In this lesson we will remember the concept of “grammatical basis of a sentence”, talk about the subject and types (types) of the predicate, and practice determining the grammatical basis of a sentence. We will analyze tasks of type A9 Unified State Examination in the Russian language.

Topic: Preparation for the Unified State Exam

Lesson: A9.The grammatical basis of a sentence

Task A9 tests the ability to identify grammatical basis of the sentence.

Task A9Unified State Exam presented in the following form:

I. The grammatical basis of a sentence

Grammar basis- this is a combination formed by the main members, or the only main member of the sentence.

Rice. 1. The grammatical basis of the sentence ()

Subject- the main member of the sentence, which denotes the subject of speech and answers questions in the nominative case Who? What?Spring came.

You can ask the subject a general question: what (who) is the sentence talking about?

Predicate- the main member of the sentence, which denotes what is said about the subject of speech: Spring came. To the predicate, you can ask a general question: what is said about the subject of speech?

Predicate represented by three types (types) - simple verb predicate( expressed by a verb in any mood. ), compound verb( auxiliary verb + infinitive ) and compound nominal ( consists of a linking verb and a nominal part ).

Rice. 3. The grammatical basis of the sentence ()

II. Analysis of task A9

Let's look at an example tasks A9 from the demo Unified State Exam In Russian 2013. The text and several combinations of words are given. It is proposed to determine which of them is the grammatical basis in one of the sentences of this text.

(1)…(2) The wooden sailing ships, approaching each other, fired point blank at each other with cast iron cannonballs from small cannons loaded from the muzzle. (3) Since the energy of the nuclei was rarely enough to disable the ship, the battle could end with a boarding. (4) At the same time, from the attacking ship, which had grappled with the enemy’s side, sailors landed on the enemy deck and tried to take possession of the enemy ship in hand-to-hand combat. (5) The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century very quickly made adjustments to this area of ​​​​military affairs, and the first important innovation was steam engines. (6) Their installation on military vessels eliminated the previous dependence on the strength and direction of the wind, allowing them to maneuver freely, choosing the position that was most advantageous for firing and at the same time providing the least vulnerability from enemy fire.

What combination of words is the grammatical basis in one of the sentences or in one of the parts of a complex sentence in the text?

1. steel machine (sentence 5)

2. the ships fired at point-blank range (sentence 2)

3. disable (sentence 3)

4. the sailors tried to take possession (sentence 4)

To complete this task, you must remember that the subject denotes what is being said in the sentence, and this is not necessarily a word that names the subject and answers the question What? Consider sentence 5: it has two parts, it is a compound sentence. In the first part it talks about the industrial revolution or simply revolution, and this word is the subject, and in the second part we talk about machines. The predicate means what is reported about the subject. The machines are reported to be an innovation. This construction is the grammatical basis in which there is a compound nominal predicate. Answer option 1 is incorrect. In sentence 2 we are talking about ships, this is the subject, and what is reported about them is that they fired, this is the predicate. Point blank answers the question how? and is a circumstance of the manner of action, i.e. and the second answer is incorrect. Sentence 3 also has several parts. The first is a one-part impersonal sentence, it says that enough, this is a predicate, but there is not and cannot be a subject in it, since the action in question is performed on its own, no one performs it, this is the essence of impersonal sentences. Second part to disable the ship also a one-part impersonal construction. Destroy, i.e. knock down, break, etc., and there is a grammatical basis. The third answer option is correct. For insurance, let's look at the 4th sentence. It is also complex, complex. In the first part of it At the same time, sailors landed on the enemy deck from the attacking ship, which had locked its side with the enemy’s side. this is about sailors- this is the subject, and what is reported about them is that they landed- this is a predicate. In the second part who in hand-to-hand combat tried to take possession of the enemy ship there is a conjunction word which. This is the subject (it is used instead of the word sailors, equivalent in meaning), but it is reported about which, what are they triedtake possession. This is a compound verb predicate.

Let's complete the task. Don't forget that the subject answers the question. What is the proposal talking about? Predicate - What is being communicated about the subject?

(1) Highlighting key fragments in texts is the basis for writing an abstract. (2) However, not all of these fragments should be included in the abstract. (3) They should be selected in accordance with the topic of the abstract and grouped around several large subtopics developing it. (4) At the same time, it is important to accurately and concisely state the content of the selected fragments and carry out their semantic condensation. (5) Semantic folding, or compression, is understood as an operation that leads to the reduction of text without losing important, relevant information. (6) Thus, compression, which involves excluding redundant, secondary information from the text, is one of the leading techniques when writing an abstract.

What word or combination of words is the grammatical basis in one of the sentences of the text?

1. understood (sentence 5)

2. fragments must be included (sentence 2)

3. they should be selected (and) grouped (sentence 3)

4. the exception is (sentence 6)

Correct answer: №2 .

Bibliography

1. Bogdanova G.A., Vinogradova E.M. Russian language and literature. Russian language (basic and advanced levels) 10-11. - M.: Russian word.

2. Rules of Russian spelling and punctuation. Complete academic reference book / Ed. V.V. Lopatina. - M.: Eksmo, 2006. - 480 p.

3. Rosenthal D.E. Collection of exercises in the Russian language for applicants to universities (any edition).

4. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().

Homework

1. Complete the task.

Which words are the grammatical basis in a sentence: Over the centuries of its existence, each nation has developed its own speech culture.

A. people have developed

b. developed a culture

V. developed over centuries of existence

g. every nation has developed

2. Highlight the grammatical basis of each sentence.

Spring suddenly began in all its glory. Life began to play everywhere. The woods were already turning blue. A dandelion turned yellow over the fresh emerald of the first greenery. Suddenly the earth was populated. Forests and meadows woke up.

What brightness there is in greenery! What freshness is in the air! What does the bird cry in the gardens!

(According to N. Gogol).

3.* Using the knowledge acquired in the lesson, make 20 sentences of various types, highlight the grammatical bases of the sentences.

Essays for the collection “OGE – 2018. Tsybulko. 36 options"

Essay on the topic “The boy was tall and thin, he kept his exorbitantly long arms deep in his pockets” (Option 1)

15.1 Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist Valentina Danilovna Chernyak: “Emotional-evaluative words include words that are associated with the expression of any feeling, attitude towards a person, assessment of the subject of speech, situations and communication”

The famous linguist V.D. Chernyak writes about emotional-evaluative words that they are associated with feelings, attitude or assessment. I think that such words help us understand the characters and the author's intention. For example, in the text by R. P. Pogodin many such words are used. Let's say in sentence 13 Mishka says about Sim that he “got out.” This word shows us Mishka’s contemptuous attitude towards another hero. In sentence 16, he addresses Sima not by name, but very rudely: by the personal pronoun “you”. Next, he calls Sima a sycophant, says that he is sucking up - this also shows us his rudeness and contempt.

Emotional and expressive words make a literary work more expressive.

15.2 Write an argumentative essay. Explain how you understand the meaning of sentences 55-56 of the text: “The bear stood up and began to take pictures from the guys. He collected all the sheets and put them back in the album."

In an excerpt from the work of R. P. Pogodin, we read about the relationship between children from the same yard. They didn't like one of the boys, so they suspected him of various nasty things: for example, that he was a sycophant. Without figuring it out, they take the album from Sima and sort out the pictures. Only after some time, their “leader” Mishka suddenly realizes that the album was intended for an old teacher who no longer works at the school (this is stated in sentence 52). And from sentences 53 and 54 it becomes clear why Sima wanted to thank her: she helped him study during a serious illness. When Misha realized this, he felt ashamed, and he began to take the pictures away from the guys and put them back in the album. From sentences 67-75 we understand that the guys gave Maria Alekseevna the drawings that Sima made for her.

These words mean that Misha knew how to admit his mistakes and correct them.

15.3 How do you understand the meaning of the word CONSCIENCE? Formulate and comment on the definition you have given. Write an essay-argument on the topic: “What is conscience?”, taking the definition you gave as the thesis.

Conscience is a person’s ability to realize that he is wrong; it restrains from doing a bad thing or reproaches if a person has already done wrong.

In an excerpt from the work of R.P. Pogodin, Mishka took away from Sima an album with drawings that he made for the teacher, but then Mishka realized that he was wrong. His conscience reproached him, and he decided to correct his mistake. I took the drawings from my friends and still gave them to the teacher.

Both in life and in literature, we often encounter situations in which a person experiences pangs of conscience. For example, in A. S. Pushkin’s novel “Eugene Onegin,” the main character harshly judges himself for cowardice. Fearing public condemnation, Eugene went to a duel with a friend and accidentally killed him. Onegin punishes himself - sends him into exile.

Each person must act in accordance with the requirements of his conscience.

Essay on the topic “The quiet chirping of birds sounded joyful in spring...” (Option 2)

15.1 Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist Dietmar Elyashevich Rosenthal: “Our grammatical system provides many options for expressing the same thought.”

The grammatical system of the Russian language offers the speaker various syntactic structures to express the same thing. They are synonymous.

For example, sentences with participial phrases and subordinate clauses are synonymous. True, it is not always possible to replace a subordinate clause with an adverbial phrase, but if you can, the text becomes livelier and more energetic. This is probably why such constructions are preferred by V. O. Bogomolov, with an excerpt from whose book I became acquainted. This text contained a lot of adverbial phrases and single adverbial participles. For example, in sentences 3, 5, 7, 12, 13 we find such constructions.

However, sometimes the writer prefers subordinate clauses: in sentences 21, 23 and some others. This makes the text more expressive and beautiful.

15.2 Write an argumentative essay. Explain how you understand the meaning of the last sentences of the text: “There is no plan,” Vitka said gloomily with his characteristic directness. - And combat support too. This is irresponsibility and my oversight. I am responsible for this."

The hero-narrator, after heavy fighting, forgot that he was ordered to set up a guard and sketch out a plan of action in the event of an enemy attack (sentence 21). This was indeed necessary, but the narrator neglected it, albeit unintentionally, and because of his forgetfulness, his friend, battalion commander Vitka, suffered. But the commander took all the blame upon himself, realizing that the brigade commander could punish him and, in any case, would scold him. The words “This is irresponsibility and my oversight. I am responsible for this,” they say that the battalion commander is an honest person who is not capable of letting a friend down; in addition, he is ready to be responsible for everything that happens in his unit. The narrator was confident in his friend, this is stated in sentence 24, he was very ashamed that his friend would suffer through his fault.

Sometimes friends have to correct each other's mistakes.

15.3 How do you understand the meaning of the word CONSCIENCE? Formulate and comment on the definition you have given. Write an essay-argument on the topic: “What is conscience?”, taking the definition you gave as the thesis.

Conscience is a feature of a person’s personality. Anyone who has a conscience will try under no circumstances to commit a bad act. If he accidentally does something bad, then his conscience torments him and forces him to correct the evil caused.

In an excerpt from the work of V. O. Bogomolov, the hero-narrator forgot to carry out the instructions of his friend the battalion commander, and because of this, the brigade commander scolded Vitka. But the friend did not betray his friend, but took the blame upon himself. The narrator was very ashamed of this.

We often come across examples of pangs of conscience in literature and life. For example, in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov,” one boy, Ilyusha, succumbing to the persuasion of the evil student Rakitin, treated a stray dog ​​with a piece of bread with a pin. The dog squealed and ran away. The boy thought that Bug had died, and this tormented him terribly, he even became seriously ill. But, fortunately, it later turned out that the dog survived.

Conscience is very necessary for every person.

Essay on the topic “In a school called “Republic of SHKID”, at the same time as the newcomer Panteleev, a decrepit old woman, the director’s mother, appeared...” (OPTION 3)

15.1 Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist Dmitry Nikolaevich Shmelev: “The figurative meaning of a word enriches our language, develops and transforms it.”

In the Russian language, along with unambiguous words, there are a huge number of words that have not one, but two or more meanings. If you look at the Explanatory Dictionary, you can see that there are even more such words than unambiguous ones. Of course, this is no coincidence. Polysemantic words add expressiveness to speech. A joke like a pun is based on the use of different meanings of one polysemantic word; The figurative meaning of the word allows you to make your statement brighter.

For example, in L. Panteleev’s text in sentence 11 we read about how a pile of flat cakes “melted.” This word is used in the figurative meaning of “decreased in size,” and we can easily imagine this picture: a bunch of flat cakes becomes smaller and smaller, and then they disappear altogether.

In sentence 20, the author writes about the boy that his lips “jumped.” This is also a word with a figurative meaning. As we read, we immediately understand that the new guy is almost crying with anger and resentment, he is so shocked by the actions of the guys.

Words in a figurative sense are often used in fiction as a means of expression.

15.2 Write an argumentative essay. Explain how you understand the meaning of sentences 47-49 of the text: “You know, Lyonka, you’re great,” said the Japanese, blushing and sniffling. - Forgive us, please. I’m saying this not only on my own behalf, but on behalf of the whole class.”

The action of the book “Republic of SHKID” takes place in a colony. The guys who got there are, of course, not angels. Most of them stole on the street so as not to die of hunger, and some of their habits remained at that moment, which is described in the episode with the stolen flatbreads.

But the new Panteleev was more honest than the others: it seemed dishonest to him to steal from a blind old woman, so the other colonists beat him, and the director, without understanding, punished Panteleev, because he did not deny his guilt.

The other colonists felt ashamed. That is why the Japanese blushed when he asked Lyonka for forgiveness. The guys suddenly realized that it was possible to live more honestly than they did: not to offend the weak, not to shift the blame onto others. This is stated in the words of the Japanese (in sentences 40 - 42). But going to the director and confessing is still too heroic an act for guys who are not used to living honestly. As a result, no one supports the Japanese proposal, but still the guys felt guilty and agreed with the apology. Therefore, Lyonka made peace with the guys (sentence 51-52).

15.3 How do you understand the meaning of the word CONSCIENCE?

Conscience is what allows a person to be human, a sense of the rightness or wrongness of an action, a kind of compass. Anyone who has a conscience understands how to act and how not to, and he tries to avoid bad actions even if no one will know about them.

Conscience helps us evaluate ourselves. Unfortunately, not everyone has a conscience. Some people think that she causes only problems: she reproaches, does not give peace, but a person strives for happiness and peace. It also happens that someone’s conscience has not yet been properly formed. For example, in this text we see children who did not listen to their conscience, because it rather hindered them when they lived on the street and were forced to steal and cheat so as not to die of hunger. But Lyonka’s honest act first shocked them and caused aggression, and then made their best feelings awaken. They felt ashamed, which means that they became a little better than they were before.

Conscience makes a person feel ashamed for others if they do something bad. I came across such an example in literature - in the story “Doll” by E. Nosov. The hero of this story, Akimych, is ashamed of those people who pass by a mutilated doll and do not pay attention to this disgrace. He buries the doll and says: “You can’t bury everything.” I think he means that unscrupulous people, with the silent connivance of others, have already committed a lot of evil, it is already difficult to correct it. The author calls on those in whom conscience is still alive not to get used to bad things, but to try to correct them.

Conscience is the core in a person’s soul.

Essay on the topic “I stood in a dark, cold circus stable...” (Option 5)

15.1. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous Russian linguist Lyudmila Alekseevna Vvedenskaya: “Any deviations from the norm must be situationally and stylistically justified”

The famous linguist L.A. Vvedenskaya has a saying: “Any deviations from the norm must be situationally and stylistically justified.”

The Russian language is a rich and ideally constructed system; this language is able to deeply and vividly describe the entire gamut of human emotions. A person who uses the Russian language has a whole arsenal of phraseological units, sayings, an incredible number of synonyms, comparisons, metaphors, etc.

But still, every person has situations, joyful or bitter, when he sometimes lacks generally accepted norms to express his feelings. But in order to deviate from the general rules of language, the speaker or writer must have motives. These motives are explained by a specific situation, according to Vvedenskaya’s statement. For example, in the sentence “I stood in a darkened cold stable next to my sick friend and with all my heart wanted to help her.” The author here is talking about a friend, and then that he wanted to help “her.” The text is about the circus elephant Lyalka. Why does the author call her a friend and not a girlfriend? After all, if “she” means “friend”. The fact is that the author sincerely worries about the elephant and is very afraid that she will not recover, because she is very dear to him. The word “friend” contains much more meaning than “girlfriend”. A friend is a close person, he will support and reassure, he will always be there. In this case, given how much the author cares for Lyalka, the use of the word “friend” can be justified.

He turns to Lyalka, who has already recovered. The author speaks to the animal as if it can understand his words. From this exclamation it is clear how sincerely glad the author is that the elephant recovered and ate the food. Here, addressing these words to an animal is justified by the author’s genuine joy.

15.2. Explain how you understand the meaning of the text fragment: “We always go ahead with our firecrackers and whistles, we, clowns, clowns and entertainers, and next to us, of course, are beautiful, cheerful elephants.”

The story “Lalka the Elephant” tells how the author is very worried about his friend, an elephant named Lyalka. She became seriously ill and refused to eat. All night the author imagined Lyalka getting cold and trembling, but the next morning it turned out that she had already recovered. The way she cheerfully trumpeted spoke about the good mood of the elephant. To celebrate, the author came up with the thought: “We always go ahead with our firecrackers and whistles, we, clowns, clowns and entertainers, and next to us, of course, are beautiful, cheerful elephants.” This means that in any case, life, love for this life and work wins. Despite the threat of illness, Lyalka won and is ready to continue to delight the children with her performances.

From the sentence “Seeing me and immediately recognizing me, Lyalka trumpeted triumphantly,” we see that the elephant is very happy with her friend and wants to show him that the illness has receded and she is ready to get back into action again.

The author is so happy with Lyalka’s mood, he is proud that they are the ones who organize a holiday for people, that clowns and clowns allow them to plunge back into a carefree childhood. Lyalka fully supports the author in this and seems to say: “Let the amazing cavalcade of joy and happiness in life always dance!”

Kindness is the ability to empathize and put yourself in another person’s shoes.

There are many definitions of the word “kindness”, but I will focus on the fact that it is, first of all, empathy, sympathy. To do good, you need to be able to take on the grief and troubles of others, and then act as you would like to be treated.

If a person or animal is in trouble, you need to show your nobility and willingness to help, because these are the traits that characterize a real Person.

Kindness is visible in the behavior of the author of the story “Lalka the Elephant.” He worries about the animal with all his heart. The author prepared medicine for Lyalka, then did not sleep all night, thinking about her, how bad she was. In the morning, seeing nothing, he ran to her and fed her. The author does good for the elephant, as for a real friend.

What motivates us when we give money for the treatment of a child we don’t know, help frail old people, give up our seat on the bus, or pick up a hungry stray cat? Of course, kindness. It is she who helps us preserve this world and all the best that is in it.

Essay on the topic “It was the last days of June...” (Option 6)

15.1. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous Russian writer Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov: “Ellipses are traces on the tiptoes of words that have passed away.”

Despite all the richness of the Russian language, every person at certain moments in life is faced with a situation when he cannot find the right words; when it seems: here they are, on the tip of his tongue, but he is not able to pronounce them, although they are clearly implied in speech.

This phenomenon is confirmed by the statement of the Russian writer V.V. Nabokov: “Ellipses are traces on tiptoes of departed words.” If in a conversation we can understand from a person’s behavior that he is not telling something, then in written speech this function is performed by an ellipsis.

In the sentence “Well, Grishuk, get better without me...” Emelya said goodbye to his grandson, who was seriously ill. “And I’ll go get the deer,” we clearly see how difficult it is for the grandfather to leave one sick boy, but he has no other choice. The ellipsis in this sentence clearly shows Emelya’s anxiety, sadness, and concern for her grandson.

We can say that ellipsis is used to save language resources.

Further, after returning from the hunt empty-handed and after his grandson’s questions whether the grandfather shot the fawn, Emelya says: “No, Grishuk... I saw it... He’s yellow himself, and his face is black. He stands under a bush and plucks leaves... I took aim..."

Here, under the ellipses, one can clearly see the desire of the deed to console Grisha, to explain to him that his hand did not rise to shoot a defenseless deer.

An ellipsis is an understatement that can be easily guessed from the context and behavior of the character.

15.2. Explain how you understand the meaning of the ending of the text: “Grisha fell asleep and all night saw a little yellow fawn who was happily walking through the forest with his mother, and the old man slept on the stove and also smiled in his sleep.”

The text ends with the sentence “Grisha fell asleep and all night he saw a little yellow fawn, who was happily walking through the forest with his mother, and the old man slept on the stove and also smiled in his sleep.”

Emel's grandfather went into the forest, hoping to get a deer, and exactly the one that his Grishutka so wanted. But seeing how the deer bravely defended her cub, risking her life, he could not shoot, although the animals were only a few steps away from him.

To his grandson’s question, he answered: “When he whistled, and he, a calf, ran into the thicket - that’s all they saw. He ran away, shot like that...”

Grishutka was glad that the little yellow fawn remained alive and listened with pleasure to the stories of the case. Sincere childish joy can be seen in the following sentences: “The old man told the boy for a long time how he searched for a calf in the forest for three days and how it ran away from him. The boy listened and laughed merrily with his old grandfather.”

15.3. How do you understand the meaning of the word KINDNESS?

Our world rests on kindness, responsiveness, and willingness to help others. Kindness is what holds everything beautiful in our lives. If we did not show kindness and compassion to any living creature, we would simply disappear from the face of the earth. By showing kindness and accepting it from others, we know that everything is still good in our lives, not all is lost.

This text perfectly demonstrates the act of mercy and kindness. The old hunter lost three days; his sick grandson was waiting for him at home. Luck was right in front of the old man. But when he saw how selflessly the doe protected her cub, he felt sorry for both of them. Instead of returning home with rich booty, he chose to give life to defenseless animals. What is this if not a manifestation of kindness? The old man remembered who his granddaughter miraculously survived the attack of wolves, however, at the cost of his mother’s life.

This is all shown in the sentences “Exactly what broke in old Emelya’s chest, and he lowered the gun. The hunter quickly stood up and whistled - the small animal disappeared into the bushes with the speed of lightning.”

In real life, there are many cases when people, risking their lives and health, saved children in trouble, pulled them out of burning houses, rescued them from water, from animal attacks.

All these cases give us hope that we will not be left without a helping hand if we get into trouble.

Essay on the topic “Now Kolka, Vovka and Olya rarely met: vacation...” (Option 7)

15.1. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous Russian linguist Irina Borisovna Golub: “In artistic speech, the use of homogeneous members of a sentence is a favorite means of enhancing its expressiveness.”

Russian linguist I. B. Golub has a saying: “In artistic speech, the use of homogeneous members of a sentence is a favorite means of enhancing its expressiveness.”

Often it is not enough for a speaker to express his thoughts using only one word, one synonym or description. In order to give persuasiveness and expressiveness to his speech, a person can use homogeneous members of the sentence, as, for example, in the sentence “But he said it as if he had been there and seen it, and Olya’s eyes opened even wider.”

Here the homogeneous members of the sentence are the words “was” and “saw”. In order to understand the meaning of the sentence, it would be enough to use only one of them, but the use of both of them gave dynamism and brightness to the sentence.

The feelings and melancholy of the main character can be seen in the sentence “I watched how the arrow rotated, how it trembled, where it pointed.” It would be enough to say that the boy was looking at the compass, but the words “spinning,” “trembling,” “pointing” convey how dear his compass is to the boy.

Kolka's compassion shows that he does not even expect to get a puppy for the compass. It is enough for him that the dog will live. He is ready to lose what is so dear to him, just to know that the puppy will not be drowned: “I’m not for good,” Kolka sighed. - Let him live with you, if you want. I am for you not to drown.”

15.3. How do you understand the meaning of the word KINDNESS?

The age-old question - what is kindness? Each person will answer it differently, based on their own life experience. For some, kindness is the willingness to help those weaker and more helpless than oneself; for others, it is the ability to sympathize, to share the pain and grief of one’s neighbor.

I believe that kindness implies a willingness to make any sacrifice so that an innocent living being, no matter human or animal, is harmed. You show goodness if you stop cruelty and injustice without thinking about how it will turn out for you. On the contrary, you condone evil if you silently observe it, without even participating in it.

Kindness is when a person does not pass by someone else’s misfortune or trouble, believing that it does not concern him. In the text, the boy Kolka is ready to sacrifice a thing dear to him for free in order to save a puppy, which he will not receive: “That’s what they decided. Vovka dragged the puppy home, Olka ran away, and Kolka went to say goodbye with the compass. I watched how the arrow rotated, how it trembled, where it pointed.”

I once had to observe one case. A sick dog lay in a collar on a busy road, breathing heavily. People passed by, looking at the animal with disgust. Only one girl dared to approach her, without fear of human judgment and opinion. She gave the dog water and moved it away from the road onto the grass.

In this case, it was more important for the person to help, to show kindness, than what others might think.

Essay on the topic “That night there were long, cold rains...” (OPTION 8)

15.1. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous Russian linguist Irina Borisovna Golub: “Definitely personal sentences, in comparison with two-part sentences, give speech dynamism and brevity.”

The famous linguist I.B. Golub has a saying: “Definitely personal sentences, in comparison with two-part ones, give speech dynamism and brevity.”

Native speakers, and not only others, can express their thoughts without using personal pronouns to save language resources and time. They, of course, give the sentence greater specificity, but they can still be omitted for the sake of brevity without losing the meaning of the sentence. For example, in the sentence “Let’s cook porridge!” the soldiers could have said: “We’ll cook porridge!”, but they used a definitely personal proposal. The exclusion of the pronoun “we” gave the sentence brevity and a sense of unity among the soldiers, their common joy.

15.2. Explain how you understand the meaning of the ending of the text: “The orderly also smiled and, stroking the nearest dog, answered: “They ate the oatmeal.” But they got you there on time.”

The text ends with the sentence “The orderly also smiled and, stroking the nearest dog, answered: “They ate the oatmeal.” But they got you there on time.”

The story tells about a difficult, wartime time. Cold, hunger, no food, the soldiers eat only water and crackers. And what happiness it was when soldier Lukashuk suddenly found a bag of oatmeal, which seemed like a real treasure to the poor soldiers. They were already looking forward to eating plenty of hearty porridge. But suddenly the owner of this bag showed up and took it away.

After a while, when things got better with food, soldier Lukashuk was saved by the very man who took away their last hope - a bag of oatmeal. He turned out to be a military orderly.

It seems that this orderly is making excuses to Lukashuk for what happened then. He makes it clear to the wounded man: thanks to the fact that he gave the porridge to the dogs, they managed to take him out on a sled and thereby save him. After all, if the orderly had not done this, the animals would have weakened from hunger and, perhaps, thanks to this particular incident, Lukashuk remained alive, because the dogs got him there on time. This is how it happens in life: what at first glance seems like destruction, in fact, unexpectedly becomes salvation.

15.3. How do you understand the meaning of the word KINDNESS?

Kindness is a life phenomenon when a person helps others, despite the fact that for him this is fraught with some inconvenience, loss of time, etc. This means giving another a piece of his warmth, without being afraid of freezing himself.

To know that today you have made life better for someone, to realize that you have done good to someone - isn’t this happiness? The joy and satisfaction from giving is much stronger than in a situation when you receive something yourself. Kindness makes the life of each of us better and brighter. If you do good to someone, that someone along the chain will do good to someone else.

The text contains an example of showing kindness and compassion. The orderly, who took the bag of oatmeal from the soldiers, gave it all to the hungry dogs, although he himself could get enough of it, because it was a very hungry war time. Thanks to the fact that the orderly, to his own detriment, fed the animals, they were able to gain strength and bring the wounded and injured on sleds. This is what is said in the sentence “They ate the oatmeal.” But they got you there on time.”

There are many people who, despite being busy and having limited finances, visit orphans in orphanages and helpless old people left alone. These people share with them not only material values, but also spiritual warmth, which means that life becomes brighter for them.

Essay on the topic “At dusk, Bidenko and Gorbunov went out on reconnaissance, taking Vanya Solntsev with them...” (OPTION 9)

15.1. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement taken from the Literary Encyclopedia: “By making the characters talk to each other, instead of conveying their conversation from himself, the author can introduce appropriate shades into such a dialogue. He characterizes his heroes by theme and manner of speech.”

Every book lover knows how well monologues or dialogues of characters characterize them, clearly highlighting their literacy, education and other individual characteristics.

For convenience, the author could simply briefly convey the essence of the conversation between two or more book characters, but it is the schedule of their detailed dialogue that allows the reader to form an opinion about each of them. From the sentence “Why the hell are you hanging around here at night, you bastard! - shouted a rough German voice with a cold.” It is clear to us that these words belong to a cruel man who knows no mercy. There is not even a need for a more detailed description of this character - it is already clear to the reader that nothing good should be expected from him.

The following example: “Oh, uncle, don’t hit me! – he whined pitifully. - I was looking for my horse. I found it by force. I wandered all day and all night. “I’m lost...” he shouted, swinging his whip at Serko.” Here the author could simply write that the boy pretended to be a shepherd and asked for mercy. But this phrase by Vanya helps the reader vividly imagine the image of a pitiful shepherd who is exhausted and begs to be let go in peace.

The characters’ phrases and their unique manner of speaking help the reader to immerse themselves deeper into the work and create the effect that he himself seems to be present at the scene of the events being described.

15.2. Explain how you understand the meaning of sentences 31-32 of the text: “He knew that his friends, faithful comrades in arms, were nearby. At the first cry they will rush to the rescue and kill every last one of the fascists.”

The boy Vanya is entrusted with a very important mission - to be a guide for scouts, lead them into the enemy camp and warn them of danger. For this purpose, the image of a foolish shepherdess was thought out for him. Vanya is well aware of how important this goal is and how much depends on him.

The text contains the sentence: “He knew that his friends, faithful comrades in arms, were nearby. At the first cry they will rush to the rescue and kill every last one of the fascists.”

When Vanya showed the way to Bidenko and Gorbunov, he came across two Germans and was seized with real horror. He was afraid not even for himself, but for the fact that their whole plan would collapse. He knew that in any case his comrades would not harm him and would protect him from the Nazis. When one of the Germans hit him humiliatingly, Vanya was furious: “What! He, a soldier of the Red Army, a scout of the famous battery of Captain Enakiev, was dared to be hit with a boot by some fascist flaw! But he pulled himself together in time. If he gave in to his anger, that would be the end of their plan. Despite the fact that there were people behind him who would protect him, Vanya pushed personal grudges into the background and put his important task first: “But the boy also firmly remembered that he was in deep reconnaissance, where the slightest noise could reveal group and disrupt the execution of a combat mission.”

The boy Vanya, in the guise of a shepherdess, completed his task with honor and did not let down the scouts, who completely relied on him.

The text describes a terrible time for a great country - the Great Patriotic War. These were the years when fearlessness was required from every citizen of our country, a willingness to sacrifice everything in the name of victory and freedom. It was a time when ordinary Soviet people performed feats for the sake of their Motherland.

A feat in my understanding is when a person puts the well-being of his people and country first, and then takes care of his personal well-being. A feat is something for which a person is ready to sacrifice his life.

During the war, millions of people lost their families and homes; they united to defeat the enemy, putting aside their personal concerns.

A simple Russian boy, Vanya, stoically endured the bullying of the Nazis and cast aside his pride. It was incredibly difficult for him, but he knew that he simply did not have the right to let his comrades down: “Then, with a powerful effort of will, he suppressed his rage and pride.” He coped with the horror that gripped him from meeting his enemies and led the scouts further.

Since school, we have heard incredible stories about the heroism and exploits of Soviet people during the war. Despite their nation and religion, they all stood up as one to defend their country and were not afraid of difficult trials. People boldly made their way into the enemy camp, freed prisoners, and rescued the wounded. All these are feats thanks to which today we have the opportunity to live and love, to enjoy the peaceful sky above our heads.

Essay on the topic “Once, when my grandmother was on her knees, talking heartily with God...” (OPTION 10)

15.1. Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous Russian linguist Evgeniy Nikolaevich Shiryaev “The entire organization of linguistic means in fiction is subordinated not simply to the transfer of content, but to the transfer of artistic means.”

The artistic style differs from the scientific, official and journalistic style in the richness of its means of expression. If scientific works and newspaper articles contain only dry facts, then fiction provides unlimited scope for imagination. Fiction novels, short stories, stories abound in such artistic means as metaphor, comparison, description, hyperbole, personification and many others.

A striking example of the use of artistic means is shown in the following sentences: “In the quiet night his red flowers bloomed smokelessly; only a dark cloud hovered very high above them, not preventing them from seeing the silver stream of the Milky Way. The snow glowed crimson, and the walls of the buildings trembled and swayed, as if rushing towards the hot corner of the yard, where the fire was playing merrily, filling the wide cracks in the workshop wall with red, sticking out of them like red-hot crooked nails.”

The text describes the heroism of the grandmother, who fearlessly and with enviable self-control gives out instructions: “- Barn, neighbors, defend! If the fire spreads to the barn, to the hayloft, ours will burn to the ground and yours will take over! Cut the roof, the hay goes into the garden! Neighborhood priests, come together as friends, God will help you.” The author shows the simple speech characteristic of this woman; these phrases characterize her as a courageous person who does not lose her composure.

15.2. Explain how you understand the meaning of the sentence in the text: “It was impossible not to listen to her at that hour.”

The text describes a fire that happened at two in the middle of the night and alarmed all the inhabitants of the house and neighbors. The servants and even the grandfather, the owner of the house, rushed about randomly in confusion while the fire devoured everything in its path. And only the grandmother managed to maintain composure, act wisely and give instructions in order to save the household and the whole family. She even advises neighbors who drop by on how to save barns and hay.

The little grandson, on whose behalf the story is told, describes in detail the events of this terrible night: “It was as interesting as the fire; illuminated by the fire, which seemed to catch her, black, she rushed around the yard, keeping up everywhere, in charge of everything, seeing everything.”

The boy notices how his grandmother fearlessly ran into the burning workshop and carried out explosive vitriol. She even managed to calm the frightened, soaring horse. He affectionately calls him “little mouse.” Grandmother took upon herself all the burden and responsibility: “Evgenya, take off the icons!” Natalya, get the guys dressed! - the grandmother commanded sternly, in a strong voice, and the grandfather quietly howled: “E-and-s.” That’s why the grandson immediately understood: “It was impossible not to listen to her at that hour.”

15.3. How do you understand the meaning of the word FEAT?

Both in works of art and in real life there were and are numerous examples of feats that were performed by both men and women. A feat is a selfless act that is performed in the name of saving the Motherland, family, strangers, even at the cost of one’s own life. Only a Man with a capital M, noble and ready to help, is capable of such an act. A hero man runs to help those who are in dire straits, and the last thing he thinks about is himself.

In the text, such a Person is the grandmother; she is the only one, risking her life, who burst into a building engulfed in fire in order to save the others, to save the barns and hay, not only her own, but also those of her neighbors. She does not panic, but calms the others. She even managed to calm down a horse running in fear: “Don’t be afraid! - Grandmother said in a bass voice, patting him on the neck and taking the reins. - Am I going to leave you with this fear? Oh, little mouse..."

They say about such women: “She will stop a galloping horse and enter a burning hut.”

The world rests on such heroic people; they give a chance for survival when it seems that everything is over. The feat does not depend on age. I remember a case where a fifteen-year-old boy saved seven neighbor children from a fire in his house, while the rest succumbed to panic and lost hope.

15.1 Write an essay-reasoning, revealing the meaning of the statement of the famous linguist Dietmar Elyashevich Rosenthal: “Our grammatical system provides many options for expressing the same thought.”

The grammatical system of the Russian language offers the speaker various syntactic structures to express the same thing. They are synonymous.

For example, sentences with participial phrases and subordinate clauses are synonymous. True, it is not always possible to replace a subordinate clause with an adverbial phrase, but if you can, the text becomes livelier and more energetic. This is probably why such constructions are preferred by V. O. Bogomolov, with an excerpt from whose book I became acquainted. This text contained a lot of adverbial phrases and single adverbial participles. For example, in sentences 3, 5, 7, 12, 13 we find such constructions.

However, sometimes the writer prefers subordinate clauses: in sentences 21, 23 and some others. This makes the text more expressive and beautiful.

15.2 Write an argumentative essay. Explain how you understand the meaning of the last sentences of the text: “There is no plan,” Vitka said gloomily, without mincing words, with his characteristic directness. - And combat support too. This is irresponsibility and my oversight. I am responsible for this."

The hero-narrator, after heavy fighting, forgot that he was ordered to set up a guard and sketch out a plan of action in the event of an enemy attack (sentence 21). This was indeed necessary, but the narrator neglected it, albeit unintentionally, and because of his forgetfulness, his friend, battalion commander Vitka, suffered. But the commander took all the blame upon himself, realizing that the brigade commander could punish him and, in any case, would scold him. The words “This is irresponsibility and my oversight. I am responsible for this,” they say that the battalion commander is an honest person who is not capable of letting a friend down; in addition, he is ready to be responsible for everything that happens in his unit. The narrator was confident in his friend, this is stated in sentence 24, he was very ashamed that his friend would suffer through his fault.

Sometimes friends have to correct each other's mistakes.

15.3 How do you understand the meaning of the word CONSCIENCE? Formulate and comment on the definition you have given. Write an essay-argument on the topic: “What is conscience?”, taking the definition you gave as the thesis.

Conscience is a feature of a person’s personality. Anyone who has a conscience will try under no circumstances to commit a bad act. If he accidentally does something bad, then his conscience torments him and forces him to correct the evil caused.

In an excerpt from the work of V. O. Bogomolov, the hero-narrator forgot to carry out the instructions of his friend the battalion commander, and because of this, the brigade commander scolded Vitka. But the friend did not betray his friend, but took the blame upon himself. The narrator was very ashamed of this.

We often come across examples of pangs of conscience in literature and life. For example, in F. M. Dostoevsky’s novel “The Brothers Karamazov,” one boy, Ilyusha, succumbing to the persuasion of the evil student Rakitin, treated a stray dog ​​with a piece of bread with a pin. The dog squealed and ran away. The boy thought that Bug had died, and this tormented him terribly, he even became seriously ill. But, fortunately, it later turned out that the dog survived.

Conscience is very necessary for every person.

Grammar is a system. A system is such a unity, each element of which is connected with others and depends on them. This is exactly how grammar works.

Each grammatical form exists in a language not on its own, but necessarily together with other forms to which it is contrasted in meaning. For example, there cannot be a singular form without a plural form. How to prove this? Let's imagine a language in which there is no plural form. In this language, any set of objects must be designated in the same way as one object (after all, there is no plural form). And if so, then there is no singular form in this language, because there are no differences in the designation of one and many objects. Without contrasting singular and plural forms, there is no grammatical number at all.

So, in order to express some grammatical meaning in a language, at least two forms opposed to each other are needed. But there may be more; for example, Russian has six main case forms (see Case).

The meaning of a grammatical form depends on the meaning of other forms to which it is contrasted. For example, in Russian the plural form is opposed only to the singular form and denotes more than one subject. And in Slovenian (one of the South Slavic languages), where there is also a form of the dual number, specifically to designate two objects, the plural form already designates more than two objects, and not more than one.

Both the grammatical forms of one word (for example, the case forms of a noun, the tense forms of a verb) and the grammatical classes of words are contrasted with each other: animate nouns are contrasted with inanimate ones, perfective verbs are contrasted with imperfective verbs, etc.

Each grammatical opposition must be expressed.

The opposition between the grammatical forms of a word is expressed by special affixes (suffixes, endings, etc.) or other grammatical means (see Grammar methods).

The opposition of grammatical classes of words can be expressed not by some individual morphemes (or other indicators), but by a system of forms. For example, for animate nouns the accusative case coincides with the genitive, and for inanimate nouns - with the nominative. Consequently, the meaning of animacy is expressed not by any specific endings, but by a certain ratio of case endings. The grammatical opposition between perfective and imperfective verbs is expressed in the system of tense forms: thus, in the indicative mood, imperfective verbs have three forms of tense (I am writing - I wrote - I will write), while perfective verbs have only two (I will write - I wrote).

Thus, the relations of grammatical classes ultimately come down to the opposition of forms. This also applies to the main grammatical classes (parts of speech), which are opposed to each other according to the most general, abstract grammatical meanings (see Parts of speech).

There are grammatical forms not only in morphology, but also in syntax. And there they are also interdependent and opposed to each other. Only these are no longer the forms of the words themselves, but the forms of their connection (see Subordination and Composition) and the forms of the sentence (for example, personal and impersonal sentences).

The grammar of each language is a system, but these systems are structured differently. The grammatical categories of different languages ​​are different, that is, those general meanings by which grammatical forms are opposed to each other. Thus, the category of animation - inanimateness and the category of aspect, which exist in the Russian language, are unknown to many languages, for example English, German and French. And in these languages ​​there is a category of definiteness - indeterminacy (it is expressed by two types of articles), which does not exist in the Russian language. The composition of forms within one category is also different. Thus, in languages ​​where there is a case category, the number of case forms varies from 2 (Marathi language in India) to more than 40 (some languages ​​of Dagestan). But even with the same number of forms in different languages, their meanings can be correlated differently. In addition, homogeneous grammatical categories can be distributed differently among parts of speech. Thus, in French, a verb has number forms, but an adjective does not. And in Russian, both verbs and adjectives have number.

Grammatical systems differ not only in the grammatical meanings themselves, but also in the way these meanings are expressed. If we take into account all these differences, the grammatical system of each language turns out to be deeply unique.

But, no matter how different grammatical systems may be, this does not prevent one from expressing the same thoughts in different languages. If a language does not have case forms (for example, in French), relations between objects are expressed using prepositions or word order. If the verb does not have tense forms (for example, in the African language Vai), the time of action can be indicated using other words. And so it is in everything: some linguistic means compensate for the absence of others.

Grammar- the study of the grammatical system. Grammar the system is made up of units that have a grammatical form (see grammatical form; grammatical methods).

Grammar is divided into morphology - the study of the grammatical forms of individual words - and syntax - the study of the grammatical forms of phrases and sentences.

The following articles talk about morphology: Morpheme; Lexeme and word form; Analytical and synthetic languages; Agglutinative and fusional languages; Isolating languages; at least two opposed to each other Internal form of the word; Zero units of force. But there may be more; for example, in language; Associated roots; Word formation in the Russian language has six basic cases and inflection; Neologisms; Occasionalization of forms (see Case).

Articles talk about syntax: Syntax - only the singular form and denotes logical connections; Submission and composition; Mo- more than one item. And in Slovenian (one range; Predicative and semi-predicative - from the South Slavic languages), where there is also tiveness; Offer; Members of the proposal; and the form of the dual number, specifically the order of words in a sentence; Relevant for the designation of two objects, the form of division of a sentence; A complex syntactic plural denotes a more complex whole; Linguistics of text. two items, not more than one.

Both the grammatical forms of one word (for example, the case forms of a noun, the tense forms of a verb) and the grammatical classes of grammar as a system of words are contrasted with each other: animate nouns are contrasted with inanimate ones, verbs are completely Grammar is a system. Sishennogo form - imperfective verbs call such unity, each type, etc.

an element of which is connected with others and on them Every grammatical opposition depends. This is exactly how grammar works and must be expressed.

Each grammatical form exists. The opposition of grammatical forms in a language, not in itself, but necessarily together with words, is expressed by special affixes with other forms to which it is opposed (suffixes, endings, etc.) or is compared in meaning. For example, Gimi cannot use grammatical means (see Singular forms without grammatical forms).

How to prove this? Imagine a language in which there is no form of plurals of words and can be expressed not by some kind of number. In this language, any multi-individual morphemes (or other manifestations of objects should be indicated in the same way, by means), but by a system of forms. For example, like one object (after all, forms are plural; animate nouns do not have an accusative number). And if so, then in this language the case coincides with the genitive, and in the inanimate case the singular form, because there are no animate ones, coincides with the nominative. Consequently, the differences in the designation of one and many - the meaning of animation is not expressed in any way. Without contrasting forms with singular concrete endings, and there is no definite and plural number, there is no grammatical correlation of case endings, no number in general. Grammatical opposition of verbs.

So, in order to express in a language some kind of perfect and imperfect form of grammatical meaning, it is necessary how it is compressed in the system of forms of time: so,

imperfective three forms of corpora tense.

(I am writing - I wrote - I will write), and for verbs, grammatical systems differ in non-perfective form - only two (I will write - only by the grammatical meanings themselves, I wrote). but also in how these meanings are expressed. If

Thus, and the relations of grammatical- taking into account all these differences, the grammatical classes are ultimately reduced to the system of each language will turn out to be deeply opposed to forms. This is peculiar.

and to the main grammatical classes (parts of But, no matter how the speeches differ from each other), which grammatical systems are opposed to each other, this does not prevent the expression of the same thoughts and meanings in different languages ​​in the most general, abstract grammatical terms ( see Parts of speech). If the language does not have case forms (for example,

There are grammatical forms not only in French), relations between subjects in morphology, but also in syntax. And there they are expressed with the help of prepositions or are also interdependent and in contrasting word order. If the verb does not have tense forms, they are equal to each other. Only these are no longer forms (for example, in the African language Vai), the time of the words themselves, but the forms of their connection (see Subordination of an action can be indicated with the help and composition) and the form of the sentence (for example, other words. And so in everything: some linguistic personal and impersonal sentences). funds compensate for the lack of others.

Grammar Each language is a system, but these systems are structured differently. Various grammatical categories of different languages, i.e. those general meanings by which graphics and grammatical forms are contrasted with each other. Thus, the category of animation - inanimateness and the category What does the letter I mean in the word impossible? types that exist in the Russian language are unknown. Stretch, pronounce a long soft word in many languages, for example English, German - consonant: z-z-z-z... and add without any coma and French. And in these languages ​​there are pauses a. The result will be a syllable zya, exactly the same as the category of certainty - uncertainty in words is impossible, finch, sliding, chilly, (it is expressed by two types of articles), son-in-law, threaten. This means that the letter z stands for something that is not in Russian. The consonant z is not the same, but does not indicate that it is soft, and the composition of the forms is within the same category Yes, exactly. If I read z at the beginning of a word, So, in languages ​​where there is a case category, I don’t know what to say: [z] or [z"] (so the number of case forms varies from 2 (we will denote the language with soft consonants). Maybe Marathi in India) up to 40-odd (some may be, this is the chill - the soft, or maybe the hall - the languages ​​of Dagestan). But even with the same hard. It can be seen that the letter I here means, the number of forms in different languages, their meanings can be that the preceding consonant is soft, and za.correlate differently.In addition, the homogeneous vowel follows a.. grammatical categories can be distributed- Compare such syllables: divided differently between parts of speech.

So, in French, the verb has forms for [for] yes [yes] for [for] numbers, and the adjective has no. And in Russian zya [z"a] dya [d*a] nya [n"a]

What does the letter yu mean in the word kolya? Say long, drawn out: l-l-l-l... and add u. The result will be the syllable lu, exactly the same as in the word kolyu. This means that the letter yu denotes the vowel y and the softness of the preceding consonant. Let's compare the syllables:

LU 1LU1 du [du] well [well] lyu [l"y] du (d*uJ nu [n"y]

Syllables differ from each other in consonants - hard and soft. The letter y conveys the hardness of the consonant, and yu - softness:

Let's compare the syllables:

te [te] se [se] me [m"e] se [s"e]

The letter e shows: the preceding consonant is hard; example: mayor, sir. The letter e indicates the softness of the preceding consonant. However, e is rarely used, and usually the difference between hard and soft consonants in writing remains unexpressed. For example, they write: bed [pas "t" el"] and pastel [pastel"] - a special type of paint; the letter does not convey the difference between [t] and [t"].

carried the nose flowed a stream [n"os] [nose] [pat"ok] [molasses]

You see: the letter e says that the previous consonant is soft, and after it comes o. The letter o says: the previous consonant is hard, and after it - o.

The letters and - s also distribute their responsibilities. Let's compare: thread - whine, bit - everyday life. We write - games, but play them out. For what? We indicate the hardness of the consonant of the prefix.

So, the letters i, yu, e, e, and show the softness of consonants before vowels and, in addition, designate these vowels themselves. But soft consonants can be not only before vowels: stand up, stand up, move, move, ice, lions. How then to indicate the softness of consonants? Examples show: using a soft sign. So:

The soft consonant is located: before vowels

not before vowels = or at the end of a word, or before a consonant

But the letters i, yu, e, ё, and occur not only after consonants:

pit, south, spruce, my hedgehog, forge, ate, gives a hug, southerly, ate, volume

article, loach, article, pouring

In these cases, the same letters indicate a combination of sounds: i = / -I- a, yu = / + y, e = j + e, e = j + o. You can extend the first part of the combination е at the beginning of a word: /-/-/-/-/-... or й-й-й-й..., and then the second: o-o-o...-ш. You'll get a hedgehog. Note: the sounds /, th are similar, if we pronounce it more intensely we get /, if we pronounce it less tensely we get th. So:

i (not after consonants!) = / + a. yu (not after consonants!) = / + y. e (not after consonants!) = j + e. ё (not after consonants!) = / + o.

This is how / is expressed before vowels. What about in other positions? When is there no vowel after [j]? It is represented by the letter y. Compare: play / Add y: play + y = play. Edge, add a: edge + a = edges.

So, we have told you how the softness of consonants is indicated by letters in Russian writing, how / is indicated. Moreover, these designations characterize not individual groups of words, but all words: everywhere the letter i at the beginning of a word denotes a combination of the consonant / and the vowel a.

That part of the theory of writing that determines how units of language are conveyed in all cases, in all words and morphemes, is called graphics. She studies the elementary signs of writing - letters in their most typical, universal use for a given language. Another part of writing theory, related to graphics, is called orthography.

The softness of a consonant is indicated by the letters:

i, yu, e, e, and b

The set of elementary units of writing - letters - makes up the alphabet. The characters of the alphabet have a certain, traditionally fixed order in their listing.