatoslav, but his narrative does not inspire confidence due to his special predilection for imitating ancient authors. In this case, as Gaze showed (489), the description of Svyatoslav’s appearance resembles Priscus’ description of Attila.”
Khazar campaign of Prince Svyatoslav
The Tale of Bygone Years notes that in 964 Svyatoslav “went to the Oka River and the Volga, and met the Vyatichi.” It is possible that at this time, when Svyatoslav’s main goal was to strike at the Khazars, he did not subjugate the Vyatichi, that is, he had not yet imposed tribute on them.
In 965 Svyatoslav attacked Khazaria: “In the summer of 6473 (965) Svyatoslav went against the Khazars. Having heard it, the Khazars came out to meet him with their prince Kagan and agreed to fight, and in the battle Svyatoslav defeated the Khazars, and took their city and the White Vezha. And he defeated the Yases and Kasogs"(The Tale of Bygone Years).
A contemporary of the events, Ibn-Haukal, dates the campaign to a slightly later time and also reports about the war with Volga Bulgaria, news of which is not confirmed by other sources: “Bulgar is a small city, it does not have numerous districts, and was known for being a port for the states mentioned above, and the Rus devastated it and came to Khazaran, Samandar and Itil in the year 358 (968/969) and set off immediately after to the country of Rum and Andalus... And al-Khazar is a side, and there is a city in it called Samandar, and it is in the space between it and Bab al-Abwab, and there were numerous gardens in it... but then the Russians came there, and there were neither grapes nor raisins left in that city.”(Novoseltsev A.P.).
According to one version, Svyatoslav first took Sarkel on the Don (in 965), then with a second campaign in 968/969 he conquered Itil and Semender. According to another version, there was one big campaign in 965, the Russian army was moving down the Volga and the capture of Itil preceded the capture of Sarkel. Svyatoslav not only crushed the Khazar Kaganate, but also tried to secure the conquered territories for himself. On the site of Sarkel, the Slavic settlement of Belaya Vezha appeared. Perhaps at the same time Northern Crimea and Tmutarakan came under the authority of Kyiv. There is information that Russian troops were in Itil until the early 980s.
In 966, after the defeat of the Khazars, the Tale of Bygone Years reports a second victory over the Vyatichi and the imposition of tribute on them.
Bulgarian campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav
In 967, a conflict broke out between Byzantium and the Bulgarian kingdom, the cause of which is stated differently in sources.
In 967/968, the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus Phocas sent an embassy to Svyatoslav. The head of the embassy, Kalokir, was given 15 centinarii of gold (approximately 455 kg) to direct the Rus to raid Bulgaria. According to the most common version, Byzantium wanted to crush the Bulgarian kingdom with the wrong hands, and at the same time weaken Kievan Rus, which, after annexing Khazaria, could turn its gaze to the Crimean possessions of the empire.
Kalokir agreed with Svyatoslav on an anti-Bulgarian alliance, but at the same time asked to help him take the Byzantine throne from Nikephoros Phocas. For this, according to the Byzantine chroniclers John Skylitzes and Leo the Deacon, Kalokir promised “great, countless treasures from the state treasury” and the right to all conquered Bulgarian lands.
In 968, Svyatoslav invaded Bulgaria and, after the war with the Bulgarians, settled at the mouth of the Danube, in Pereyaslavets, where “tribute from the Greeks” was sent to him. During this period, relations between Rus' and Byzantium were most likely tense, but the Italian ambassador Liutprand in July 968 saw Russian ships as part of the Byzantine fleet, which looks somewhat strange.
The Pechenegs attacked Kyiv in 968-969. Svyatoslav and his cavalry returned to defend the capital and drove the Pechenegs into the steppe. Historians A.P. Novoseltsev and T.M. Kalinina suggest that the Khazars contributed to the attack of the nomads (although there are reasons to believe that this was no less beneficial for Byzantium), and Svyatoslav in response organized a second campaign against them, during which Itil was captured , and Svyatoslav’s opponents in Khazaria were completely defeated.
During the prince's stay in Kyiv, his mother, Princess Olga, who actually ruled Russia in the absence of her son, died. Svyatoslav arranged the government of the state in a new way: he placed his son Yaropolk in the Kiev reign, Oleg in the Drevlyansk reign, and Vladimir in the Novgorod reign. After this, in the fall of 969, the Kiev prince again went to Bulgaria with an army. The Tale of Bygone Years reports his words: “I don’t like to sit in Kyiv, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube - for there is the middle of my land, all the blessings flock there: gold, pavoloks, wines, various fruits from the Greek land; from the Czech Republic and from Hungary silver and horses; from Rus' furs and wax, honey and slaves".
The chronicle of Pereyaslavets has not been precisely identified. Sometimes it is identified with Preslav or referred to the Danube port of Preslav Maly. According to unknown sources (as presented by Tatishchev), in the absence of Svyatoslav, his governor in Pereyaslavets, Voivode Volk, was forced to withstand a siege from the Bulgarians.
Byzantine sources sparingly describe Svyatoslav's war with the Bulgarians. His army on boats approached the Bulgarian Dorostol on the Danube and after the battle captured it. Later, the capital of the Bulgarian kingdom, Preslav the Great, was captured, after which the Bulgarian king entered into a forced alliance with Svyatoslav.
War of Prince Svyatoslav with Byzantium
Faced with Svyatoslav's attack, the Bulgarians asked Byzantium for help. Emperor Nicephorus Phokas, greatly concerned about the Rus' invasion, decided to consolidate the alliance with the Bulgarian kingdom with a dynastic marriage. Brides from the royal Bulgarian family had already arrived in Constantinople when, as a result of the coup on December 11, 969, Nicephorus Phokas was killed, and John Tzimiskes was on the Byzantine throne (the marriage plans never came to fruition).
In the same year 969, the Bulgarian Tsar Peter I abdicated the throne in favor of his son Boris, and the western counties came out from under the authority of Preslav. While Byzantium hesitated to provide direct armed assistance to the Bulgarians, their longtime enemies, they entered into an alliance with Svyatoslav and subsequently fought against Byzantium on the side of the Rus.
John tried to convince Svyatoslav to leave Bulgaria, promising tribute, but to no avail. Svyatoslav decided to firmly establish himself on the Danube, thus expanding the possessions of Rus'. Byzantium hastily transferred troops from Asia Minor to the borders of Bulgaria, placing them in fortresses.
In the spring of 970, Svyatoslav, in alliance with the Bulgarians, Pechenegs and Hungarians, attacked the Byzantine possessions in Thrace. The Byzantine historian Leo the Deacon estimated the number of allies at more than 30,000 soldiers, while the Byzantine commander Bardas Skleros had from 10 to 12 thousand soldiers at hand. Varda Sklir avoided battle in the open field, conserving his forces in fortresses.
Svyatoslav's army reached Arcadiopolis (120 km from Constantinople), where a general battle took place. According to Byzantine sources, all the Pechenegs were surrounded and killed, and then the main forces of Svyatoslav were defeated. The Old Russian chronicle describes events differently: according to the chronicler, Svyatoslav won a victory, came close to Constantinople, but retreated, only taking a large tribute, including for the dead soldiers. According to the version of M. Ya. Syuzyumov and A. N. Sakharov, the battle, which the Russian chronicle tells about and in which the Russians won, was separate from the battle of Arcadiopolis. It also happened in 970, the Byzantine army was commanded by Patrik Peter, who was not mentioned at Arcadiopolis, and he was opposed by that part of the Russian army that did not fight with the allies at Arcadiopolis.
One way or another, in the summer of 970, major military operations on the territory of Byzantium ceased; Bardas Sklerus and his army were urgently recalled to Asia Minor to suppress the uprising of Bardas Phocas. The Rus' raids on Byzantium continued, so that after the successful suppression of the uprising in November 970, Varda Sklir was again transferred to the borders of Bulgaria.
In April 971, Emperor John I Tzimiskes personally opposed Svyatoslav at the head of a land army, sending a fleet of 300 ships to the Danube to cut off the Russians' retreat. On April 13, 971, the Bulgarian capital Preslav was captured, where the Bulgarian Tsar Boris II was captured. Part of the Russian soldiers, led by governor Sfenkel, managed to break through to the north to Dorostol, where Svyatoslav was located with the main forces.
On April 23, 971, Tzimiskes approached Dorostol. In the battle, the Rus were driven back into the fortress, and a three-month siege began. The parties suffered losses in continuous skirmishes, the Russian leaders Ikmor and Sfenkel were killed, and the Byzantines' military leader John Kurkuas fell. On July 21, another general battle took place, in which Svyatoslav, according to the Byzantines, was wounded. The battle ended without result for both sides, but after it Svyatoslav entered into peace negotiations.
John Tzimiskes unconditionally accepted the conditions of the Rus. Svyatoslav and his army had to leave Bulgaria; the Byzantines provided his soldiers (22 thousand people) with a supply of bread for two months. Svyatoslav also entered into a military alliance with Byzantium, and trade relations were restored. Under these conditions, Svyatoslav left Bulgaria, which was greatly weakened by the wars on its territory.
The Bulgarian Tsar Boris II laid down the signs of royal power and was elevated to the rank of master by John Tzimiskes. All of eastern Bulgaria was annexed to Byzantium, only the western regions retained independence.
Prince Svyatoslav (documentary film)
Death of Prince Svyatoslav
After the conclusion of peace, Svyatoslav safely reached the mouth of the Dnieper and set off on boats to the rapids. Voivode Sveneld told him: “Go around, prince, the rapids on horseback, for the Pechenegs are standing at the rapids.”
Svyatoslav's attempt in 971 to climb the Dnieper failed, he had to spend the winter at the mouth of the Dnieper, and in the spring of 972 he decided to try again. However, the Pechenegs still guarded the Rus. Svyatoslav died in the battle: “When spring came, Svyatoslav went to the rapids. And Kurya, the prince of Pecheneg, attacked him, and they killed Svyatoslav, and took his head, and made a cup from the skull, bound it, and drank from it. Sveneld came to Kyiv to Yaropolk” (The Tale of Bygone Years).
The death of Svyatoslav in the battle with the Pechenegs is also confirmed by Leo the Deacon: “Sfendoslav left Doristol, returned the prisoners according to the agreement and sailed with the remaining comrades, heading his way to his homeland. On the way, they were ambushed by the Patsinaki - a large nomadic tribe that eats lice, carries dwellings with them and spends most of their lives in carts. They killed almost all [the Ros], killing Sfendoslav along with the others, so that only a few of the huge army of the Ros returned unharmed to their native places.”
Some historians suggest that it was Byzantine diplomacy that convinced the Pechenegs to attack Svyatoslav. The book of Konstantin Porphyrogenitus “On the Administration of the Empire” speaks of the need for an alliance [of Byzantium] with the Pechenegs for protection from the Russians and Hungarians (“Strive for peace with the Pechenegs”), and also that the Pechenegs pose a serious danger to the Russians crossing the rapids. Based on this, it is emphasized that the use of the Pechenegs to eliminate the hostile prince occurred in accordance with the Byzantine foreign policy guidelines of that time.
Although the Tale of Bygone Years names not the Greeks, but the Pereyaslavl (Bulgarians) as the organizers of the ambush, and John Skylitsa reports that the Byzantine embassy, on the contrary, asked the Pechenegs to let the Rus through.
“The Tale of Bygone Years” explains Svyatoslav’s death by his refusal of his mother, who wanted to baptize him (i.e., a violation of the traditional legal principle of subordination to parental authority): “He did not listen to his mother, continuing to live according to pagan customs. If anyone does not listen to his mother, he will fall into trouble, as it is said: “If anyone does not listen to his father or mother, he will suffer death.”
Sons of Prince Svyatoslav
Known sons of Svyatoslav Igorevich:
Prince of Kyiv;
Oleg Svyatoslavich, Prince of Drevlyansky;
, Prince of Novgorod, Prince of Kiev, Baptist of Rus'.
History has not preserved the name of the mother of Yaropolk and Oleg, unlike the mother of Vladimir Malushi (Svyatoslav was not officially married to her, she was only a concubine).
John Skylitzes also mentions "brother Vladimir, son-in-law of the basileus" Sfeng, who in 1016 helped the Byzantines suppress the uprising of George Tsul in Chersonese. The name Sfeng does not appear in ancient Russian chronicles and other sources. According to the hypothesis of A.V. Solovyov, what is meant here is not a brother, but the son of Vladimir and the grandson of Svyatoslav Mstislav.
The image of Prince Svyatoslav in art
For the first time, the personality of Svyatoslav attracted the attention of Russian artists and poets during the Russian-Turkish War of 1768-1774, the actions of which, like the events of Svyatoslav’s campaigns, unfolded on the Danube. Among the works created at this time, noteworthy is the tragedy “Olga” by Ya. B. Knyazhnin (1772), the plot of which is based on Olga’s revenge for the murder of her husband Igor by the Drevlyans. Svyatoslav appears in it as the main character. Knyazhnin's rival N.P. Nikolaev also created a play dedicated to the life of Svyatoslav.
I. A. Akimov’s painting “Grand Duke Svyatoslav, kissing his mother and children upon returning from the Danube to Kiev” shows the conflict between military valor and family loyalty, reflected in Russian chronicles: “You, prince, are looking for a foreign land and taking care of it , but he left his own, and the Pechenegs, and your mother, and your children almost took us.”
In the 19th century, interest in Svyatoslav decreased somewhat. A. F. Veltman’s story “Raina, the Bulgarian Princess” (1843), dedicated to the Bulgarian campaigns, was published by Joakim Gruev in the Bulgarian language in 1866 in Vienna, Dobri Voinikov based on it staged the drama “Raina the Princess” in Bulgaria, and by artist Nikolai Pavlovich, illustrations for “Raina...” (1860-1880) became part of the classics of Bulgarian fine art.
A little earlier, the episode with Svyatoslav was included by Veltman in the novel “Svetoslavich, the Enemy’s Pet. Wonder of the times of the Red Sun of Vladimir" (1837).
Around 1880, K.V. Lebedev painted a picture illustrating Leo the Deacon’s description of Svyatoslav’s meeting with Tzimiskes.
At the beginning of the 20th century, E. E. Lansere created the sculpture “Svyatoslav on the way to Tsar-grad”.
In 1910, in memory of the death of Svyatoslav Igorevich, a memorial sign was erected at the Dnieper threshold of Nenasytetsky. It is a cast-iron memorial slab (approx. 2 m² in area), mounted on a massive granite boulder. The boulder is topped with a vase mounted on a stylized antique column. This is one of the rarest surviving pre-revolutionary monuments dedicated to Ancient Rus'.
Poems by Velimir Khlebnikov, Valery Bryusov, the historical novel “Svyatoslav” (1958) by the Ukrainian writer Semyon Sklyarenko and the story “Black Arrows of Vyatichi” by V. V. Kargalov are dedicated to Svyatoslav. The image of Svyatoslav was created by Mikhail Kazovsky in his historical novel “The Empress’s Daughter” (1999).
In the novels by Alexander Mazin “A Place for Battle” (2001) (the end of the novel), “Prince” (2005) and “Hero” (2006) the life path of Svyatoslav is described in detail, starting from the battle with the Drevlyans in 946, and ending with death in battle with the Pechenegs.
In the novel by Sergei Alekseev “I Know God!” the life path of Svyatoslav, his struggle with the Khazar Khaganate and death on the Dnieper rapids are described in detail.
The image of Svyatoslav is popular in neo-pagan literature and art. In 2003, the White Alva publishing house published Lev Prozorov’s book “Svyatoslav Khorobre. I’m coming at you!” In subsequent years, the book was reprinted several times.
The music album “Following the Sun” (2006) by the pagan metal band Butterfly Temple is dedicated to Svyatoslav Igorevich. The groups “Ivan Tsarevich” and the Ukrainian pagan metal band Dub Buk released albums with the same name - “I’m coming to you!” The album is dedicated to the victory of Svyatoslav over the Khazar Kaganate. The image of Svyatoslav is used in the song “Early in the Morning” by the group “Kalinov Most”. The group "Reanimation" dedicated a song to the death of the prince called "The Death of Svyatoslav." Also, the pagan metal band Pagan Reign dedicated the song “Epic about Svyatoslav” to the image of Svyatoslav.
Svyatoslav’s portrait is used in the emblem of the ultras of the Dynamo Kyiv football club; the name “Svyatoslav” is also used in the printed publication of Dynamo Kyiv fans.
In 1983, director Yuri Ilyenko shot the feature film “The Legend of Princess Olga”, in the role of Svyatoslav - Les Serdyuk.
Princess Olga, Igor's wife, was left a widow with a three-year-old son. It fell to her lot to restore order in the state, developing cities, promoting the development of trade, and pacifying the internal revolts of the tribes that had barely joined Rus'. But the son grew up to be a completely different person, and he ruled his “patrimony” not as a zealous owner, but rather as a military leader. What are the results of his reign?
It was difficult for Olga to raise a child, since government affairs took up a lot of her time. Moreover, according to the concepts of that time, a man, even a prince, had to be, first of all, a warrior and distinguished by courage and courage. Therefore, Igor’s son grew up with a squad. Little Svyatoslav, being under the tutelage of governor Sveneld, took part in campaigns almost on equal terms with adult warriors. When Svyatoslav was 4 years old, during the next campaign of the Russians he was given a spear. The young prince threw a spear at the enemy with all his strength. And although it fell near the horse, this example greatly inspired the soldiers, who went together against the enemy.
Current policy
The Grand Duke of Kiev Svyatoslav Igorevich is definitely a hero in Russian history. The prince is not as positive as the ruler of a huge country. The period of his reign from 957 to 972 is characterized by fateful events for Russian history. However, this time is estimated controversially:
- on the one hand, Prince Svyatoslav accomplished great deeds that became the foundation for the development and prosperity of the ancient Russian state;
- another series of important political mistakes that negatively affected the further course of national history.
Domestic policy
In internal affairs, the policy of Prince Svyatoslav was expressed in disharmonious political actions:
Positive | Negative |
|---|---|
Preserved and strengthened the unity of the Old Russian state. | The prince was fascinated by campaigns and battles, but not by domestic politics. |
Significantly expanded the territory of the state. Subjugated the Vyatichi tribe. | Significant territories were soon lost. |
Did not interfere with the reforms of Princess Olga. | Almost ruined the economy of Kievan Rus with endless military expeditions. |
Organized a system of viceroyalty. | Created conditions for internecine hostility between his sons. |
Did not greatly interfere with the spread of Christianity in Kievan Rus. | He remained a devout pagan. |
Foreign policy
If Prince Svyatoslav did not pay the necessary attention to domestic policy, then in foreign policy he showed himself fully as a positive hero, although here there were omissions:
Positive accomplishments | Negative points |
|---|---|
Created a powerful military organization in Rus'. | Military expenses greatly depleted the treasury. |
Military victories strengthened the international authority of the young Russian state. | He did not have political foresight. Lost the diplomatic relations established by Princess Olga with the Christian countries of Europe. |
Significantly weakened Volga Bulgaria. | Gave the opportunity to strengthen the Pechenegs on the Russian borders. |
Completely defeated the longtime oppressor of Rus' - the Khazar Kaganate. |
|
He made successful campaigns against the Pechenegs. | In 968, he doomed Kyiv to a long siege by the Pechenegs. |
In the first Bulgarian campaign (968), he annexed the lands along the lower Danube with the city of Pereyaslavets, which was considered the new capital. | The second campaign (969-971) to Bulgaria ended in the defeat of the warrior prince. In a short battle with the Pechenegs on the rapids of the Dnieper (972), Svyatoslav died. |
The charm of Prince Svyatoslav's personality is based on his confident strength, military leadership talent, desire to expand the influence of the Old Russian state and modesty in everyday life. However, the stunning military successes were not properly consolidated.
Military campaigns of Svyatoslav
Military campaigns were of great importance for the Russian princes of the Middle Ages. They expanded the borders and strengthened the authority of the state. That is why Svyatoslav more than once approached his neighbors with aggressive intentions. This is how Kievan Rus grew, expanded and strengthened.
Map of Svyatoslav's hikes
Campaigns against the Khazars. Conquest of the Bulgarian Kingdom
Russian merchants on the Volga suffered a lot of inconvenience. They were oppressed by the Khazars, and were often attacked by the Bulgarians. Svyatoslav, already an adult, undertook repeated campaigns against the Khazars. For several years (judging by the chronicles) he fought with this warlike tribe. In 964 the decisive campaign took place. The Khazars were defeated. Their two main cities - Itil and Belaya Vezha - ended up in the hands of the Russians.
Further, after securing the trade route along the Volga for the Russians, Svyatoslav decided to conquer the Bulgarian lands. The “instigator” in this case was the Greek emperor Nicephorus Phocas, who wanted to quarrel between the Bulgarians and the Russians in order to weaken both of them, thereby protecting himself from possible invasions. He promised Svyatoslav enormous wealth - 30 pounds of gold if he defeated the Bulgarians. The Russian prince agreed and sent a countless army against the Bulgarians. Soon the Bulgarians submitted. Many of their cities fell into the hands of the Russians, including Pereyaslavets and Dorosten. While they were fighting with the Bulgarians, in Kyiv the Pechenegs almost captured Princess Olga and Svyatoslav’s small children - almost miraculously, one of the faithful warriors managed to “scoot” them away from danger.
Returning to Kyiv, Svyatoslav did not stay there long. The Bulgarian land beckoned to the prince. He admitted to his mother that he “didn’t like” living in Kyiv, but wanted to go to Pereyaslavets, where he planned to move the capital of the principality. Olga, who by that time had already retired, was very ill, persuaded her son to wait for her death and only then leave.
The last trip to Bulgaria. Treaty with Byzantium
Having buried his mother, Svyatoslav again set out on a campaign to the Bulgarian land he loved. He left his children in Rus', dividing the principality into inheritances. Descendants bitterly regretted this decision of Svyatoslav: it was with him that the unkind tradition of leaving inheritances and cities to sons began, which led to fragmentation and weakening of the state. The future Grand Duke Vladimir the Red Sun, the youngest son of Svyatoslav, inherited Novgorod.
Svyatoslav himself went to Pereyaslavets, but they did not receive him as he expected. By this time, the Bulgarians had entered into allied relations with the Greeks, which helped them resist the Russians. Byzantium was much more frightened by the possible proximity of the formidable Svyatoslav than the Bulgarians, so they tried to protect themselves from such danger. Victory at first was on the side of the Russian prince, but every battle was not easy for him, he lost soldiers, they were decimated by hunger and disease. Having occupied the city of Dorosten, Svyatoslav defended himself for quite a long time, but his strength was running out. After analyzing the situation, he turned to the Greeks asking for peace.
The Greek emperor arrived at the meeting on a well-equipped ship, in rich clothes, and Svyatoslav - in a simple boat, where he could not be distinguished from the warriors. The parties entered into a peace treaty, under the terms of which the Russians were obliged to never start a war with Greece.
After an unsuccessful campaign, the Russian prince decided to return to Kyiv. Faithful people warned Svyatoslav that he could not cross the water rapids - the Pechenegs were hiding in secluded places. The prince nevertheless tried to overcome the rapids, but he failed - he had to spend the winter on Bulgarian soil.
In the spring, a second attempt was made to reach Kyiv by water, but the Pechenegs forced a battle on the Russians, in which the latter lost, as they were already completely exhausted. In this battle, Svyatoslav died - right in battle, as befits a real warrior. According to legend, the Pecheneg prince Kurya ordered a bowl to be made from his skull.
Results of the board
Prince Svyatoslav was brave and courageous; he could not imagine his life without campaigns. He didn’t hide from the enemy, didn’t try to take him by cunning, on the contrary, he honestly warned “I’m going to attack you!”, challenging him to open battle.
He spent his life on a horse, ate beef or horse meat, slightly smoked over a fire, and slept with a saddle under his head. He was distinguished by his belligerence and fearlessness.
But these qualities are wonderful when a military leader is endowed with them. The Grand Duke must have a more flexible mind, must be not only the leader of the army, but also a cunning diplomat and a zealous owner. Svyatoslav managed to defeat the dangerous Khazar Khanate, but was unable to establish a relationship with Byzantium that was beneficial for Rus', and did not pay much attention to the internal affairs of the state. Kievan Rus again needed a visionary politician and business executive on the throne.
Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich
There is no greater misfortune than despising your enemies.
Lao Tzu
Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich was born in 940. This date is difficult to call exact, since it differs in different sources. He was the son of the murdered Prince Igor, but in the first years after his father’s death he did not occupy the throne, since he was very young, and the country was ruled by his mother, Princess Olga.
Military campaigns
In 964, the young man’s military activity began - he led his army to the east, against the Vyatichi. After conquering this tribe, Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich moved on. This time the Khazar Kaganate was on his way. Previously, it was a great state, spread between the Volga and Don, but at that time the Kaganate had already lost its former greatness.
The Khazars are nomads who lived mainly by cattle breeding, agriculture, slave trading and collecting duties on ships. On the territory of the Kaganate, along the rivers piercing it, many trade routes passed, in particular Serebryan path, along which the main flow of jewelry from Asia to Europe went.
The reign of the great warrior prince began precisely with the eastern campaign, since it was extremely important that this trade route be under the control of Kievan Rus. This was an important moment, since Oleg also built the Tmutarakan fortress, which allowed ships to bypass Khazar territory. However, in response to this, the Khazar fortress Sarkel was built in 830, which blocked this bypass route. With the campaign to Sarkel, new campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav began. In 865, Svyatoslav Igorevich captured the Sarkel fortress, which was later renamed Belaya Vezha. The next point of movement for the army of the Russian ruler was the northern Caucasus. On his way, Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich destroyed the Khazar cities. In addition, during this period of Russian rule, the Yas (Ossetians) and Circassians tribes were defeated. The eastern campaigns of Prince Svyatoslav of this period were distinguished by their success.
Hike to Bulgaria
Further activities of Rus' were adjusted by the Byzantine Empire. In 967, the emperor of Byzantium, with the help of Svyatoslav, decided to solve his long-standing problems. The Greeks wanted to punish the Bulgarians, whose lands were often used by the Hungarians for passage to Morai, in order to further threaten the Greeks. The Byzantines sent ambassadors to Kyiv with promises of rich gifts if Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich agreed to attack the Bulgarians. The ruler of Rus' was distinguished by prudence and selfishness. He accepted the ambassadors' offer and, at the head of a 60,000-strong army, moved across the Danube to Bulgaria. The campaign to the Bulgarian land was crowned with success. The Bulgarians could not fight on equal terms and surrendered. The winners captured a great deal of wealth and settled in the city of Pereyaslaets, north of the modern city of Varna.
In 968, Kyiv was besieged by the Pechenegs. Because of this, the further advance of the Russian troops to the West was postponed, and the prince himself was in a hurry to return to Kyiv. At the same time, an uprising broke out in Bulgaria, which was directed against the Slavs, since the local residents did not want to obey them. These uprisings were far from peaceful. The Bulgarians gathered an army, with the help of which they recaptured Pereyaslavets from the Russians. In 970, Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich and his retinue went to Bulgaria and brutally punished the rebels, subjugating all of Bulgaria. With his army, he reached Adrianople, where he was met by superior forces of the Byzantines, who, fearing the possibility of a Russian army consolidating on the territory of the Bulgarians, hastened to defeat the enemy. The forces were not equal.
End of reign
Chroniclers write that there were barely more than 10,000 soldiers on the Russian side, while the Byzantines were able to gather more than 80,000 people. But Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich, inspiring his army with his own courage, won the victory. The Greeks offered peace and a rich ransom. However, the following year they started a war again. The Byzantine fleet blocked the mouth of the Danube, depriving Svyatoslav's army of the possibility of retreat, and they went overland to meet the enemy.
In 871, after a long siege, the Greeks burned Pereyaslavets, destroying most of the Russian army. The Grand Duke was in the city of Dorostol at that time. There he learned the sad news, and there a decisive battle took place between the Russians and the Greeks. After a long battle, the Russian army retreated to the fortress. It was surrounded by Greek infantry from land, and Greek ships from sea. Thus began the siege of Dorostol, which lasted 2 months. During this time, the Russian army was significantly reduced. In the decisive battle, the Greeks turned out to be stronger, and Svyatoslav was forced to leave Bulgaria and return to Rus'. On the way back, the Russian army was waylaid by the Pechenegs led by Prince Kuri, who cut off Svyatoslav’s head. This happened in 972.
on the Dnieper
Svyatoslav Igorevich (Svtoslav Igorevich, - March) - Prince of Novgorod in -969, Grand Duke of Kiev from to 972, became famous as a commander.
Formally, Svyatoslav became Grand Duke at the age of 3 after the death of his father, Grand Duke Igor, in 945, but independent rule began around 964. Under Svyatoslav, the Kyiv state was largely ruled by his mother, Princess Olga, first because of Svyatoslav’s early childhood, then because of his constant presence on military campaigns. While returning from a campaign against Bulgaria, Svyatoslav was killed by the Pechenegs in 972 on the Dnieper rapids.
Early biography
Childhood and reign in Novgorod
The first mention of Svyatoslav in a synchronous historical document is contained in the Russian-Byzantine treaty of Prince Igor of 944.
Prince Igor Rurikovich was killed in 945 by the Drevlyans for exacting an exorbitant tribute from them. His widow Olga, who became regent for her three-year-old son, went the next year with an army to the land of the Drevlyans. The battle was opened by four-year-old Svyatoslav, throwing
“with a spear at the Drevlyans, and the spear flew between the horse’s ears and hit the horse’s legs, for Svyatoslav was still a child. And Sveneld [the commander] and Asmud [the breadwinner] said: “ The prince has already begun; Let's follow, squad, the prince„» .
Beginning of independent rule
The Western European chronicle of the Successor Reginon reports in 959 about the ambassadors of Olga, “Queen of Rugov”, to the King of Germany Otto I the Great on the issue of the baptism of Rus'. However, in 962, a mission sent by Otto I to Kyiv failed due to the resistance of Svyatoslav and the reluctance of Princess Olga to change the Byzantine rite she had previously accepted.
The Tale of Bygone Years reports about Svyatoslav’s first independent steps in 964:
« When Svyatoslav grew up and matured, he began to gather many brave warriors, and was fast, like a pardus, and fought a lot. On campaigns, he did not carry carts or cauldrons with him, did not cook meat, but thinly sliced horse meat, or animal meat, or beef and fried it over coals, and ate it like that; He did not have a tent, but slept on a sweatcloth with a saddle in his head - all his other warriors were the same. And he sent [envoys, as a rule, before declaring war] to other lands with the words: “I’m coming to you!”
Khazar campaign
Ruins of Sarkel (White Vezha). Aerial photograph from 1930
The Tale of Bygone Years notes that in 964 Svyatoslav “went to the Oka River and the Volga, and met the Vyatichi.” It is possible that at this time, when Svyatoslav’s main goal was to strike at the Khazars, he did not subjugate the Vyatichi, i.e., he had not yet imposed tribute on them.
In 965 Svyatoslav attacked Khazaria:
Having defeated the armies of both states and ravaged their cities, Svyatoslav defeated the Yasses and Kasogs, and took and destroyed Semender in Dagestan. According to one version, Svyatoslav first took Sarkel on the Don (in 965), then moved east, and in 968 or 969 conquered Itil and Semender. M.I. Artamonov believed that the Russian army was moving down the Volga and the capture of Itil preceded the capture of Sarkel.
Svyatoslav not only crushed the Khazar Kaganate, but also tried to secure the conquered territories for himself. In place of Sarkel, the Russian settlement of Belaya Vezha appeared, Tmutarakan came under the authority of Kyiv (there is information that Russian troops were in Itil and Semender until the 990s, although their status is not clear).
Bulgarian campaigns
Conquest of the Bulgarian Kingdom (968-969)
Kalokir agreed with Svyatoslav on an anti-Bulgarian alliance, but at the same time asked to help him take the Byzantine throne from Nikephoros Phocas. For this, according to the Byzantine chroniclers John Skylitzes and Leo the Deacon, Kalokir promised “ great, countless treasures from the state treasury"and the right to all conquered Bulgarian lands.
In 968, Svyatoslav invaded Bulgaria and, after the war with the Bulgarians, settled at the mouth of the Danube, in Pereyaslavets, where “tribute from the Greeks” was sent to him. During this period, relations between Rus' and Byzantium were most likely friendly, since the Italian ambassador Liutprand in July 968 saw Russian ships as part of the Byzantine fleet.
The Pechenegs attacked Kyiv in 968-969. Svyatoslav and his cavalry returned to defend the capital and drove the Pechenegs into the steppe. Historians A. P. Novoseltsev and T.M. Kalinina suggest that the Khazars contributed to the attack of the nomads, and Svyatoslav in response organized a second campaign against them, during which Itil was captured and the Kaganate was finally defeated.
During the prince's stay in Kyiv, his mother, Princess Olga, who actually ruled Russia in the absence of her son, died. Svyatoslav arranged the administration of the state in a new way: he placed his son Yaropolk in the Kiev reign, Oleg in the Drevlyansk reign, and Vladimir in the Novgorod reign. After this, in the fall of 969, the Grand Duke again went to Bulgaria with an army. The Tale of Bygone Years reports his words:
« I don’t like to sit in Kyiv, I want to live in Pereyaslavets on the Danube - for there is the middle of my land, all the blessings flock there: gold, pavoloks, wines, various fruits from the Greek land; from the Czech Republic and from Hungary silver and horses; from Rus' furs and wax, honey and slaves» .
The chronicle of Pereyaslavets has not been precisely identified. Sometimes it is identified with Preslav or referred to the Danube port of Preslav Maly. According to unknown sources (as presented by Tatishchev), in the absence of Svyatoslav, his governor in Pereyaslavets, Voivode Volk, was forced to withstand a siege from the Bulgarians. Byzantine sources sparingly describe Svyatoslav's war with the Bulgarians. His army on boats approached the Bulgarian Dorostol on the Danube and after the battle captured it from the Bulgarians. Later, the capital of the Bulgarian kingdom, Preslav the Great, was captured, after which the Bulgarian king entered into a forced alliance with Svyatoslav.
War with Byzantium (970-971)
Faced with Svyatoslav's attack, the Bulgarians asked Byzantium for help. Emperor Nikifor Phokas was greatly concerned about the Rus' invasion; he decided to consolidate the alliance with the Bulgarian kingdom through a dynastic marriage. Brides from the royal Bulgarian family had already arrived in Constantinople when, as a result of the coup on December 11, 969, Nikephoros Phocas was killed, and John Tzimiskes was on the Byzantine throne (the marriage plans never came to fruition).
In the same year 969, the Bulgarian Tsar Peter I abdicated the throne in favor of his son Boris, and the western counties came out from under the authority of Preslav. While Byzantium hesitated to provide direct armed assistance to the Bulgarians, their longtime enemies, they entered into an alliance with Svyatoslav and subsequently fought against Byzantium on the side of the Rus.
John tried to convince Svyatoslav to leave Bulgaria, promising tribute, but to no avail. Svyatoslav decided to firmly establish himself on the Danube, thus expanding the possessions of Rus'. Byzantium hastily transferred troops from Asia Minor to the borders of Bulgaria, placing them in fortresses.
Pursuit of the retreating Russian army by the Byzantines.
Miniature from the Madrid copy of the “History” of John Skylitzes
The death of Svyatoslav in the battle with the Pechenegs is also confirmed by Leo the Deacon:
“Sfendoslav left Doristol, returned the prisoners according to the agreement and sailed with his remaining comrades, heading his way to his homeland. On the way, they were ambushed by the Patsinaki - a large nomadic tribe that eats lice, carries dwellings with them and spends most of their lives in carts. They killed almost all [the Ros], killing Sfendoslav along with the others, so that only a few of the huge army of the Ros returned unharmed to their native places.”
Some historians suggest that it was Byzantine diplomacy that convinced the Pechenegs to attack Svyatoslav. The book of Konstantin Porphyrogenitus “On the management of the empire” talks about the need for an alliance [of Byzantium] with the Pechenegs for protection from the Russians and Hungarians (“Strive for peace with the Pechenegs”), and also that the Pechenegs pose a serious danger to the Russians overcoming the rapids. Based on this, it is emphasized that the use of the Pechenegs to eliminate the hostile prince occurred in accordance with the Byzantine foreign policy guidelines of that time. Although “The Tale of Bygone Years” names not the Greeks, but the Pereyaslavl (Bulgarians) as the organizers of the ambush, and John Skylitsa reports that the Byzantine embassy, on the contrary, asked the Pechenegs to let the Rus through.
About Svyatoslav's appearance
Leo the Deacon left a colorful description of Svyatoslav’s appearance during his meeting with Emperor Tzimiskes after the conclusion of peace:
“Sfendoslav also appeared, sailing along the river on a Scythian boat; he sat on the oars and rowed along with his entourage, no different from them. This is what his appearance was: of moderate height, not too tall and not very short, with thick eyebrows and light blue eyes, snub nose, beardless, with thick, excessively long hair above his upper lip. His head was completely naked, but a tuft of hair hung from one side of it - a sign of the nobility of the family; the strong back of his head, broad chest and all other parts of his body were quite proportionate, but he looked gloomy and stern. He had a gold earring in one ear; it was decorated with a carbuncle framed by two pearls. His robe was white and differed from the clothing of his entourage only in its noticeable cleanliness.”
According to chronicles (Ipatiev list), Svyatoslav was born in 942 and was the only son of the Kyiv prince Igor and princess Olga.
Beginning of reign
In 945, Prince Igor was killed by the Drevlyans for exorbitant collection of tribute. Princess Olga, Svyatoslav's mother, who became regent for her three-year-old son, went to war against the Drevlyans, seeking to avenge her husband's death. The young Prince Svyatoslav also took part in this battle. The prince's squad defeated the Drevlyans. Olga forced them to submit and subsequently traveled around Rus', building a system of government.
Svyatoslav was with his mother all the time. Princess Olga was baptized, presumably, in the period from 955 to 957 and offered to accept Christianity to her son, but he refused, citing the fact that he would not enjoy authority among the squad. Until the end of his life, Svyatoslav remained a pagan.
Svyatoslav gained independence in state affairs between 959 and 961.
Politics of Svyatoslav
The Tale of Bygone Years reports on Svyatoslav’s independent steps since 964. At this time, Svyatoslav had a large number of soldiers, and he fought a lot. He was unpretentious on trips. He didn’t carry carts, he ate like an ordinary soldier. It is he who is credited with the phrase that has become a catchphrase: “I’m coming to you.” This is how he notified his enemies, going to war against them.
Chroniclers note that in 965 Svyatoslav opposed the Khazars, took their city of Belaya Vezha, and at the same time defeated the Yasses and Kosogs. According to some reports, Svyatoslav also fought with Volga Bulgaria, but this is not confirmed by all sources.
Svyatoslav not only defeated the Khazars, but also tried to secure the defeated territories for himself. In 966, the chronicles reported the imposition of tribute on the Vyatichi tribes.
In 967, a war began between Byzantium and Bulgaria. Byzantium, as always, decided to crush the Bulgarian kingdom with someone else's hands, and for this it turned to Rus' for help. In 968, Svyatoslav invaded Bulgaria, defeated their troops and settled at the mouth of the Danube, in Pereyaslavets. It was here that the Greek tribute was delivered.
In 968-969, the Pechenegs became more active and moved towards Kyiv. Svyatoslav managed to return and drive the Pechenegs back to the steppe. Suspecting that the Khazars contributed to the Pecheneg attack, he made a second campaign against them. As a result, the Khazars were completely defeated.
While Svyatoslav was in Kyiv, Princess Olga, who, in fact, was the ruler of Rus', died. Svyatoslav made changes to the administration of the state: Yaropolk was placed in the Kiev reign, Oleg in the Drevlyan reign, and Vladimir in the Novgorod reign. He himself again went on a military campaign to Bulgaria. His regiments approached the Bulgarian Dorostol on the Danube and captured it. A little later, the capital Bulgarian city of Preslav the Great was captured, and Tsar Boris himself was captured. All of Bulgaria came under the rule of Svyatoslav.
In 970, the political situation changed, and with new allies (Bulgarians, Pechenegs and Hungarians), Svyatoslav attacked the Byzantine possessions in Thrace.
There are several versions of further events. The Byzantines write that Svyatoslav’s troops were defeated, and our chroniclers say that Svyatoslav won a victory, reached Constantinople, where he received a large tribute, including for the dead soldiers. Nevertheless, the fighting continued for a long time and with varying success. Russian losses grew, and Svyatoslav began searching for ways to peace. Peace was concluded, the Greeks even confirmed the old trade agreement that allowed the Russians to trade with Constantinople.
On the way back, Russian troops were met by Pecheneg troops. Tragic events occurred at the Dnieper rapids. Many soldiers died, including Svyatoslav. This happened in 972.
