D.V. Sichinava, 2011

View (term of Church Slavonic and Russian grammatical tradition; in other languages ​​- French, English. aspect, German Aspekt etc.) is a grammatical category of a Russian verb, based on the opposition of two meanings - perfective and imperfective. The view characterizes the situation from the point of view of its development in time (duration or instantaneity; completeness, repeatability, etc.) and the position of the Observer in relation to the situation (perspectives: retrospective consideration of the situation, synchronous observation of a fragment of the situation, etc.). In the Russian language, the category of aspect is dual, having features of both inflectional and word-formative. It is system-forming for the Russian verb (the only category by which any verbal word form is characterized).

The morphological and semantic structure of the category of aspect in the Russian language shows, despite differences in particulars, significant similarity to the category of aspect in other Slavic languages. At the same time, the two-term aspectual opposition of the Slavic type is structured differently than in most languages ​​of the world, where there are usually more aspectual grammes, with more specific meanings, and they are purely inflectional in nature.

1. Type category device

The meaning of the perfective and imperfective forms is closely related to the lexical meaning.

A set of perfective verbs representing a situation as an event ( pour out, understand, burn) or, in a number of special cases, a time-limited process or state ( stand, stand, get sick, get sick), is contrasted with a set of imperfective verbs that represent the situation as prolonged or uncharacterized in terms of duration ( put, do, decide). Unlike time, aspect does not localize the situation on the time axis, although in its non-basic meanings it can express temporal ordering (see Imperfect aspect / paragraph 3.2.2. Narrative).

The aspectual opposition in the forms of participles and gerunds is arranged somewhat differently than for finite forms, see, as well as the articles Participle, Participle. In particular, in the present of the perfect participle (like going) are not considered normative, and there are no gerunds.

The aspectual contrast is also relevant for some verbal names (mainly for situation names: reading - reading, much less common for the names of the figure: savior - rescuer). However, the number of such verbal names is extremely limited, in particular in comparison with other Slavic languages, for example, Polish [Ivannikova 1972], [Pazelskaya 2009].

When describing the semantics of aspect, the concept of an aspectual pair is usually used - a pair of verbs of the perfect and imperfect forms that exhibit significant commonality of lexical meaning ( do - do, jump - jump, process - process) [Zaliznyak, Shmelev 2000: 45–52], [Shatunovsky 2009: 11–17], about the criteria for species pairing, see. The content of aspectual opposition is different for different pairs of verbs. For example, do– achieving the final result of an action do, A jump– single action versus multiple jump[Maslov 1948], [Glovinskaya 1982], [Bulygina, Shmelev 1989], [Paducheva 1996], for more details see. In connection with this semantic heterogeneity, the concept of a species pair was questioned by some researchers, which caused a lengthy discussion, see [Zaliznyak, Mikaelyan, Shmelev 2010].

A binary interpretation of the species emerged at the end of the 19th century. There is also a ternary interpretation of the Slavic aspect, in which the “secondary imperfective” (as, for example, read in a row read NSV > read NE > read NSV), which is semantically shifted towards iterative (repeating action), is considered as the “third type” [Ivanchev 1971].

The so-called relict group has a special status. motor verbs – verbs of undirected or repeated movement: go - ride, fly - fly, run - run, suppletive go – walk). Motor verbs are formed using the same mechanisms as secondary imperfectives from perfective prefixed verbs of motion (cf. come in - come in, fly out - fly out), but retain the same imperfective form as verbs of directional movement ( go, fly). For more information about motor verbs, see.

There are several points of view on the structure of the aspect category from the point of view of inflection / word formation (see Grammatical category):

• elements of any species pair are forms of one verb; type – inflectional category (approach of V.V. Vinogradov [Vinogradov 1947]);
• elements of a species pair are different words; type – word-classifying category (the dominant point of view; an approach used, although not quite consistently, in [Grammatika 1980] or in [Petrukhina 2000]);
• type - word-formation category (M. V. Vsevolodova [Vsevolodova 1997], H. Philip);
• the formation of SV verbs from NSV verbs is word formation, and the formation of SV verbs from SV verbs is inflection (the approach of S. O. Kartsevsky, Yu. S. Maslov [Maslov 1984/2004], A. V. Bondarko [Bondarko 1971]).

The lexicographic tradition implements the elements of species pairs as different dictionary entries, with the description of the lexical meaning of species pairs in only one entry, but with the design of the other member of the species pair as a reference entry. The article [Bulygina, Shmelev 1989] examines various types of semantic relationships between elements of a species pair and shows that such a lexicographic description is not enough for them.

The form has both properties that speak in favor of the word-formative interpretation, and properties that speak in favor of the inflectional interpretation:

2. Morphology

2.1. Morphological expression of the species

All verbal word forms of the Russian language are characterized by appearance, except, possibly, the verb be, demonstrating individual properties of both types, and bi-aspect verbs (see) in many contexts.

There is no specific indicator (way of expression) of a species in Russian morphology. Species values ​​(usually together with others) are expressed in various ways:

• basis (non-derivative verbs NSV - bake, sleep, NE – lie down, stand);
• suffix ( decide - decide, scream - scream, process - process, in the latter case, together with alternating the root);
• prefix ( do – s-do);
• circumfix ( play - to-play).

Kind – correlative category (see Grammatical category); The affixes themselves do not express a specific meaning, which is marked by the difference between the sets of verbs SV and NSV. A change in aspect is expressed by the fact of the transition of a verb from one word-formation model to another, and this transition can be repeated ( take - collect - collect - collect).

A closed list of non-derivative verbs belongs to the perfect form (for the list, see the article Perfect form). The remaining non-derivative verbs belong to the imperfect form.

From a morphological point of view, how the NSV form can be formed from the SV form ( process – process), and the SV form from the NSV form ( do – do). The main morphological processes expressing aspect are perfectification and imperfectification, that is, respectively, the formation of a perfective verb from an imperfective and the formation of an imperfective from a perfective verb. The so-called is also possible. secondary imperfectification is the formation of an imperfective verb from a perfective verb, which in turn is formed by perfectification. The order in which morphemes are added plays an important role: for example, verbs visit And forget have an identical morphological structure, but belong to different species; the first is formed by prefix perfectification happen, the second – suffixal imperfectification forget.

2.1.1. Perfection

The main way of perfectification is to attach a prefix to the NSV verb, which, in addition to its aspect, usually also expresses a certain word-formation meaning. So, in perfective verbs make noise, make noise, make noise consoles for-, pro- And from-, along with the meaning of the perfect form, eigenvalues ​​are also presented - the beginning of the situation, the limitation of the situation to a certain time period, the end of the action. In a number of cases, relatively few (for example, make, cut), the meaning of the prefix is ​​considered “purely specific,” that is, expressing only the aspect (but not its own semantics). But there is an alternative interpretation of such examples: the so-called. the Wey-Schoneveld hypothesis (named after the Czech and Dutch Slavists who put forward similar ideas in the 1940s–1950s) explains this phenomenon by the coincidence of the own semantics of the prefix and the root. Yes, prefix With- means combining, making from parts ( collect), A once-– separation ( smash), which coincides with the meaning of the roots do And to nag respectively.

Prefixal expression of grammatical meanings is generally atypical for the Russian language. Another example would be prefix forms of degrees of comparison: biggest, more from big(See Comparative Degree).

Perfective suffix formation (suffixes -Well- , -anu-) also usually occurs together with the expression of the word-formation meaning inherent in the suffix:

(1) And then suddenly blew wind. [YU. O. Dombrovsky. Faculty of Unnecessary Things (1978)]

(2) The leader took all this into account very well, he measured it ten times, and then cut. [YU. O. Dombrovsky. Guardian of Antiquities (1964)]

2.1.2. Imperfectification

Imperfectification is expressed suffixally. Some perfective verbs have several imperfective derivatives formed using different suffixes: cook– prepare, prepare. See Imperfect form / clause 1.3. Multiple imperfectification.

There are two series of imperfective verbs denoting movement. Verbs of the first row indicate directed movement ( went to school, flew south). Verbs of the second row (the so-called motor multiples) have the meaning of repeated movement (iterative: every day he walked down the street), familiarity of the situation ( he went to school), multidirectional movement ( he went to the market this morning). There are thirteen such pairs in total: run - run, carry – carry, drive - drive, drive - drive, drive – ride, go - walk, roll - roll, climb - climb, fly - fly, carry - wear, swim - float, crawl - crawl, drag (s) - carry ).

Motor verbs, when combined with perfective directional prefixes, do not form SV verbs, retaining the imperfect form ( fly over, run away; according to A.D. Shmelev, they are formed from the corresponding prefixed verbs SV: fly over, run away). In combination with attachment With- Most of them ( run, take, take, go, go, roll up, climb down, fly off, float, slide down) form SV verbs with the meaning of bidirectional movement with a return to the starting point:

(3) To many fly off I want to go into space, but it costs more - 20 million dollars. ["Izvestia" (2002)]

Wed. also a language game with phraseology marry:

(4) She is already, as they say, got married once. [G. Ya. Baklanov. In a bright place, in a green place, in a calm place (1995)]

For more information about perfectification and imperfectification, see the Morphology sections in the articles Perfective Aspect and Imperfective Aspect.

2.2. Set of forms

The set of forms for imperfective verbs and perfective verbs is different and asymmetric from morphological and semantic points of view. Thus, morphologically identically constructed forms of present (see Tense) are interpreted for NSV verbs as forms of the present tense ( writes), and for perfective verbs - as forms of the future tense ( will write).

Table 1. Examples of combining an aspect with various grammatical meanings

	perfect view	imperfect species
past tense withdrawn. incl.	read	read
present time withdrawn. incl.		is reading
future tense withdrawn incl.	will read
active present participle	– (reader)	reading
active past participle	read	read
present passive participle		readable
passive past participle	read	read
present participle		reading
past participle	after reading	having read
infinitive

As part of the analytical form of the future tense, only imperfective verbs are normatively used (* we'll see), see the article Future tense.

Perfective participles, unlike imperfective participles, are not contrasted in time ( bringing - bringing - bringing), for more details, see the article Participle.

2.3. Bi-aspect verbs

Two-aspect verbs are verbs whose aspectual interpretation depends on the context. The use of two-aspect verbs in different aspectual meanings is traditionally considered forms of the same word [Bondarko, Bulanin 1967: 88]. They can also be considered as two homonymous verbs included in a specific pair [Zaliznyak, Shmelev 2000]. The bulk of them belong to the productive class with the suffix -ova- (confess, inherit, pass etc.), this includes numerous borrowed verbs in - Irova-, -Izova-, -Izirova-, -initiated: summarize, inform, paralyze, modernize, privatize, electrify), as well as a closed class of verbs not in - ovate: acquire, combine, promise, bequeath, command, wound, marry, execute, baptize, flee(‘to escape’).

(5) Another example: until 1997, apartments were registered as joint property of spouses without determining shares - upon the death of one of them, the inheritance was not opened, and the living space was automatically inherited other spouse. ["Izvestia" (2002)] - NSV

(6) When later young Baldwin inherited to his father, he avoided wars and bloodshed in every possible way. [A. p. Ladinsky. The Last Journey of Vladimir Monomakh (1960)] – SV

(7) Once a week Valeria ran to Sosnovsky’s office, in detail informed about affairs in the editorial office. [L. Korneshov. Newspaper (2000)] – NSV

(8) - They don’t wear wigs anymore! - informed Verochka. “And thank God,” Kalugina sighed with relief. [E. Ryazanov, E. Braginsky. Office Romance (1977)] – SV

(9) But the time of decrepitude comes for those who love light, and from under their canopy heavy spruce trees burst out towards the light, executed alder and birch. [IN. Grossman. Life and Fate, part 2 (1960)] – NSV

(10) If it executed, then the Russians will pardon you for this. [D. Granin. Bison (1987)] – SV

For a number of verbs, bi-aspect is a property of part of the verb paradigm; in terms of forms they are single-species [Knyazev 2007]. For example, organize can be understood as an imperfective verb only in the present tense:

(11) Insurance of notaries' activities organize regional and Federal notary chambers. ["The Lawyer" (2004)]

In the past tense it appears only as a perfective verb:

(12) In Bryansk Sergey quickly organized his own business, became the director of a company and plunged into the Russian economy, which had nothing in common with the one he was taught at Moscow State University. ["Crime Chronicle" (2003)]

Two-aspect verbs function unequally stably in the meanings of the imperfect and perfect forms. From this point of view, the following groups of verbs are distinguished:

• verbs denoting situations (usually speech or transmission of information), the result of which is determined by the very presence of the situation ( appeal, declare);
• verbs meaning change of state ( nickelize);
• verbs denoting gradual changes, each stage of which can be considered a new state ( reform).

Verbs with process and resultative meanings are very close in meaning ( appeal,declare,order,admonish), have relative indifference to the expression of the form . To express the completeness of an action, perfective prefix verbs are formed from many two-aspect verbs of such semantics as they are mastered by the language (cf. report,signal,inform). In some cases, there is competition between consoles: react, react, react. In this case, the prefixless verb can still be used in the context of SV:

(13) What could Gossnab do if Gosplan had already reported to the Council of Ministers and the Central Committee of the CPSU about the work completed? [A. Tarasov. Millionaire (2004)]

Verbs with the meaning of achieving a state ( marry,expropriate,liquidate,recycle). From individual verbs of similar semantics (a group of verbs in - ova with stress on the last syllable) paired imperfective verbs with a suffix are formed -yva-, eg. form, arrest, localize.

A number of suffixless verbs of this semantics have lost their use in the imperfect form, which was still noted in the literature of the 19th century:

(14) He asked me to take him with me, since he had never seen how will be arrested or take away the papers. [A. I. Herzen. Past and thoughts. Part six. England (1864)]

Some verbs to achieve a state, on the contrary, lose the interpretation of the perfect form ( nickel plating, disinfection), cf. acceptable in the 19th century:

(15) Taking out his overcoat, he looked very proudly and, holding it in both hands, threw it very deftly over Akaki Akakievich’s shoulders; then he pulled and pushed her down from behind with his hand; Then draped with it Akakiy Akakievich is somewhat wide open. [N. V. Gogol. Overcoat (1842)]

Finally, verbs denoting gradual changes, each stage of which can be considered a new state ( automate,electrify,reform), are consistently used in both types of meanings.

The interpretation of two-aspect verbs is unambiguous in the context of morphological forms characteristic of one of the types, namely:

• NSV – forms of the future complex ( I will inherit), present participle ( attacker, attacked) and gerunds ending in - A (privatizing, attacking);
• SV - gerunds on -in(shis) and the use of morphological forms of present type I'm attacking in the meaning of the future.

(16) Throughout the day, tactical aviation, as a rule, carried out from 120 to 150 sorties, attacking from 20 to 25 objects. [A. Mikhailov. Bosnia and Herzegovina. Year 1995 (2004)]

(17) Now I’ll finish writing a letter to my girl and I'm attacking with the support of Viktor Petrovich, the hostess sets the table for fried lamb... [S. Babayan. Captain Nezhentsev (1995-1996)]

3. Semantics

3.1. Invariant meaning

The question of the invariant meaning of Russian species is debatable. In the works of Yu. S. Maslov, A. V. Bondarko and others, the main opposition between the perfect and imperfect species is considered to be a “closed whole” - a “developing process”. In the work [Glovinskaya 1982], which follows, the SV invariant is proposed to be considered the meaning of ‘begin to exist’, and the NSV invariant is ‘to exist in each of a number of successive moments’. In some works, a more general formulation is also found: SV denotes a change that has occurred, as a rule, the beginning of a new state, and NSV is a continuation of the previous state or process, [Barentsen 1995], [Shatunovsky 2009]. This formulation does not cover verbs of restrictive mode of action (see perfect form): stand for two hours, stay at home(but these verbs constitute a well-known exception in the class of SV verbs, both semantic and combinable) and do not take into account the general factual use of NSV (see Imperfect form / clause 3.1.3. General factual meanings): who bought the tickets?

Anna A. Zaliznyak and A.D. Shmelev [Zaliznyak, Shmelev 2000] interpret the species differently, considering the marked species to be imperfect (denoting a state). The perfect form, from their point of view, covers all other types of situations.

3.2. Replacing SV with NSV. Maslov criterion

When describing the semantics of Russian aspect, the concept of aspectual pair is often used - a pair of verbs that differ exclusively or almost exclusively in aspectual characteristics ( do – do). As a criterion for species pairing, the functional criterion of Yu. S. Maslov is often considered [Maslov 1984/2004: 53] (more precisely, a “bundle” of two criteria), which states that a pair consists of two verbs for which the following two statements are simultaneously true:

A. NSV of the present tense can be used instead of SV of the past tense in the context of the present historical (see Time) with event meaning. Wed. two examples, related in this way:

(18) The next day arrives to the farm a small car with bread and even pasta brings and sweet water. [B. Ekimov. On the farm (2002)]

(19) Gloria arrived early, around eight o'clock, and brought a whole bag of money in small bills, the kind they used to pay her for camel riding. [A. Shimansky. Australia through the eyes of a Russian, or Why camels don’t spit there (2002)]

B. NSV stands instead for SV in the context of describing repeating events:

(20) Every evening he took scissors, sat down on the shore of the pond and quietly tonsured their. [WITH. Kozlov. How the Hedgehog and the Little Bear saved the Wolf (2003)]

It is assumed that Maslov's criterion makes it possible to distinguish specific oppositions themselves (i.e., oppositions in species pairs) from oppositions based on the method of action. However, it forces SV verbs with a clearly initial meaning to be considered included in the aspectual pair, for example, run - run (jumped up and ran in praesens historicum jumps up and runs). But if we consider aspect as a word-formation category (see), the problem of aspectual pairing loses its fundamental meaning and remains a purely functional property of verbs.

3.3. Semantic oppositions in species pairs

There are several types of semantic oppositions in species pairs, varying in regularity and prevalence. The specific type of aspectual oppositions depends on the semantic classes of the verbs involved in them.

0. One-time use vs. recurrence ( visit<один раз>, NE - visit<каждый месяц> , NSV) – difference in terms of quantitative aspectuality; opposition present in all verbs forming aspectual pairs [Paducheva 1996:89], in particular, it can be unique.

1. Limit species pairs - the verb NSV means a process that normally ends with the achievement of some natural limit, and SV means the achievement of this limit ( build – build).

2. Perfect species pairs: SV means instant transition, NSV – achieved state ( see – see, feel – sense).

3. "Trends" – the verb NSV means a situation that, if unchanged, leads to a result, denoted by the verb SV: our team loses 0:2 – our team lost 0:2.

4. « Properties » : Bottle accommodates / accommodated seven liters <НСВ выражает свойство бутыли, а семантика СВ включает Говорящего / Наблюдателя, который сначала не знал, а потом узнал это свойство>[Glovinskaya 1982].

5. Meaning of continuity/discontinuity: Athletes continue workout <НСВ означает ‘не переставали’> / Athletes will continue training in Moscow <СВ означает ‘вновь начнут после перерыва’>.

In [Apresyan 1980] and [Glovinskaya 1982], a non-standard semantic relationship is seen in the non-agentive uses of verbs of motion, where the subject is an extended spatial object such as a road, fence, river: There is a road near the gatehouse turns / turned. They associate the opposition of SV/NSV in these pairs with the presence of the Observer in the second case. Meanwhile, according to [Paducheva 1996], the presence of the Observer is expressed here not by appearance, but by the lexical meaning of the verb in its given use, so that replacing SV with NSV preserves the Observer. For example, Observer is preserved when replacing SV in a sentence There is a road near the gatehouse turned on NSV past. time: There is a road near the gatehouse turned ; or in an example.

The moving observer is also preserved in cases where the verb NSV expresses a constant property of the road. So, in the example At the fifteenth kilometer of the road turns South the verb retains valency in the direction of movement, and only the Observer can move [Paducheva 1996: 99]. Thus, the presence of the Observer in the SV can only explain the non-standard nature of pairs like contain - contain(NSV contain denotes a property that does not imply an Observer), but not pairs of type turn – to turn.

Verbs of the perfect form of a restrictive mode of action (limitatives) (see Perfect form) are sometimes interpreted as forming an aspectual pair with the corresponding verb NSV: read - NSV, read - SV [Petrukhina 2000].

3.4. View and denial

In a number of contexts, NSV replaces SV when negated:

• imperative ( Do not tell me! Wed Tell!);
• infinitive as an imperative ( Do not get up!, Wed. stand up!);
• infinitive with a modal verb ( No need to explain Wed We need to explain).

(21) Let me see! [Kate]. Just don't turn it off![Denis]. Are you recording something? [Idle conversation of young people, Moscow region (2005)]

(22) No need to worry about it schoolchildren with words like “structuralism” or a description of the merits of its founders. [M. Arapov. When the Text Makes Sense (2003)]

3.5. Species pairing and polysemy

Polysemous verbs can have different aspect pairs in different meanings:

(23) Meanwhile, quickly it was getting dark, night was approaching—it seemed like the last one on their hectic journey. [IN. Bykov. Swamp (2001)]

(24) Somehow quickly it got dark and wintered. [WITH. Jurassic. Hofmann's Wallet (1993)]

(25) Babanova’s eyes widen, face it's getting dark, the figure becomes rigid, the movements are sharp, angular, sharp. [IN. Rozov. Wonder at Life (1960-2000)]

(26) And he has again face darkened, and he didn't touch the cake. [T. Nabatnikova. Cat's Birthday (2001)]

4. Statistics

This section presents statistics on the type grammeme in the texts of the Main Corpus and its compatibility.

Table 2. The ratio of types in combination with various forms of the verb paradigm

Parameter			Note
All verbal word forms			Verb included be
All verbal word forms			Verb excluded be
Finite forms (indicative + conditional)			Influence of the present tense (no SV)
Past tense and conditional mood
Future			The NSV includes analytical future tense plus forms will from the verb be. Counting by the number of word forms of a type will underestimates the number of forms, since the scope will Several verbs may appear: During the month they will play and fly, Playing and flying will put you to sleep(V. A. Zhukovsky, Tsar of the Forest)
Imperative
Participle			Form of passive participle SV ( open) - active in live speech (the rest are bookish)
Participle
Infinitive

Bibliography

• Apresyan Yu.D. 1980. Principles of semantic description of language units // Semantics and knowledge representation. Tartu: TSU. 1980.
• Barentsen A. Three-stage model of the perfective aspect invariant in the Russian language // Karolyak S. (Ed.) Semantics and structure of the Slavic aspect, vol. I. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Naukowe WSP. 1995. pp. 1–26.
• Bondarko A.V., Bulanin L.L. Russian verb. L. 1967.
• Bulygina T.V., Shmelev A.D. Mental predicates in the aspect of aspectology // Logical analysis of language: Problems of intensional and pragmatic contexts. Moscow. 1989. pp. 31–54.
• Vinogradov V.V. Russian language: grammatical teaching about the word. M. 1947.
• Vsevolodova M.V. Seminal composition of the verb word. (On the issue of typology of the species) // Typology of the species: problems, searches, solutions. Abstracts of the international scientific conference. Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov. Faculty of Philology. M.: Publishing house Mosk. un-ta. 1997.
• Zaliznyak Anna A., Mikaelyan I.L., Shmelev A.D. Species correlativity in the Russian language: in defense of the species pair // Questions of linguistics, 1. 2010. pp. 3–23.
• Ivannikova E.A. On the issue of the aspect of studying the category of aspect in verbal nouns in the Russian language // Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Department of Literature and Language, 2. 1972. pp. 113–123.
• Ivanchev S. Problems on aspectuality in Slavyanskite ezitsi. Sofia: Academy on Science. 1971.
• Knyazev Yu.P. Grammatical semantics: Russian language in a typological perspective. M.: YASK. 2007.
• Maslov Yu.S. Type and lexical meaning of the verb in the modern Russian literary language // Proceedings of the USSR Academy of Sciences. VII(4). Department of Literature and Language. M.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences. 1948. pp. 303–316.
• Maslov Yu.S. Essays on aspectology. L.: Leningrad State University. 1984. (republished as part of “Selected Works” by Maslov, M. 2004).
• Paducheva E.V. Semantic Research. M.: YARK. 1996.
• Paducheva E.V. Genitive of negation and observer in verbs like ring And smell// Language as a matter of meaning. To the 90th anniversary of N.Yu. Shvedova. M.: Azbukovnik. 2008.
• Pazelskaya A.G. Models of derivation of verbal nouns: a view from the corpus // Corpus studies on Russian grammar. M.: Probel-2000. 2009.
• Petrukhina E.V. Aspectual categories of the verb in the Russian language in comparison with the Czech, Slovak, Polish and Bulgarian languages. M.: Moscow State University. 2000.
• Antinucci F., Gerbert L. L "aspetto verbale in polacco. Ricerche Slavistiche XXII–XXIII. 1975. P. 5–60.
• Dickey S. Parameters of Slavic Aspect. Stanford, California. 2000.
• Filip H. Aspect, Eventuality Types, and Nominal Reference. London. 1999.
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Main literature

• Bondarko A.V., Bulanin L.L. Russian verb. L. 1967.
• Bondarko A.V. Type and tense of the Russian verb. M. 1971.
• Bondarko A.V. Problems of grammatical semantics and Russian aspectology. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University. 1996.
• Glovinskaya M.Ya. Semantic types of aspectual oppositions in the Russian verb. M.: Science. 1982.
• Glovinskaya M.Ya. Polysemy and synonymy in the aspectual-temporal system of the Russian verb. M.: Azbukovnik / Russian dictionaries. 2001.
• Zaliznyak Anna A., Shmelev A.D. Introduction to Russian aspectology. M.: YARK. 2000.
• Knyazev Yu.p. Grammatical semantics: Russian language in a typological perspective. M.: YASK. 2007.
• Maslov Yu.S. Essays on aspectology. L.: Leningrad State University. 1948. (Republished as part of “Selected Works” by Maslov, M. 2004).
• Melig H.R. Semantics of sentence and semantics of aspect in the Russian language // New in foreign linguistics, XV. M.: Progress. 1985.
• Paducheva E.V. Semantic research. M.: YARK. 1996.
• Rasudova O.P. Use of verb types in Russian. M.: Moscow State University. 1968.
• Shatunovsky I.B. Problems of the Russian type. M.: YASK. 2009.
• Bybee J. L., Dahl O. The creation of tense and aspect systems in the languages ​​of the world // Studies in language, 13. 1989. pp. 51–103.
• Comrie B. Aspect. Cambridge. 1976.
• Coseriu E. Das romanische Verbalsystem. Tubingen. 1976.
• Dahl O. Tense and aspect systems. Oxford, 1985.
• Smith C. The parameter of aspect. Dordrecht. 1991.

There is also a Russian term aspect, usually understood as a synonym for the term view, less often these concepts are differentiated (for example, view is understood as a contrast between SV and NSV of the Slavic type, a special case of a broader typological category aspect). Accordingly, the area of ​​linguistics that studies species is called aspectology.

Along with it there is also a suffix -Well- with a process meaning, forming NSV verbs, which, unlike the one under consideration, is capable of alternating with zero ( get wet - wet (zero)).

/>

View- this is a verb category that reflects how the speaker sees the flow of an action in time: ended, ongoing, repeating, one-time. In Russian there are two types: perfect And imperfect.

Verbs imperfect form convey the meaning of an action without indicating its completion. There are three types of words that fall under this category:

Denoting long-term action. For example: “He looked into her eyes for a long time,” “She walked down the street for an endlessly long time.”

Conveying the meaning of a repeating action. Example: “She gets on the bus every morning,” “He goes to school every day.”

Characterizing constant action. Consider an example: “The city is located on a hill.”

Imperfective verbs in many cases are accompanied by the adverbs “long”, “often”, “usually”, conveying the frequency with which the action is performed. Words of this type can be expressed in three tenses: present, past, future.

Verbs related to perfect view, convey the meaning of completeness of the action. Limit it to a time frame. Words of this type can express:

An action that ends in achieving some result. For example: “Nastya painted a beautiful picture,” “Dad hammered a nail into the wall.”

An action whose boundary is determined by its beginning. For example: “Wonderful music began to play in the hall,” “The girl sang a beautiful romance.”

A one-time action, provided that the word is formed using the suffix “well”: “He accidentally pushed me in the corridor,” “Out of anger, he kicked the briefcase.”

Perfective words appear only in the past and future simple forms.

Verbs of both types sometimes form species pairs. This category includes homonymous words that have the same meaning, but with different connotations. Let's look at examples:

Justify and justify. In the first case we see a completed action, in the second - a long-term one.

Double and double. The first word conveys the meaning of the action that ended when the result was achieved. The second shows the duration.

Most often, such verbs are formed from the same stem. But there are exceptions, such as “take and take” or “catch and catch.”

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The content of the article

VIEW, a verb category indicating the internal structure and mode of existence of a situation in time. A distinction is made between species in a broad sense (in this sense the terms “aspect” and “aspectuality” are also used), i.e. species as a conceptual category that is universal in nature and is expressed by one or another means (lexical, word-formative, etc.) in a variety of languages ​​of the world; on the other hand, aspect can be a grammatical category - in those languages ​​where the expression of the conceptual category of aspect is provided by grammatical means (aspect in the narrow sense). The presence of the grammatical category of aspect is a characteristic feature of Slavic languages.

Type and method of verb action.

The conceptual category of aspect in the Russian language is expressed, in particular, in the category of the method of verbal action. The question of the relationship between the categories of type and mode of action is traditionally a controversial one. According to the most common point of view in modern aspectology, modes of action represent different classes of derived verbs associated with the original verb by regular word-formation relations (for example, walk around represents a multiple mode of action denoted by a verb walk, make some noise– the initial mode of action denoted by a verb make noise and so on). The method of action is not a grammatical category, since its expression in Russian is not necessary. We are speaking He often visited me(multiple mode of action) – if we want to specifically express the idea of ​​multiplicity in the verb. But we can express the same situation with the words He often came to see me, leaving this idea unexpressed in the verb. The mode of action is the result of a certain semantic modification of the original verb, which is expressed by formal means - prefixes and suffixes. Yes, verbs scream, shout, shout, shout represent various semantic modifications of the verb scream, each of which has its own formal indicator. Some of the types of modifications of the action of the original verb are very close, sometimes even identical, to some types of semantic relationships in aspect pairs. Therefore, it happens that the same verb is an aspectual correlate of some verb of the opposite aspect and at the same time one of the modes of action formed from it. So, for example, the verb like it is at the same time a species correlate to like and his initial mode of action. Verbs like jump, throw or bite are simultaneously a one-time mode of action to jump, throw And bite and their species correlates. Although such combinations of functions are relatively rare, in principle such a possibility exists and is due to the similarity of semantic relationships between members of a species pair and between the motivating verb and its mode of action. In other words, the content side of the category of type and the category of method of action are very close - in the sense that the set of meanings conveyed by one and the other category has a large area of ​​intersection. The difference between them concerns the functional side.

Aspect as a grammatical category.

In Russian, as in other Slavic languages, there is a grammatical category of aspect, which contrasts two meanings: “perfect aspect” and “imperfect aspect”. The expression of this opposition is mandatory for the Russian language: every verb used in a statement in Russian has one or another meaning of the category of aspect, i.e. is either a perfective or imperfective verb. This extends, among other things, to the so-called two-type verbs: in sentences like I am getting married, where the verb can be understood in two ways - as a verb owl. aspect (future tense) and as a verb nes. type (present tense), there is grammatical ambiguity generated by the external coincidence (homonymy) of different grammatical forms. This ambiguity is resolved in a broader context, cf. It's decided. I am getting married[nesov. view] to Marie and I'm leaving with her for Paris And I am getting married[owl view] on Irina, if she agrees to live with me in a hut.

Semantics of specific opposition.

Using the category of species in the Russian language, various semantic oppositions related to the conceptual category of species can be expressed. It is customary to talk about the general meaning (semantic invariant) of each of the types, as well as the specific opposition itself, and about the particular meanings of the types (particular specific meanings).

The aspectual system of the Russian language is based on a certain way of conceptualizing reality. Namely, the following fundamental categories are distinguished: event, process, state. A state is a state of affairs that remains unchanged over a period of time: Masha loves Petya; Vasya is shivering. When one state is replaced by another, it is conceptualized as an event. An event is a transition to a new state (at some point in time one state took place, and at some subsequent time another state took place): Masha stopped loving Petya; Vasya warmed up. Finally, a process is something that happens over time. The process consists of successive phases and usually requires energy to maintain: boy walking, playing; they are talking; the fire is burning. The Russian aspectual system is structured in such a way that the verbs are owls. species always denote events, and verbs do not. species can denote any of three types of phenomena: primarily processes ( boils, talking with a friend, for a long time writes letter) and state ( dies out of impatience, sick, something waiting), but also events (suddenly understands, every day comes).

Accordingly, the general meaning of the species opposition is that owls. the view, which always expresses eventfulness, is contrasted with nonsense. a species unmarked in this regard, i.e. capable of expressing both processuality or stativity, and eventfulness. This invariant semantics of aspectual opposition is implemented in various ways depending on the context. This means context in a broad sense, which includes the type of lexical meaning of the verb itself (since the semantics of aspectual opposition is different for verbs of different semantic classes), the meaning of grammatical categories (primarily tense and mood), the presence in the sentence of some special indicators, in particular negation and deictic words (such as this), type of speech act (message, question, request, etc.) etc. There are two fundamentally different types of contexts. In some, the opposition of species forms expresses precisely the difference that exists in a given semantic type of species pairs, for example, “an action developing towards its limit” - “reaching the limit,” as in a pair of sentences Last summer we built dacha("engaged in construction") - Last summer we built dacha("finished construction"), i.e. We are talking about different situations. In other contexts, both species forms describe the same situation of reality, and the species opposition expresses only different ways of conceptualizing it (cf. This house built my grandfather - This house built my grandfather). The most studied contexts of the second type are the opposition of owls. species and nes. general factual in the past tense (cf. above) and the use of species in the imperative ( Tell me, what happened there - Well, tell me what happened there).

Specific meanings.

The perfect form has a small scatter of partial values. The main meaning of owls. type is called concrete factual ( Ivan left abroad). There are also a number of peripheral meanings: visual approximate ( He will see stray dog ​​on the street, will say her kind words and will do on his way); this same meaning is sometimes called usual, potential ( You, Vasya, and the dead stir up ), total ( Seven times try it on, one cut off ) and some others. The imperfect form has a richer range of particular specific meanings; Moreover, some of them are possible only for verbs of certain semantic classes. The most striking meaning of nes. type is actual-long-term, which is also called concrete-process. Nesov verb. type in an actual-long-term meaning describes a process or state that lasts at the moment of observation ( When I walked in my wife covered on the table, and son lying on the sofa and read book). A type of actual-continuous meaning is cognitive, i.e. try value ( consoled , but did not console; decided , but haven't decided).

Not all nonsense verbs have an actual-continuous (aka concrete-process) meaning. type; Moreover, the presence or absence of an actual-continuous meaning of a verb is its important semantic characteristic. Namely, this meaning cannot be expressed by verbs that describe situations that are not actual (concrete) or not continuous (process). The first category consists of verbs denoting stable states, properties and relationships, devoid of the sign of process, flow in time ( know, understand, assume, suspect, be in love, exist, be present, absent, correspond, mean, have and so on.). Such verbs can be called non-actual state verbs. Another group of verbs that are not capable of actual-long-term use are verbs denoting the type of activity ( lead, manage, reign, steal, teach, trade, fish, carpenter, widow and so on.). Verbs of the multiple and intermittent softening mode also do not have an actual-continuous meaning ( walk, sit, visit, read, pat etc.), in which the irrelevant nature of the action is included in the lexical meaning.

In addition, the actual-continuous meaning is absent in the so-called “momentary” verbs ( find, reach, come etc.), which can only indicate the moment of achieving the goal, but not the process leading to it: so, one cannot say *It took the climbers three hours to reach the top, *It took me a long time to find my lost wallet.

In addition to the actual-long-term, in the Ness. types highlight the following meanings. Usual: designation of a habitual, constantly reproduced action (cf. He smokes, dines in a restaurant, sleeps with the window open,By on Saturdays he washes himself in the bath); potential: the meaning of skill, ability to do something ( She speaks French= "can speak"; crocodiles don't fly the bridge can support one hundred tons). Special mention among the meanings of nes. The type deserves the meaning of repetition, or iterative. Its special place in the system of private meanings of nes. The type is determined not so much by the fact that the designation of a repeated action is historically the primary function of nes. type (and formal indicators of imperfectification are initially indicators of iteratization), as well as topics that are not. the species here can be used to denote events - instead of owls. the type that would be used to denote the same event, but it happened once, cf. In the morning he brewed tea for yourself And He every morning brews tea for yourself. The need for such a replacement underlies the criterion for establishing species pairing (see below).

Another important private meaning of nes. type - general factual. It includes a group of meanings, the main one of which is the generally factual resultative, when the verb is nonsense. type denotes an action that has achieved a result ( Winter Palace built Rastrelli– meaning “built”). The important role of this meaning in the aspectual system of the Russian language is determined by the fact that here the so-called competition of species arises, as not. the form in the general factual effective meaning can be used to designate those situations of reality that can also be called the verb owl. type in a concrete factual meaning (cf. You showed this is a letter for her? And You showed this is a letter for her?). Between the perfect and imperfect views, however, there is always a difference at the level of interpretation, a way of seeing the same event of reality, the essence of which boils down to the fact that the general factual meaning is not. The species focuses on the fact itself, and the concrete factual meaning of owls. species - on its relevant consequences.

In addition to the resultant, the general factual effective meaning has the following varieties: general factual bidirectional (the result was achieved, but was annulled by an oppositely directed action: Someone came to see you= “came and went”), ineffective (the action did not achieve a result: I begged her to come back), unlimited (the value of a stopped state or process ( As a child, Masha was afraid of mice; There was a picture hanging on this wall).

The concept of a species pair.

Why do we need the concept of a species pair? First of all, because species pairs are actively used by native speakers in their everyday speech activity. The fact is that many language rules require, in certain contexts, the replacement of the perfect form of a verb with an imperfect one. Thus, all foreigners studying the Russian language are told the rule according to which in sentences with an imperative, when adding a negation, the perfective form is replaced by an imperfective one (cf. Call wife - No call wife). There are other similar contexts. One of them is narration in the so-called present historical, when the story of past events is told in the present tense, as if they were happening before our eyes, for example: And then Spartak turns south and reaches Syracuse in three days. If we were telling the story in the past. time, we would say: turned And got there, restoring that owl. the kind that, when translating the narrative into the present. historical was replaced by imperfect. Another such context is a story about recurring events, cf.: Having met a black cat on his way, Nikolai gets scared every time, spits over his left shoulder and turns back just in case.. If we were talking about a single event, we would say: got scared, spat, turned. In all such cases, a native speaker easily copes with such a replacement, and thus with the task of finding an aspectual correlate - since, as an imperfect substitute of a given verb, owls. species can, of course, not be an arbitrary verb. species, namely that single verb nes. species that forms a species pair with it.

This is the basis for the criterion of species correlativity proposed by Yu.S. Maslov in 1948 (which was appreciated only in the 1970s and largely determined the further development of aspectological science). A species pair is formed by two verbs of the opposite aspect (they are called, respectively, the perfective and imperfect members of the species pair), if the given verb is nonsense. species can be used instead of this verb sov. type when translating the narrative into present form. historical and in the context of recurrence. So, for example, verbs open And open form a species pair, because along with the proposal Arriving home, I opened window in Russian there are sentences like I came home yesterday I open it window… on the one hand, and Every day when I come home, I I open it window- with another; Moreover, in both sentences with the verb nes. kind open this verb denotes the same event as the verb sov. kind open. Maslov's criterion allows us to establish more non-trivial cases of species correlativity, for example, it shows that a pair search – find is not specific (unlike the semantically close catch – catch). So, for example, the proposal He went out into the yard caught a butterfly and brought it home in the present historically it would look like He goes out into the yard catches a butterfly and brings it home(form here catches indicates a process that has achieved a result, i.e. = "caught"). However, a similar replacement found on looking for– for example, in a sentence He found on the road I picked up my wallet it cannot be produced: looking for a wallet in Russian cannot mean the same thing as I found a wallet. Last offer for now. historical should be conveyed as He finds wallet on the road and picks it up– whence it follows that the species pair to find is a verb find.

So, aspectual correlativity occurs if and only if the verb is nonsense. species can denote the same event as the verb owl. kind. However, the verb usually included in the aspectual pair is nes. type denotes, in addition, some other process or state associated with this event. Depending on what the verb ness means. species (in a non-event meaning), there can be different semantic relationships between members of a species pair. The most characteristic is the limiting relation: the verb nesov. species denotes an action developing towards its internal limit (completion), and the verb owl. species denotes the achievement of this limit, cf. build – build, write – write, rewrite – rewrite, do – do and so on. The limiting relationship is in a sense exemplary, paradigmatic for the entire category of species (in particular, in that it served as a source for designating species - respectively, “imperfect” and “perfect”). However, it is not at all the only possible one. Differing from limit pairs are gradation pairs ( rise – rise, increase – increase), in which there is no internal limit: here the process is limited from the outside, by the very moment of observation. On the other hand, in the Russian language there is a fairly large class of aspectual pairs in which the imperfective member denotes a certain state (usually the internal state of a person), and the perfective denotes a transition to this state; for example, verb understand denotes a state that occurs as a result of an event described by a verb understand. Wed. Also: see – see, hear – hear, feel – feel, want - want, to be upset - to be upset,to be surprised - to be surprised and so on. This semantic relationship is called perfect. Semantic relationship in pairs like go – go,run - run called ingressive (or initiatory). The class of semelphatic species pairs is very extensive. (throw - throw,wave - wave), in which the imperfective member describes some activity, and the perfective indicates a single “quantum” of this activity. There are other types of semantic relations. Even such a “degenerate” case is possible when the imperfective member of the aspectual pair does not have any meaning of its own: it can only act as a “substitute” for the verb sov. type in those contexts where the rules of Russian grammar require the replacement of owls. view of Nesov; such pairs are called trivial; these include, for example: find – find, come – come, eat – eat, reach – achieve, turn out to be – turn out to be.

Morphologically, the relationship between members of a species pair can also be different. The most common formal relationship is in which the verb is nes. species is morphologically derived from the verb sov. type, namely, is obtained by adding an imperfective suffix: -yva-/-willow- (rewrite – rewrite, lace - lace up view - view), -and I- (decide - decide, replace - replace, blame - blame),-a-/-va- press – press, attack – attack; open - open, kill - kill), -Eve- (eclipse - eclipse, get stuck - get stuck). Nesov verb. species can be obtained from the verb owl. species by cutting off the suffix present in it -Well- : and the simultaneous addition of an imperfective suffix -and I- or -yva-/-willow- , For example: shout - shout, wave - wave, smile - smile, rest - rest, perish - perish, look back - look back and so on. In other cases, on the contrary, the verb is owl. vida is obtained from the verb nesov. type by adding a prefix (such pairs are called prefixal - in contrast to suffixes, obtained by adding a suffix): feel – By feel, cook – With cook, want – behind want, go blind – O go blind, get scared – is get scared. There are, in addition, so-called suppletive pairs, i.e. formed from different bases ( take – take, put – put, catch – catch, say - talk), as well as various mixed types ( buy - buy, plant - plant, crack - crack and etc.). Finally, a separate formal type of aspectual pairs are biaspect verbs ( marry, order, execute, promise, explore, liquidate, emigrate, qualify etc.), which from the point of view of their functioning in the system are nothing more than pairs of homonymous (formally not different) verbs of the opposite form. The class of bi-aspect verbs in the Russian language is a peripheral phenomenon. It is constantly replenished through borrowings, but as they are mastered, these verbs begin to be formally differentiated due to the fact that either the perfective member of the pair is marked with a prefix (cf. about inform, from restore), or imperfective - with the suffix ( arrests yva t, organizations yva t).

Unpaired verbs.

Not all Russian verbs are included in aspectual pairs. They exist as unpaired owl verbs. species (perfectiva tantum), and unpaired ness verbs. species (imperfectiva tantum). The two classes are structured differently. To unpaired verbs owls. types include, for example: wake up, find yourself, rush, gush, burst out, collapse, be lucky, choke, arrange, take place; in addition, this also includes verbs of certain modes of action, namely: inchoative ( cry), delimitive ( play), distributive ( open). Prohibition on the formation of nes. form from verbs such as wake up or rush, is associated with morphology and generally speaking does not have an absolute character: if necessary, forms like wake up or rush. The impossibility of imperfectifying the verbs of the listed modes of action is more systematic. As for the class of unpaired nes verbs. species, then, firstly, it is more extensive, and secondly, the absence of a species correlate for these verbs is due directly to their semantics: these are verbs denoting various states, properties and relationships ( have, to mean, cost, belong, consist, correspond, know, be in love, afraid And etc.), which cannot denote any event - and thus cannot be included in the species pair.

The category of aspect refers to one of the most complex categories of Russian grammar; Many issues of aspectological theory remain controversial. The category of types causes particular difficulty when studying the Russian language, since the choice of type in a particular statement is the result of many interacting factors.

Anna Zaliznyak

Literature:

Isachenko A.V. The grammatical structure of the Russian language in comparison with Slovak, vol. II. Bratislava, 1960
Bondarko A.V., Bulanin L.L. Russian verb. L., 1967
Rasudova O.P. Use of verb types in Russian. M., 1968
Bondarko A.V. Type and tense of the Russian verb. M., 1971
Avilova N.S. Type of verb and semantics of the verb word. M., 1976
Glovinskaya M.Ya. Semantic types of aspectual oppositions of the Russian verb. M., 1982
Maslov Yu.S. Essays on Aspectology. L., 1984
Paducheva E.V. Semantic Research. Part I: Semantics of time and aspect. M., 1996
Bulygina T.V., Shmelev A.D. Linguistic conceptualization of the world(based on Russian grammar). Part I: Ontology of phenomena and Russian appearance. M., 1997
Zaliznyak Anna A., Shmelev A.D. Introduction to Russian aspectology. M., 2000



Good afternoon, dear student! Today we will look at types of verbs. Very often my students wonder why there are so many different verbs in the Russian language, how to determine their tense, and why some verbs are used with prefixes and some without. To understand all these issues, let's look at perfect and imperfect verbs.

You will find the form of imperfective verbs in the dictionary; the verb in this case denotes an action, and from this form perfective verbs are formed. It should be noted that there are quite a lot of these methods, here are some of them:

With help consoles, compare:

Imperfect species	Perfect view
Read To read	Read Has red
Write To write	Has written
Prepare	Has cooked
Buy To buy	Buy Has bought

Please note that we have an exception word that is formed in perfect form without a prefix - this is the verb “Buy”. In its imperfect form, this verb is used with the prefix -po.

With the help of different suffixes:

So, if we want to say that an action happens regularly, we need an imperfective verb. If the action occurred 1 time at some point or day/hour, etc. and we know about its result, then we are dealing with a perfect verb. Such verbs answer the question " what to do?"

If we are talking about repeated actions, then we not only use imperfective verbs that answer the question " what to do?", but we also use various additional information in the form of adverbs, which actually show this repetition. For example,

Anastasia can't cook ( what to do?), she cooks rarely. Anastasiya cannot cook, she cooks rare.

I bought (what did?) beautiful dress, it's for me goes very well! (the result is visible) I bought a new dress, it suits me much.

To correctly determine the aspect of a verb, you can remember some adverbs that will help you correctly decide whether a particular verb belongs to a certain aspect:

Imperfect species
What are they doing? When? How often?

1. Nikita watches the film Every morning/evening/day, regularly, often, rarely, sometimes, usually.
2. Vitaly buys newspapers
3. We are playing volleyball

Perfect view
What did they do? When?

1. Nikita watched the movie "Titanic" Yesterday, in the evening, in the morning, today, once, on Friday, 2 days ago, already, not yet.
2. Vitaly bought the newspaper "Izvestia"
3. We played volleyball very well

From these examples it is clear that adverb words can greatly facilitate the definition of one or another type of verb, the main thing is to learn the questions and remember these words. To practice, correct the given sentences by giving the verbs the correct verbs. The sentences are misspelled:

I finished my porridge and went for a walk.
The students were delayed at the university, but still mastered the material.
She took a very long time to redo the report.
Tanya cried a lot and did not calm down.
The children laughed a lot and the teacher decided to play with them some more.

Remember, please, that imperfective verbs have 3 forms: past, present and future:

Perfective verbs have only 2 tense forms: past and future

Watched and will watch (What did they do and what will they do?)

The past tense form changes according to numbers:

He ran (singular) and they ran (plural) He ran and they ran.

Perfective verbs answer the question what to do? And yes, in English there is a concept of aspect (or aspect). Thus, the perfect form of the verb corresponds to two tense forms. I thought”—sometime in the past I started thinking and stopped thinking. What is a verb type and how to learn it? The imperfect verb denotes the actual action.

Perhaps you have already noticed that in Russian, when describing an action, very similar, but still unequal verbs are used. These verbs denote one action, have the same lexical meaning - but they are different. The main, basic form is considered to be the imperfect form - you will find it in the dictionary.

From this form the perfect form is formed in different ways. The category of aspect is the most important characteristic of a verb; any verb refers to a perfect or imperfect action.

In fact, taking into account the type, we have not three, but five forms of time. These two verb forms once existed in Russian, but disappeared over time. This is especially important to understand for past tense verbs. Yes, it's possible. In the Russian language, there are generally almost no grammatical restrictions on the use of different types of tense forms of verbs in one sentence. It indicates how the action defined by the verb proceeds in time: it is completed and one-time (did, lived) or incomplete and repeated (lives, does).

What is the type of verbs in Russian?

The general meaning of the verb type is the implementation of an event in time. One type represents the event in its implementation (imperfect), the other - in its limit (perfect). The type of verb is a grammatical category of Verbs in many languages, generally reflecting certain types of action.

1. VIEW, a (y), sentence. Vanya] is thin, coughs... look: he’s thirteen years old, but he looks like a ten-year-old. Imperfective verbs denote a long-term, constant or repeated action, for example: He was silent for a long time; The river flows north; He walks to work.

In previous lessons, friends learned that a verb is a part of speech that answers the question “What to do?” and describes the action. Namely, these verbs answer different questions. The verb “sew” describes an action that has already been completed. The grandfather began to pull turnips out of the ground (nesov. This has its own unconditional charm - but there are also certain difficulties. And so that our thoughts are formed precisely, beautifully, interestingly, diversely - the Russian language has an excellent means: it has kind of verb!

Forget that verb aspect is a complex grammatical topic. In my life, I taught Russian to several hundred students. And therefore I know that the bulk of the problems with the aspect of the verb can be completely eliminated if the meaning and use of the forms are clearly explained and consolidated from the very beginning. It is important to follow two conditions. Verb pairs (in the sequence “imperfective aspect - perfective aspect” - this is how they will be written in any textbook, grammar manual, etc.) must be learned by heart.

The verb, especially in everyday life, is the organizing center of the sentence. NSV verbs express an action in the process of its occurrence. SV verbs denote an action limited by a limit (often we define this as “result”). That is, when constructing your own sentence with this or that verb, you will first have to decide which type of verb to choose: imperfect or perfect.

What happens to the verbs of the first group is called “perfectification”. Here “imperfectification” occurs, and the direction is the opposite: a prefix is ​​added to the perfect form - and thus an imperfect form (“imperfect”) appears. As in the case of the first group, what kind of suffix we will need to form the aspect pair of each specific verb can neither be guessed nor logically deduced.

Therefore, you just need to learn these verbs by heart. To clearly understand and remember the meanings of verb types in Russian, analyze which of them are in your native language and which ones you will just need to remember. In this case, the connotation of the phrase will inevitably change (foreigners often do not take this change in meaning into account).

Once you have learned the aspect pairs and completed the practice exercises, you will no longer feel unsure when using verb types. 4) a process presented in the form of a generalized fact: Everyone found that young people had a very cozy corner (A. Chekhov). When prefixes are attached to such verbs, the perfect form expresses only the beginning, limited by some time limits, or the end of the process: become sad, lie down, live out.

Some polysemous verbs can form an aspectual pair only in some of their meanings. What the forms of imperfective past tense verbs have in common is that they all indicate an action that began in the past (this is implicitly implied) and continued for some time in the past. Yesterday at five in the evening I ate soup (I ate and ate, nothing more can be said about this).

Are there any cases at all when one or another type of Russian verb can be confidently associated with one or another English tense? That's all for today. Write your comments and additions in the comments.

We can surround our imperfect form with any clarifications (I’m drinking at this minute, I’m drinking at this second...) and still we will not be able to get rid of the grammatically embedded duration (“I’m drinking”). By the way, these are just imperfect verbs (Imperfect, Imperfective). These are precisely types, and not times (to be very precise, types of times).

Verbs of motion have two additional forms, generally corresponding to the English simple and continuous. Purpose and use of types of verbs. Perfect form: completed action, result, beginning of action, intention.