Differences between subjective and objective methods of psychological research. subjective method. Methods of clinical examination of the patient

One of the main tasks of psychological science was the development of such objective research methods that would be based on the methods of observing the course of this or that type of activity, common to all other sciences, and on the experimental change in the conditions for the course of this activity. They were the method of experiment and the method of observing human behavior in natural and experimental conditions.

observation method. If we study a phenomenon without changing the conditions under which it occurs, then we are talking about simple objective observation. Distinguish direct and indirect observation. An example of direct observation would be the study of a person's response to a stimulus, or observation of the behavior of children in a group if we are studying types of contact. Direct observations are further subdivided into active(scientific) and passive or ordinary (everyday). Repeatedly repeated, everyday observations are accumulated in proverbs, sayings, metaphors, and in this regard are of particular interest for cultural and psychological study. Scientific observation presupposes a well-defined goal, task, conditions of observation. At the same time, if we try to change the conditions or circumstances under which the observation is made, then this will already be an experiment.

Indirect observation is used in situations where we want to study mental processes that are not amenable to direct observation using objective methods. For example, to establish the degree of fatigue or tension when a person performs a certain job. The researcher can use the methods of registration of physiological processes (electroencephalograms, electromyograms, galvanic skin reaction, etc.), which do not themselves reveal the features of the course of mental activity, but may reflect the general physiological conditions that characterize the course of the studied processes.

In research practice, objective observations also differ in a number of other ways.

By the nature of the contact direct observation, when the observer and the object of observation are in direct contact and interaction, and indirect, when the researcher gets acquainted with the observed subjects indirectly, through specially organized documents such as questionnaires, biographies, audio or video recordings, etc.

Under the terms of observation field observation that takes place in the conditions of everyday life, study or work, and laboratory, when a subject or group is observed in artificial, specially created conditions.

According to the nature of the interaction with the object, they distinguish included observation, when the researcher becomes a member of the group, and his presence and behavior become part of the observed situation, and unincluded(from the side), i.e. without interaction and establishing any contact with the person or group being studied.

There are also open observation, when the researcher reveals his role to the observed (the disadvantage of this method is to reduce the natural behavior of the observed subjects), and hidden(incognito), when the presence of the observer is not reported to the group or individual.

Observation is distinguished by goals: purposeful systematic approaching in terms of its conditions to the experimental, but differing in that the observed subject is not limited in the freedom of its manifestations, and random, search, not subject to any rules and not having a clearly defined goal. There are cases when researchers working in search mode managed to make observations that were not included in their original plans. Thus, major discoveries were made. For example, P. Fress describes how in 1888. a neuropsychiatrist drew attention to the complaints of a patient who had such dry skin that in cold, dry weather she felt sparks jump from her skin and hair. He had the idea to measure the static charge on her skin. As a result, he stated that this charge disappears under the influence of certain stimulations. Thus the psychogalvanic reflex was discovered. It later became known as galvanic skin response (GSR). In the same way, I.P. Pavlov, in the course of his experiments on the physiology of digestion, discovered conditioned reflexes.

Structural scheme of observation methods

According to the order in time, observations are distinguished solid, when the course of events is fixed constantly, and selective, in which the researcher captures the observed processes only at certain intervals.

According to the order in conducting, observations are distinguished structured, when events occurring are recorded in accordance with a previously developed monitoring scheme, and arbitrary(unstructured), when the researcher freely describes the events as he sees fit. Such observation is usually carried out at the pilot (indicative) stage of the study, when it is required to form a general idea of the object of study and the possible patterns of its functioning.

According to the nature of fixation, they are distinguished ascertaining observation, when the observer fixes the facts as they are, observing them directly, or receiving from the witnesses of the event, and evaluating, when the observer not only fixes, but also evaluates the facts in relation to the degree of their expression according to a given criterion (for example, the degree of expression of emotional states is assessed, etc.).

The diagram shows the main methods of observation and the relationship between them. According to this scheme, it is possible to trace how the most diverse models of observation are structurally formed. For example, methodically it can be organized as: direct - field - not included - open - purposeful - selective - structured - evaluating, etc.

observation errors. Objective methods of observation were developed to obtain reliable scientific knowledge. However, observations are made by a person, and therefore the subjective factor is always present in his observation. In psychology, more than in other disciplines, the observer runs the risk, due to his mistakes (eg, perceptual limitations), of not noticing some important facts, not taking into account useful data, distorting the facts due to his preconceived notions, and so on. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the "pitfalls" associated with the method of observation. The most common observational errors occur due to susceptibility gala effect(or the halo effect), which is based on the generalization of single impressions of the observer, based on whether he likes or dislikes the observed, his actions or behavior. Such an approach leads to incorrect generalization, evaluation in "black and white", exaggeration or understatement of the observed facts. Averaging errors occur when the observer for one reason or another feels insecure. Then there is a tendency to average the estimates of the observed processes, since it is known that extremes are less common than properties of average intensity. Logic errors appear when, for example, they conclude that a person is intelligent from his eloquence, or that an amiable person is at the same time good-natured; this error is based on the assumption of a close connection between a person's behavior and his personal qualities, which is far from always true. Contrast errors caused by the observer's tendency to emphasize opposite traits in the observed individuals. There are also errors related to prejudice, ethnic and professional stereotypes, errors of incompetence observer, when the description of a fact is replaced by the observer's opinion about it, etc.

In order to increase the reliability of observation and avoid errors, it is necessary to strictly follow the facts, record specific actions, and resist the temptation to judge complex processes based on first impressions. In research practice, to increase the objectivity of observations, they often turn to several observers who make independent records. However, an increase in the number of observers does not always increase the value of their records, since they can all be subject to the same common misconceptions (for example, when men judge women, or northerners judge southerners, and vice versa). However, increasing the number of observers increases the reliability of the conclusions. For example, studies have found that to obtain a reliability coefficient of 0.9 when assessing school knowledge, four “judges” are needed, and to assess such a personal quality as impulsiveness, eighteen are already needed.

The methodological basis of the objective methods of psychology is the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity. This group includes the following methods:

Observation (continuous, selective);

Experiment (laboratory, natural, formative);

Testing (achievements, abilities, aptitude, etc.);

Analysis of products of activity (graphological, content analysis, analysis of drawings, etc.);

Survey (questionnaire, conversation, interview);

Mathematical modeling and statistical analysis.

Stage 1 (V century BC) - the subject of study was the soul. Ideas about the soul were both idealistic and materialistic. The idealist Plato, for example, considered the soul to be immaterial, invisible, incorruptible, while the materialists Heraclitus and Democritus considered it a particle of nature, an atom of fire, that is, material. Further, as a result of the struggle of these two trends, idealism became the basis of religion, and materialism was prohibited (up to the 17th century). During this period, the soul began to be regarded as something independent of the body, as a special entity. The duality of the soul - dualism (lat. dialia - dual) in its most developed form was presented in the teachings of Rene Descartes (1596-1650).
The 2nd stage (XVII century) was marked by the rapid development of the natural sciences and consciousness became the subject of psychology. It was understood as the ability to feel, desire, think. The material world has not been studied. The method of studying consciousness was introspection, that is, self-observation, self-understanding, and the scientific direction became known as introspective psychology. The representative of this direction was the English scientist John Locke (1632-1704). Within the framework of introspective psychology, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) established the first experimental psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879. This event marked the emergence of the experimental method in psychology, and 1879 marked the birth of scientific psychology. The criticism of introspection that began (the impossibility of simultaneously performing an action and analyzing it; ignoring the unconscious, etc.) prepared the transition to the next stage.
3rd stage (XIX century) - in connection with advances in medicine, experiments on animals, etc., behavior becomes the subject of psychology (American scientist John Watson (1878-1958) and others). There was a powerful scientific direction in American psychology, which was called behaviorism. Behavior was explained by the nature of the stimulus that causes the response (behavior): (S - R) stimulus - response. At this time, there are a number of attempts to explain behavior not by stimuli, but by other factors. This is how the basic psychological concepts appear:
- Gestalt psychology - Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967), Max Werth-heimer (1880-1943) (subject of study - features of perception);
- psychoanalysis and neo-Freudianism - Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), Alfred Adler (1870-1937) (the subject of study is the unconscious);
- cognitive psychology - Ulrich Neisser, Jerome Simon Bruner (subject of study - cognitive processes);
- genetic psychology - Jean Piaget (1896-1980) (subject - development of thinking).
The foundations of Russian scientific psychology were also laid in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There is a formation of "reflexology" - Vladimir Mikhailovich Bekhterev (1857-1927), Boris Gerasimovich Ananiev (1829-1905).
The 4th stage (XX century) is marked by the appearance in Russian psychology of the dialectical-materialistic concept, which was based on the philosophical theory of reflection (the subject of study is the psyche) - Pavel Petrovich Blonsky (1884-1941), Konstantin Nikolayevich Kornilov (1879-1957). One of the most important directions that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s was the "cultural-historical theory" developed by Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934), then the psychological theory of activity associated with the name of Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev (1903-1979). ) (subject - mental activity).
Humanistic psychology appears in the West - Carl Rogers (1902-1987), Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) (subject - personality traits). In the 60s of the XX century. a new direction attracts attention - transpersonal psychology (Stanislav Grof), which studies the limiting possibilities of the human psyche.
Currently, there is an integration of different directions. Psychologists use the concepts and methods of one direction or another, depending on the characteristics of the problems and tasks being solved. There is no single concept of the subject of psychology.

Modern psychological science consists of a number of relatively independent scientific disciplines, or branches, which form its structure (Table 1.3).

Table 1.3. The content of individual psychological disciplines

Name of discipline	What is studying
General psychology	Theoretical foundations of psychology, defines the basic concepts of this science (psychology of cognitive processes and personality psychology)
Psychophysiology	A science that arose at the junction of two sciences - psychology and physiology. It explores the relationship between mental phenomena and their bodily manifestations.
Age-related psychology	Features of changes in the psyche as a person develops and grows up
Pedagogical psychology	Patterns of training and education
medical psychology	The psyche of a sick person, as well as the features of the borderline conditions between health and disease
Social Psychology	studies the psychological mechanisms of the influence of society (communities) on human behavior and consciousness, explores the interaction of people in groups, collectives, the position of the individual in them, the problems of leadership and subordination
Psychodiagnostics	Develops methods that allow to study the human psyche, and to do this as reasonably and reliably as possible
Psychotherapy	Engaged in the search and improvement of methods of treating people with psychological methods, without the use of pharmacological drugs

There are also branches of psychology related to certain areas of human activity: military psychology, sports psychology, engineering psychology, legal psychology, space psychology, etc.

Comparative psychology studies the patterns of development of the psyche in phylogenesis.

Age-related psychology studies the patterns of human mental development in ontogenesis, the main stages of its development, critical and sensitive periods. In developmental psychology, the following stand out: the psychology of childhood, the psychology of adolescence, the psychology of youth, the psychology of adulthood (acmeology), the psychology of aging and old age (gerontopsychology).

differential psychology explores individual psychological differences between people. These can be differences in temperament, character, abilities, cognitive styles, motivation of behavior, etc. The main tasks are to develop norms, standards in accordance with the age, gender of a person.

Pedagogical psychology studies the psychological foundations of training and education. It is closely related to developmental and differential psychology, since one of its important tasks is the individualization of learning in accordance with the age and individual characteristics of the trainees. The most important task of pedagogical psychology is the formation of a harmonious personality based on a combination of mental, moral, aesthetic, physical education, and the formation of an outlook.

Engineering psychology develops principles for harmonizing technical devices (machines, instruments, etc.) with the characteristics of mental processes, functions and human properties, striving to ensure maximum reliability and efficiency of control and management systems and reduce human labor costs. The issue is especially acute when a person has to work under conditions of emotional stress, increased responsibility, lack of time or information.

Labor psychology studies the psychological foundations and structure of labor activity, its dynamics and regulation mechanisms. This discipline explores the psychological factors of efficiency and quality of work. Labor psychology reveals the professionally important qualities of a person in relation to different professions, solves the problems of professional selection and vocational training.

Social Psychology studies the psychological mechanisms of the influence of society (communities) on human behavior and consciousness, explores the interaction of people in groups, collectives, the position of the individual in them, the problems of leadership and subordination. Important problems of social psychology are the study of the psychological mechanisms of the formation of public opinion, the problems of mass communications. In recent years, in line with socio-psychological research, the problems of ethical communities, national traditions and stereotypes of behavior have been actively developed.

legal psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the relationship between man and law. Its main problems are the study of the personality of the offender, the formation of the motivation for the crime, the psychological foundations for the re-education of offenders. In legal psychology, they also study the psychology of the victim, the psychology of testimonies, and the psychological aspects of the investigation.

Clinical psychology- a specialty of a wide profile, which has an intersectoral character and is involved in solving a set of problems in the healthcare system, public education and social assistance to the population. The work of a clinical psychologist is aimed at increasing the psychological resources and adaptive capabilities of a person, harmonizing mental development, protecting health, preventing and overcoming illnesses, and psychological rehabilitation. (See the Clinical Psychology section for more details.)

Principle determinism, causation of mental activity.
There are no uncaused phenomena in the world. This also applies to the psyche. Any mental act of an animal and a person has its own reason. The mental activity of people is determined by the social conditions of their life, the peculiarities of their upbringing and activities. Scientific psychology is not limited to a simple description of mental phenomena, it necessarily looks for the causes of their occurrence. The method of self-observation, which the empirical psychology of the XIX century. considered the main one, helped science very little, since it did not allow revealing the objective causes of people's mental activity.

The principle of the development of the psyche.
Human mental activity cannot be fully understood if it is studied statically, outside of movement and development. Thus, it is impossible to understand the behavior of an adult without taking into account the history of his life. It is also impossible to explain the peculiarities of the human psyche, ignoring the prehistory of human consciousness - the psyche of animals. Scientific psychology understands development not only in quantitative but also in qualitative terms. Thus, the mental activity of a student is qualitatively different from the mental activity of a child of preschool age. A student not only knows more and has more skills and abilities than a child. His knowledge, skills, experiences, actions, relationships with people are different than those of a preschooler. General psychology, studying the psyche mainly of adults, uses data obtained by child psychology to prove a number of provisions, for example, data on the development of individual mental processes in a child - sensations, perceptions, etc. One of the methods of general psychology - biographical - allows you to study a person's personality in its development.

The principle of the leading role of activity in the development of the psyche.
The human psyche, being a subjective reflection of the objective world, develops in the process of active interaction of a person with other people, in various types of his activities, from the simplest games of a child to the creative work of an adult. Outside of human activity, there can be no development of his psyche - the most important component of activity. Therefore, among the methods of psychology, there should be such methods that allow a comprehensive psychological analysis of a person's performance of various mental and practical tasks characteristic of a particular activity (game, educational, labor, organizational, etc.).

The principle of the unity of human mental activity.
The human psyche, its subjective world, is a single, inseparable whole, a product of the systemic activity of the brain, in which a psychologist, only for the purpose of research, artificially allocates various mental processes, states and properties to a certain extent. Studying individual manifestations of the psyche, consciousness, the researcher must remember the whole, the personality, see the mutual connections and dependencies between perception, thinking, memory, feelings, interests, attitudes of a person and study them specifically. The principle of the unity of consciousness is especially important to observe in a laboratory experiment, when, due to the peculiarities of this method, the psychologist is distracted from many aspects of the personality of the person he is studying, except for one that he studies.

The principle of objectivity in the study of the psyche.
The most important requirement of any science is the objectivity of research, its accuracy. This means that the scientist should not bring anything of his own into the phenomena under study, but should investigate them as they really are. But is it possible to objectively study the subjective world of man? Is it possible to learn about the thoughts, feelings, desires of other people? Many psychologists consider the subjective world of a person to be unknowable or cognizable only to the extent that the subject himself can judge it. Scientific psychology believes that the mental life of people (and animals) is just as cognizable as all phenomena of reality. A person's feelings, his thoughts and desires can be judged by his actions, the content and nature of his speech, the results (products) of his activity, i.e. objectively. Domestic psychology uses several methods of objective research of the human psyche; The main ones are observation and experiment.

The principle of concreteness of the study of the psyche.
A person lives and develops in the specific conditions of the family, school, production, etc. He establishes quite definite relationships with people, which significantly affects the behavior and mental development of this person. The principle of concreteness requires the psychologist to choose such research methods that would allow him to study a person's personality in specific, specific conditions of his life. Compliance with this principle is mandatory when studying the holistic behavior of an individual, for example, when

The psyche and the human body (and animals) are inextricably linked, and this is confirmed by the fact that without the brain it cannot exist, because. it is the ability of the brain to receive different information about the environment, it forms a reaction to this data - our behavior. The work of the psyche occurs only during the active activity of a person, during which it can be corrected: improved, complicated. It directly depends on the brain: the more complex it is, the higher the mental abilities. That is why there is such a big difference between the psyche of an animal and a person: many sensations, feelings, emotions available to people remain unattainable for animals.

The direct connection between the psyche and the brain allows us to determine that the psyche and the body are interdependent: for example, when a person receives a signal about a threat (and the level of danger and what needs to be done at this moment is determined with the help of the psyche and depends on its structure), then the level adrenaline in the blood rises, the heartbeat quickens and the person is ready for rapid mobilization. Those. here the direct influence of the psyche on the processes in the human body is manifested. But the body and its condition also affect the psyche with the help of the brain: for example, a lack of B vitamins can lead a person into a state of depression, when he will give negative assessments to the phenomena around him, which are actually neutral.

function of reflection, which contributes to the knowledge of the surrounding world;

f-tion regulatory, giving the opportunity to regulate their actions and behavior.

f-tion preservation of the integrity of the body (Maklakov).

The functions are interconnected and are elements of the integrative function of the psyche, which consists in ensuring the adaptation of a living organism to environmental conditions.

Stages of development of the psyche: Leontiev A.N. – 3 stages

The stage of the elementary sensitive (sensory) psyche - reflects one property of an object or phenomenon that directly affects the senses (a bee flies to a smell).

Stage of the perceptual psyche - reflects an object or phenomenon in the totality of properties in the form of an image.

The stage of intellectual behavior (elementary thinking) - the animal mentally establishes connections between objects in a given situation, but cannot reflect the situation in concepts.

Fabry, omitted the 3rd stage and proposed to introduce levels (lower, highest, highest) on the 1st, 2nd:

Stages and levels of mental reflection, its characteristics	Features of behavior associated with a given stage and level	Types of living beings that have reached this level of development
I. Stage of elementary sensory psyche
A. The lowest level. Primitive elements of sensitivity. Developed irritability	A. Clear reactions to biologically significant properties of the environment through a change in the speed and direction of movement. Elementary forms of movement. Weak plasticity of behavior. Unformed ability to respond to biologically neutral properties of the environment, devoid of vital significance. Weak, non-purposeful motor activity	A. The simplest. Many lower multicellular organisms living in the aquatic environment
B. Top level. The presence of feelings. The appearance of the most important organ of manipulation - the jaws. Ability to form elementary conditioned reflexes	B. Clear reactions to biological neutral stimuli. Developed physical activity (crawling, digging in the ground, swimming out of the water to land). The ability to avoid environmental conditions, move away from them, actively search for positive stimuli. Individual experience and learning play little role. Rigid innate programs are of primary importance in behavior.	B. Higher (annelid) worms, gastropods (snails), some other invertebrates
II. Stage of perceptual psyche
A. Low level. Reflection of external reality in the form of images of objects. Integration, unification of influencing properties into a holistic image of a thing. The main organ of manipulation is the jaw	A. Formation of motor skills. Rigid, genetically programmed components predominate. Motor abilities are very complex and varied (diving, crawling, walking, running, jumping, climbing, flying, etc.). Active search for positive stimuli, avoidance of negative (harmful), developed protective behavior	A. Fish and other lower vertebrates, as well as (in part) some higher invertebrates (arthropods and cephalopods). Insects.
B. Top level. Elementary forms of thinking (problem solving). The formation of a certain "picture of the world"	B. Highly developed instinctive forms of behavior. Learning Ability	B. Higher vertebrates (birds and some mammals)
B. The highest level. Allocation in practical activity of a special, tentative-research, preparatory phase. The ability to solve the same problem in different ways. Transferring the once found principle of solving the problem to new conditions. Creation and use of the activity of primitive tools. The ability to cognize the surrounding reality, regardless of the existing biological needs. Direct discretion and consideration of causal relationships between phenomena in practical actions (insight)	C. Allocation of specialized organs of manipulation: paws and hands. Development of exploratory forms of behavior with a wide use of previously acquired knowledge, skills and abilities	B. Monkeys, some other higher vertebrates (dogs, dolphins)

mental processes is a form of existence of the psyche. After all, the psyche is not static, like a frozen photograph. It is formed during the interaction of the individual with the environment and, therefore, should be considered in dynamics, in action, in development. Mental processes are included in more complex types of mental activity.

There are three classes mental processes:
- cognitive, or cognitive, providing a reflection of the surrounding world (sensations, perceptions, representation, attention, memory, thinking, imagination);
- emotional-volitional, or processes of mental regulation, providing features of behavior and activity (sensory experiences, volitional efforts, motivation, goal-setting, control processes, decision-making);
- communicative, ensuring the interaction of people both in the performance of joint actions and in situations of interpersonal communication (non-verbal and verbal communication).

Mental states characterize the functioning of the psyche at the current moment of time according to the criteria of efficiency, intensity, speed, quality, etc. In the structure of the personality, this is a more static and stable characteristic of the psyche compared to mental processes.

mental states differ in a number of characteristics. In particular, for:
- the level and form of emotionality (emotional: shame, sadness, aggressiveness, joy, etc.);
- intensity level (activation);
- level of psychophysiological resource (tonic);
- the level of mental stress (tension);
- duration of the state (temporary);
- the sign of the state (favorable, unfavorable).

The mental properties of a personality are stable and constantly manifesting personality characteristics that determine the characteristics of its behavior and activities. Properties are inherent in a person over a long period of his life or even his entire life.

Between mental processes, states and properties there is a close relationship. For example, the properties of temperament or character largely predetermine one or another mental state in a particular situation. In general, this relationship is much more complicated than we imagine it at this stage of human development. Here, very important, one might say, fantastic phenomena and patterns are still waiting to be discovered. In the meantime, we can only say that the psyche is the result of "tireless work" of the cosmos, which is still mysterious to mankind. It is included in a single chain of processes of the macrocosm, the solar system and the planet Earth. The psyche is influenced, for example, by the solar system with the insidiousness of its "flashes", accompanied by increased excitability of people.

All this suggests that the study of the psyche cannot be separated from the knowledge of processes in the near (immediate) and far (world) space. The relevance of this provision increases due to the fact that a person is increasingly fenced off from this space by creating a "second" nature, leaving the "first", natural, only for the purpose of recreation.

Concepts of consciousness and activity- nodal categories of psychological science. The systematic development of this principle in Soviet psychology began in the 1930s (SL. Rubinshtein, A. N. Leontiev, B. G. Naniev, B. M. Teplov, and others).

SL Rubinshtein was the first to put forward the position on the unity of consciousness and activity, behavior. He wrote that “activity and consciousness are not two aspects turned in different directions. They form an organic whole - not identity, but unity.

Although at that time this principle was not yet correlated with the principle of development, nevertheless, it immediately acquired an important methodological significance. It argued that there can be no activity without consciousness and consciousness without activity. Thus, the position on the possibility of studying consciousness through activity was defended and the road was opened for an objective study of the psyche and consciousness: from activity, its products - to the mental processes that are revealed in it. Thus, the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity becomes the basis of all objective methods of psychology.

The development of the psyche in phylogenesis is the qualitative changes in the psyche that occur within the framework of the evolutionary development of living beings, due to the complication of their interaction with the environment.
The views of philosophers on who is inherent in the psyche:
- Pan-psychism (the psyche is inherent in everything)
- Anthropopsychism (psyche only in humans) - Descartes
- Biopsychism (the psyche of all living things, including plants) - Wundt
- Neuropsychism (psyche only in those who have a nervous system) - Darwin
- Brainpsychism (psyche only in those who have a brain) - K.K. Platonov
- Sensory psychism (only those who have a sensory system have a psyche - the ability to respond to vitally insignificant environmental stimuli) (Leontiev)
With the emergence of life on Earth, large molecules appeared that had the sign of a living thing, that is, they absorbed nutrients and got rid of decay products. This property is called irritability - the reaction of the body to the biologically significant properties of the environment, which are directly involved in metabolic processes.
Irritability is not mental, irritability is a biological reaction.
The psyche arises when sensitivity appears - the body's reaction to biologically insignificant (abiotic, biologically neutral) properties of the environment.
With the disappearance of the direct environment with nutrients, a living organism had a need to detect them at a distance, so the beginnings of sensitivity arose, that is, the psyche as the ability to signal the body about positive and negative reactions.
Stages of the formation of the psyche:
1) Tropisms (there were taxis, i.e. the first unicellular creatures) - the level of irritability
phototropism (to light)
thermotropisms (for temperature)
chemotropisms (on the physical biological environment)
totropisms (on mechanical influences)
2) Reflexes - point automatic reactions to irritation of certain receptors or sensory organs.
3) Instincts - innate, unchangeable forms of behavior, the same in individuals of the same type.
4) Learning - the acquisition of lifetime experience through trial and error.
5) Intellectual behavior - solving life problems without preliminary trial and error through insight (enlightenment). (See Keller "On experiments in the study of great apes")

Basic concepts of functional brain asymmetry

Functional asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres is the morphophysiological features of cerebral structures that determine the dominance of the hemisphere in the processing of information of a certain type. It is manifested by the difference in functional loads performed by symmetrical parts of the hemispheres.

At the same time, the lack of stability in the asymmetry of the hemispheres of the human brain was established. With unilateral lesions, the opposite hemisphere, forming new connections between the projection fields, is able to take over the performance of the lost functions. Functional asymmetry is considered as the ability of a person's cerebral adaptation to changing conditions in normal and pathological conditions.

Features of asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres

The distribution of functional responsibilities between the hemispheres is genetically determined. However, under the influence of social factors, the functional asymmetry of the brain undergoes changes; briefly describing the work of the hemispheres with respect to simple functions (the work of the sense organs and striated skeletal muscles), scientists consider it to be conditionally equipotential. The symmetrical sections of the hemispheres provide movement and specific sensitivity equally. However, such averaging does not apply to higher cortical functions, emotions, activation and adaptation processes. Neurophysiologists classify interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain into:

Anatomical (expressed in the morphological heterogeneity of the hemispheres);

biochemical (manifested by differences in cellular reactions, the content of neurotransmitters);

Psychophysiological (motor, sensory, cognitive-emotional).

Functional interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain ensures the responsibility of the left hemisphere for the analysis of verbal information, the right for the processing of spatial and figurative patterns. The dominant part is that which provides the function of phase (speech), possession of the most frequently used hand. For most people (right-handers), the left hemisphere is dominant. In left-handed people, the right hemisphere is leading. There is a small group of people with the same ability to deftly own the right, left hand. This feature is called ambidexterity. It can be both congenital and acquired.

People with a predominant influence of the right hemisphere are prone to contemplation, memories and subtle deep sensitivity. The thought processes of the right hemisphere are carried out by the initial mechanism of synthesis with subsequent analysis. The right hemisphere prevails when it is necessary to have concrete-figurative thinking and the performance of emotional activity. The right hemisphere provides: ear for music, emotional coloring of speech; holistic perception of images; spatially intuitive processing of information. concrete thinking, visual perception and recognition.

The left hemisphere specializes in the mechanisms of inductive intellectual activity (the process of analysis is initially followed by the synthesis of information). It is dominant for abstract, symbolic thinking. The left hemisphere determines: operating with logical and abstract concepts; consistent mental activity; local perception of images; verbal-symbolic functions; establishment of similarity and identity.

An objective examination can reveal structural changes (heart enlargement, liver enlargement, edema, etc.), as well as functional disorders (increased blood pressure, body temperature, etc.).

Stages of examination of a sick patient

When examining a patient, it is advisable to adhere to the following scheme:

Stage I - examination using the main methods:

questioning (subjective research);
objective examination (general and local examination, palpation, percussion, auscultation);
substantiation of the preliminary diagnosis;

Stage II - examination using additional methods necessary to confirm the diagnosis and differential diagnosis:

drawing up a plan for laboratory and instrumental studies, consultations of specialists;
substantiation and formulation of a detailed final diagnosis (underlying disease, its complications and concomitant diseases).

Examination of the patient using the main methods is carried out in all cases of examination (primary or repeated). Only after applying the basic research methods, the doctor decides which of the additional methods (laboratory and instrumental) are necessary to clarify the diagnosis in this clinical situation. In some cases (blood culture for sterility, biopsy data, etc.), additional research methods are crucial for diagnosis.

The main methods of examination of a sick patient

questioning

Questioning (interrogate) - a research method based on the analysis and evaluation of the patient's experiences and sensations, as well as his memories of the disease and life. The questioning is carried out according to a certain scheme and rules.

The general questioning scheme includes:

passport data;
analysis of patient complaints;
medical history;
anamnesis of life.

The analysis of complaints provides for the selection of the main and additional ones. The main complaints indicate the localization of the pathological process, and additional complaints indicate its severity.

The main requirement when collecting an anamnesis of the disease is to reveal the dynamics of the pathological process from the onset of the disease to the patient's admission to the clinic. Therefore, the anamnesis of the disease includes three main, chronologically related sections:

Start;
results of laboratory and instrumental studies;
previous treatment.

The anamnesis of life includes five sections:

physical and intellectual development of the patient (with the allocation of bad habits and previous diseases);
material and living conditions of his life;
expert labor history;
allergic history;
hereditary history.

Characteristic symptoms(pathognomonic, decisive) are characteristic only of this disease and do not occur in other forms. So, for example, presystolic murmur is observed only with mitral stenosis, the presence of Plasmodium malaria in the blood and Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the sputum is absolutely pathognomonic for these diseases. However, it should be remembered that there are not so many isolated characteristic symptoms in pathology; often they are not allocated immediately, but only in a certain phase of the disease. Therefore, the diagnosis, as a rule, is made on the basis of a comparison of all the symptoms.

An objective examination of the patient must begin with a general examination.

Then proceed to the study of internal organs.

Inspection

On examination, the general appearance of the patient and the general condition are determined - satisfactory, moderate, severe and very severe.

The position of the patient. If the patient is in bed, but can independently turn around, sit down, stand up, this position is called active.

Very weak or unconscious patients usually lie motionless in bed and cannot change their position without outside help; this state is called the passive position. In some diseases, patients feel more or less tolerable only in a certain, forced position. For example, in severe heart disease, a patient due to shortness of breath is often forced to take a sitting position with legs hanging from the bed (orthopnea). With sweaty pericarditis, patients sit leaning forward; in some persons suffering from gastric ulcer, the pain is relieved by the knee-elbow position of the body.

State of consciousness. Various degrees of disorder of consciousness are observed.

Coma is a complete loss of consciousness associated with damage to the vital centers of the brain. In coma, there is muscle relaxation, loss of sensitivity and reflexes, there are no reactions to any stimuli - pain, light, sound. Coma occurs with cerebral hemorrhages, diabetes mellitus, severe liver damage, chronic nephritis, and poisoning.

Sopor - a state of hibernation. If the patient is brought out of this state by a loud hail or braking, he can answer questions, and then again falls into a deep sleep.

Stupor is a state of deafening, when the patient is poorly oriented in the environment, answers questions sluggishly and belatedly.

Along with depression, there are disorders of consciousness, which are based on the excitation of the central nervous system. These include delirium, hallucinations that occur at high body temperature in the case of infectious diseases, lobar pneumonia, typhus, etc.

Facial expression. By facial expression, one can judge the internal state of the patient. A special facial expression is observed in febrile patients (febris): reddening of the cheeks, moist luster of the eyes, excitement. In severe diseases of the abdominal cavity, accompanied by acute inflammation of the peritoneum, with very severe diarrhea, the patient's facial expression changes dramatically: the eyes sink, the nose sharpens, the skin of the face becomes flabby, pale, with a bluish tinge, covered with cold sweat. This expression was first described by Hippocrates and is called (fades Hippocratica).

General body structure. Constitutional tynes (according to M. V. Chernorutsky). By the general appearance of the patient, one can judge the structure of the body and the development of the skeleton. Distinguish people of high, low and average growth. On average, the height of men ranges from 160 to 180 cm, women - from 150 to 160 cm. Height above 190 cm is considered gigantic, below 140 cm for men and 130 cm for women - dwarf.

According to the structure of the body, there are three main constitutional types of people: asthenics, hypersthenics and normosthenics. Normosthenic, average, type is characterized by proportionality in the structure of the body. These are people with moderately developed subcutaneous fat, strong muscles, a cone-shaped chest, a right epigastric angle (the angle of convergence of the lower edges of the ribs at the xiphoid process). The length of the arms, legs and neck of normosthenics corresponds to the size of the body. A characteristic feature of people of the asthenic type is the predominance of longitudinal dimensions over transverse ones. Subcutaneous fat and muscular system are poorly developed. The skin is thin, dry and pale. The chest is narrow and flat, the ribs are directed obliquely, the epigastric angle is sharp, the shoulder blades lag behind the chest. The neck, arms and legs are long.

In persons of the hypersthenic type, on the contrary, the transverse dimensions are emphasized. They are distinguished by a significant development of subcutaneous fat and powerful muscles. The chest is short, wide, the direction of the ribs is horizontal, the epigastric angle is obtuse. The abdomen is full, the neck, arms and legs are short.

These constitutional types differ in functional features. In hypersthenics, the metabolism is slowed down, they are prone to the deposition of adipose tissue, to metabolic disorders. Asthenics have active metabolic processes, they do not even accumulate normal amounts of adipose tissue. Asthenics are more likely to suffer from tuberculosis. There were attempts by physique to determine the mental characteristics of a person (character, temperament) and even a predisposition to certain mental illnesses (schizophrenia, epilepsy, etc.). IP Pavlov was an opponent of such definitions and convincingly showed that the main criterion that determines the physiological properties of the organism is the functional state of the central nervous system and, first of all, its higher department - the cerebral cortex.

Power state. The state of nutrition is determined by the development of the subcutaneous fat layer and muscles (in healthy people of normal nutrition, the thickness of the skin fold on the abdomen is about 1 cm).

With a normal ratio of weight and height, weight in kilograms is approximately equal to height in centimeters minus 100, adjusted for the constitutional type (hypersthenics - plus 10%, asthenics - minus 10%).

The state of reduced nutrition, or exhaustion, is most often caused by insufficient introduction of food into the body (lack of appetite, narrowing of the esophagus, vomiting), poor absorption of food, for example, with inflammation of the small intestine; increased energy expenditure (increased thyroid function - hyperthyroidism, fever) or metabolic disorders.

Skin and visible mucous membranes. Examination of the skin and mucous membranes reveals discoloration, pigmentation, rash, peeling, hemorrhage, scarring, scratching, bedsores, etc. Paleness of the skin and mucous membranes can be associated with acute and chronic blood loss (peptic ulcer, uterine bleeding). Pallor is also observed in anemia, fainting. Temporary pallor of the skin may occur with spasm of the skin vessels during chills, with angina pectoris, cooling, fright.

Abnormal redness of the skin depends mainly on the expansion and overflow of blood in the small vessels of the skin. This is observed during mental arousal. In some people, the feeling of shame is accompanied by the appearance of red spots on the face, neck and chest.

A nodule (papula), tubercle (tuberculum) is an easily palpable accumulation of cells in the skin. These formations are sometimes found in rheumatism: slightly painful tubercles the size of a cherry appear on the limbs, covered with reddened skin (erythema in dosym).

Skin hemorrhages occur with bruises, infectious and toxic lesions of small vessels, beriberi.

Skin moisture. The moisture content of the skin depends on the separation of sweat. Excessive dryness of the skin indicates depletion of the body with water (for example, with profuse diarrhea, sugar and diabetes insipidus), malnutrition, general exhaustion, myxedema.

Increased sweating and increased skin moisture are observed in rheumatism, tuberculosis, Graves' disease, in the case of taking antipyretics, such as aspirin.

Skin turgor. Skin turgor should be understood as its tension. This property of the skin is determined mainly by palpation, for which you should take the skin into a fold with two fingers and then release it. The fold with normal turgor quickly straightens out. Skin turgor depends on the content of intracellular fluid, blood, lymph and the degree of development of subcutaneous fat.

Of clinical importance is reduced turgor, which is noted with a sharp weight loss (cachexia), a large loss of fluid (diarrhea, stenosis of the pylorus or esophagus). With reduced skin turgor, a fold taken on the abdomen or the back of the hand does not straighten out for a long time.

Condition of hair and nails. The absence or scarcity of hair on the pubis and in the armpits indicates a reduced function of the gonads. Excessive hair growth and their location in areas free of hair is indicative of some endocrine disorders. Hair loss and brittleness are noted in Graves' disease, alopecia areata on the head - in syphilis. Early baldness can occur as a family feature and in this case has no diagnostic value.

Fragility and delamination of nails are observed in violation of vitamin metabolism. Nails with fungal infections (epidermophytosis, trichophytosis) become dull, thickened and crumble.

Examination of the lymphatic, muscular and skeletal systems. The degree of enlargement, consistency, mobility and tenderness of the lymph nodes is determined by examination and palpation. Enlarged lymph nodes can be regional (local) or systemic. A reactive enlargement of the lymph nodes develops in the presence of a focus of infection along the lymph outflow. For example, submandibular and cervical nodes increase with tonsillitis, stomatitis. Multiple enlargement of the lymph nodes is observed with lymphadenosis, lymphogranulomatosis, tuberculosis. Dense, bumpy, painless, lymph nodes soldered to the skin are palpated with cancer metastases. Reddening of the skin in the area of the lymph nodes, their fluctuation (swelling) occur during inflammatory processes in them, with their purulent melting. Palpation of such nodes is painful.

When examining the muscles, the degree of their development is determined, as well as paralysis and atrophy, pain.

In a healthy person, even relaxed muscles are always in a state of some tension. This condition is called muscle tone. A decrease or increase in muscle tone is observed in a number of diseases of the central nervous system (paralysis, neuritis, poliomyelitis).

When examining bones and joints, attention should be paid to symptoms such as pain, thickening, usura, deformities, swelling of the joints, as well as range of motion.

The method of objective examination of organs and systems is described in detail in the sections of private pathology. Here, only general information is provided.

Feeling (palpation)

Palpation is one of the important methods of objective examination of the patient. Palpation allows you to establish the physical properties of the examined area of the body, its temperature, soreness, elasticity, tissue compaction, the boundaries of organs, etc. Very valuable data for the diagnosis can be obtained by feeling the heart, joints, chest, and especially when examining the abdominal organs. The method of palpation is different depending on the area under study, therefore, palpation data for diseases of various organs are presented in the relevant sections. The patient should be palpated with clean and warm hands.

Percussion (percussion)

Percussion as a research method was introduced into medicine in 1761 by Auenbrugger and is widely used today. Percussion can be carried out directly with the pulp of the index finger over the area under study, but it is better to do it with a finger on the finger.

Percussion technique:

The plessimeter (finger of the left hand) should be firmly attached to the body area.
The hammer (middle finger of the right hand) should strike perpendicular to the plessimeter finger.
Hammer finger blows should be of medium strength, jerky; they are applied with the whole brush, which should be relaxed.

Three main sounds are normally detected over the body: clear, dull and tympanic. They, in turn, are characterized by the degree of loudness and duration. These properties of the sound of various tissues depend on several factors: the elastic properties of the tissue, the air content in the organs, and the uniformity of the structure of the organ.

A clear sound (loud, low and prolonged) is detected over the lungs, which contain elastic tissue and air. Percussion sound above the muscles, on the contrary, is quiet, high and short - dull (homogeneous tissue structure and lack of air).

Above the hollow organs with elastic walls (intestine, stomach), a tympanic sound is normally detected. It can have a different tone, be higher or deaf, depending on the amount of air contained and the tension of the elastic walls of the organ (for example, with a large accumulation of gases in the intestine, a loud high-pitched tympanic sound appears).

Auscultation (listening)

Distinguish between mediocre auscultation, when it is performed using any device, and direct, when the doctor or paramedic listens to the patient directly with his ear.

Auscultation technique:

The narrow end of the stethoscope or the head of the phonendoscope should fit snugly against the body area. The extended end of the stethoscope or the rubber tubes of the phonendoscope are also tightly connected to the examiner's auricle.
If breathing through the nose is free, the patient should breathe through the nose, if difficult - through the mouth.
Breathing should not be very frequent and noisy.

Currently, auscultation is mainly used with the help of stethoscopes or phonendoscopes of various devices. Listen to the larynx, lungs, aorta and other large vessels, heart and abdomen. Above these organs, quiet sounds are mainly heard - noises. Normally, two main noises are heard above the lungs: vesicular, or pulmonary, and laryngo-tracheal, or bronchial.

Vesicular noise is heard on the chest at the projection of the lung tissue: in the interscapular space, above and below the collarbones and below the shoulder blades. This sound or noise is manifested at the height of inspiration and resembles the sound when pronouncing the letter "f". It occurs when the alveoli are expanded by air penetrating into them from the bronchioles.

Laryngo-tracheal, or bronchial, noise is normally heard over the trachea or near the spinous process of the VII cervical vertebra. In pathological cases, bronchial murmurs can be heard at the site where vesicular murmurs are usually heard.

There is a laryngo-tracheal noise in the region of the glottis during the passage of air during exhalation. This is due to the fact that during exhalation the glottis is narrowed. The more the glottis or bronchus is narrowed, the longer and higher the murmur is. The sound of bronchial breathing is usually compared to the pronunciation of the letter "x", and during exhalation this sound is rougher and longer than during inhalation.

The group of methods of objective psychology is most in demand in the organization of psychological research. Observation and experiment are rightfully recognized as the main methods of the group. Auxiliary research methods include: testing, survey, analysis of activity products. Methods of mathematical modeling and statistical analysis have also found wide application in psychology.

The method of observation is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of the external behavior of a person with the aim of its subsequent analysis and explanation.

Observation is an independent method, but most often it is used in combination with some other. For example, an observation can be a complement to an experiment. The essence of observation is to notice all the little things, to follow the implementation of certain activities, the development of the situation, to systematize and group facts.

Depending on the position of the researcher in relation to the subject under study, included and non-included observation are distinguished.

Member observation is the perception of a phenomenon from the inside, when the researcher becomes a member of the organization for the duration of the observation. Not included supervision - supervision from outside.

There are also search and standardized observation. In exploratory observation, the task is to detect, highlight, unambiguously describe the signs of observation. After identifying the features, they are analyzed. In a standardized observation, a set of features is already specified in the instruction.

For example, you are observing school anxiety. What are its obvious signs? One of the most striking signs is ordinary trembling. In a state of anxious excitement, not only the hands tremble, but also the muscles of the vocal cords, which gives the voice a characteristic uneven intonation. Another sign of anxiety is redness or blanching of the face (the so-called vascular, or vasomotor, reaction). A person who is worried often has stutters in speech: a syntactic and intonation failure in pronouncing a phrase or a reservation.

Let us denote the weight of each feature. So, let's agree that we will award 3 points for pronounced trembling, 2 points for pronounced vasomotor (vzm), and 1 point for a single speech stutter (zpk). Then a fragment of a typical observation protocol will look like this:

Thus, in this period of observation, Petrov received 7 points on the "exam anxiety" scale, and Sidorov - 6 points. 46

Often in practice, based on the misconception that observation is the easiest method, observers resort to spontaneous and unorganized observation under the motto "We need to look closely, maybe we'll see something." Such disorganized observation is unscientific. With the right, scientific approach to observation, it is characterized by a number of features that make it effective:

1. The presence of a goal and an object of observation. We must answer ourselves the question of what we are observing and for what purpose.
2. The presence of a procedural scheme of observation, the same for all objects of observation. It is advisable to plan for one session to observe no more than seven objects at the same time.
3. The presence of signs of observation.

One of the main shortcomings of observation is the subjectivity of the perception of the one who organizes the observation. How to avoid subjectivity in observation? To do this, the observation is usually carried out by at least two independent observers. In this case, either all observers simultaneously perform "live" observation, or view video recordings. Errors due to fluctuations in attention, misinterpretation of instructions on any basis, made by one expert, will be corrected in agreement with the results of other experts.

Experiment (from Latin - test, experience) - a method of cognition, with the help of which phenomena of reality are studied under controlled and controlled conditions.

Modern science uses various types of experiments. Among the huge number of experiments of various types, two of the most famous and widespread can be distinguished: natural (field) and laboratory experiments.

The idea of conducting a natural experiment belongs to the domestic psychologist A.F. Lazursky. A natural experiment is carried out in the natural conditions of human life. People participating in a natural experiment are unaware that they are acting as subjects.

A laboratory experiment is carried out under specially created and controlled conditions, as a rule, with the use of special equipment and devices. A distinctive feature of laboratory experiments is the strict observance of the research conditions and the accuracy of the data obtained. The scientific objectivity and practical significance of the data obtained in a laboratory experiment is reduced by the artificiality of the conditions created. Therefore, there is a problem of transferring the data obtained in the laboratory to the real conditions of human life. In other words: does the experimental situation model the real life of a person? This question always remains open.

Planning and organization of the experiment.

The planning and organization of the experiment have a decisive influence on the quality of the results obtained. An experimental design is a blueprint that suggests that the researcher perform certain procedures and reject others.

When planning and conducting an experiment, two or more factors or variables are compared. The condition (factor) that is changed and controlled by the researcher is called the independent variable. The condition, the change of which is studied (observed) in connection with changes in the independent variable, is called the dependent variable.

For the normal course of the experiment, its purity and the correctness of the results, it is important to identify independent and dependent variables and exclude the influence of any other factors. Most psychological experiments cannot be carried out in "sterile" laboratory conditions, so the presence of uncontrolled, random factors cannot be ruled out in them. It is also necessary to take into account the distortions that may arise during the experiment due to the influence of the experimenter himself.

If the experimental plan is completed successfully and appropriate measurements are taken, the researcher proceeds to process the obtained data. This involves presenting the results in the form of tables, graphs, charts, diagrams, drawings that allow interpreting the collected data, analyzing and identifying certain dependencies, drawing conclusions, and developing recommendations.

Thus, a scientific experiment involves the following eight stages:

1. Goal setting and problem definition.
2. Analysis of the available information, conditions, theoretical models and applied methods that can solve the selected problem.

H. Formulation of a hypothesis.

4. Planning and organization of the experiment.
5. Analysis and generalization of the obtained results.
6. Verification of the initial hypothesis based on the results obtained and the final formulation of new facts or relationships.
7. Explanation of the problem and forecasting its further development.
8. Compiling a research report.

Do not underestimate any of the above stages, from problem definition to report writing.

The peculiarity of this method is that the source of information is a verbal message, the judgment of the respondent. There are different types of survey:

1) questioning - a set of questions or points ordered in content and form;
2) interview - oral conversation, face-to-face survey;
3) conversation - an exchange of opinions, a conversation between a psychologist and a respondent.

The quality of a survey depends to a large extent on the extent to which the respondents are able and willing to sincerely answer the questions posed. There are frequent cases when people refuse to give or deliberately distort their assessment of certain events, find it difficult to answer questions about the motives of their behavior.

It is very important how the questions are framed. When preparing a questionnaire, one should proceed from the following rules for formulating questions:

1. the question must correspond to the goals and objectives of the study;
2. each question should be logically separate;

3. The wording of the question should be clear to all interviewees, so highly specialized terms should be avoided. Questions should correspond to the level of development of respondents, including the level of the least prepared;

4. you should not ask too long questions;
5. it is necessary to strive to ensure that the questions encourage respondents to actively participate in the survey, increase their interest in the problem under study;
6. The question should not suggest an answer. It should be formulated in a neutral way;
7. There must be a balance of possible positive and negative answers. Otherwise, you can inspire the respondent with the direction of the answers.

For a more compact arrangement of questions in the questionnaire, they are often presented in tabular form, although working with tables causes difficulties for some people.

Assessing the method of questioning as a whole, it can be noted that it is a means of primary orientation, preliminary reconnaissance. The data obtained during the survey outline the directions for further study of personality.

Interview and conversation is a more "psychological" form of questioning than a questionnaire, since in this case there is an interaction of people. The most important condition for the success of the conversation is to establish contact between the researcher and the respondent, to create a trusting atmosphere of communication. The researcher must arrange the interviewee, call him to frankness.

Testing is a method that uses standardized questions and tasks that have a certain scale of values.

For a long time, tests in our country were treated critically. After the decision of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education" (1936), tests were banned in the USSR. The tests were criticized for their weak theoretical validity, for ignoring the individual characteristics of a person, and so on. It is now recognized that individual test methods should be criticized, but not the test method as such.

The development of a scientifically based test is a laborious and lengthy business. The use of tests in practical work requires special training. Unprofessional use of tests can be harmful to the individual due to a false interpretation of his data.

The method of analyzing the results of activities, or the projective method

It is based on the symbolic transfer of the content of the inner world to the outer world.

In drawings, in handwriting, in plasticine crafts, in games with toys, in choosing clothes, interior items, etc. a person, as it were, loses the impressions that he receives in life. This activity is especially necessary for preschoolers. If some strong impressions are not played, not drawn, i.e. not reacted, but suppressed, pushed into the subconscious, they can turn into an inexplicable system of fears and anxieties, into a source of internal conflict.

The use of projective methods requires serious psychological preparation. In order to draw reasonable conclusions about the emotional state of a person and his personal characteristics based on the analysis of drawings, handwriting features, a high professionalism of a specialist is necessary.

Methods of mathematical statistics.

Mathematical methods in psychology are used as a means of increasing the reliability, objectivity, and accuracy of the knowledge gained. These methods are mainly used at the stage of setting a hypothesis and its justification, as well as in processing the data obtained in the study.

Mathematical methods are used in psychology not as independent ones, but are included as auxiliary ones at a certain stage of the experiment. These methods become necessary when, in an experiment, a researcher works simultaneously with several variables, with a set of hypotheses that involve the involvement of a large array of empirical data in the study.

A number of formal characteristics have quantitative certainty. However, most psychological phenomena, processes, properties do not have such quantitative certainty. Often it is important for the researcher to determine not only their presence or absence, but the intensity of manifestation. To do this, the researcher specifically ascribes quantitative indicators to qualitative features. This procedure is called classification or measurement.

The measurement tool is a scale that should order the data. With the help of pre-designed scales, everything, even the most complex psychological phenomena, can be measured.

Psychologists traditionally use such methods of mathematical analysis as simple and combinational groupings, calculation of averages, regression, correlation, dispersion, factor and cluster analysis. We can safely say that modern psychology cannot do without the methods developed in mathematics and statistics.

So, modern psychology uses a wide arsenal of methods. It is important when choosing a specific method to determine the priority of the issue under study. Methods in themselves are neither good nor bad, but they can be more or less useful in answering the questions posed. The method or combination of methods used must be selected in such a way as to test the validity of the hypothesis, theory for a particular situation. The researcher must have accurate information about the variables and facts under study, their grouping, choose a research method and master it, study possible errors arising due to objective and subjective reasons.

Table 1.