Periodization of the world history of medicine. Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine. The value of medical and hygienic knowledge in the life of the primitive population of the modern territory of the Republic of Belarus

Modern periodization of world history and the history of medicine. 1 page

I period: The history of primitive society, duration from 2 million years ago to the IV millennium BC. - 20,000 centuries.

II period: History of the ancient world, duration from the IV millennium BC. until the middle of the 1st millennium AD, - 40 centuries.

III period: History of the Middle Ages, duration from 476 to 1640 - 12 centuries.

IV period: History of modern times, duration from 1640 to 1918 - 3 centuries.

Period V: The history of modern times, duration from 1918 to the present, less than 1 century.

MEDICINE IN THE PRIMARY SOCIETY

History. The history of the primitive era studies human society from the emergence of man (more than 2 million years ago) to the formation of the first civilizations (4th millennium BC). In terms of its duration, the primitive era covers more than 99% of the entire history of mankind. The primitive communal system is universal: all the peoples of our planet, without exception, passed through it.

Periodization and chronology of the primitive era and primitive healing. In the history of the primitive era, three stages are distinguished: the formation of a primitive society (over 2 million years ago - about 40 thousand years ago (back), the flowering of primitive society (about 40 thousand years ago - X millennium BC. e. ) and the decomposition of primitive society (from the 15th millennium BC).

According to the historical stages, three periods in the development of primitive healing are conditionally defined:

1) the formation of man, primitive society and primitive healing, when the initial accumulation and generalization of empirical knowledge about natural remedies (of plant, animal and mineral origin) took place;

2) healing during the heyday of primitive society, when the purposeful application of the empirical experience of collective healing in social practice was developed and approved;

3) healing during the period of decomposition of primitive society, when, along with the emergence of classes and private property, the cult practice of healing (which originated in the period of the late tribal community) was developing, the accumulation and generalization of empirical knowledge of healing continued (as a collective experience of the community and individual activity of the healer).

Sources on the history of the primitive era and primitive healing. Reliable scientific knowledge about the healing of the primitive era is based on the data of archeology and ethnography, paleopathology and paleobotany, paleoanthropology and paleopsychology.

archeological data. The main material sources of primitive history are: tools, remains of primitive buildings, sanctuaries, burials and human remains, objects of primitive culture.

Paleopathological data Paleopathology studies the pathological changes in the remains of primitive man, more precisely, his skeleton. Before the advent of paleopathology, which as a science was formed about a hundred years ago, there was an idea that the primitive man was absolutely healthy, and diseases arose later as a result of civilization. A similar point of view was held by very educated people, for example, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who sincerely believed in the existence of a "golden age" at the dawn of mankind. Some human diseases, such as silicosis or radiation sickness, are certainly a product of the noosphere and are associated with the activity of the human mind. But this is true only for a limited number of diseases. Nevertheless, paleopathological data to a certain extent contributed to its refutation. The study of the remains of a primitive man showed that his bones bear indelible traces of traumatic injuries and serious illnesses (such as arthritis, tumors, tuberculosis, curvature of the spine, dental caries, etc.). In 1892, during archaeological excavations near the village of Trinil on about. Java Dutch doctor and anatomist Y. Dubois (Eugene Dubois) discovered the left femur of the most ancient man - Pithecanthropus. In France, in the cave of La Chapelle-aux-Seine, the skeleton of an ancient Neanderthal man (Homo neanderthalensis) was found, whose cervical vertebrae were fused into a single bone (evidence of arthritis).

Paleopathology also made it possible to determine the average life expectancy of primitive man: it did not exceed 30 years. Until 50 years (and more) survived in exceptional cases. Primitive man died in the prime of his life, not having time to grow old, he died in the struggle with nature, which was stronger than him.

Data from written sources The primitive era is an unwritten period in the history of mankind. Due to the uneven historical development, the transition to a class society and the associated development of writing among different peoples did not occur simultaneously. This allowed the peoples who had previously mastered writing to leave numerous written testimonies: their neighbors who had not yet created writing.

Ethnographic data Ethnographic studies of the healing of apopolitan primitive societies (that is, primitive societies of the pre-class era) are very difficult and are possible only on the basis of archaeological research. At the same time, the study of more recent - synpolite primitive societies (that is, primitive societies of the class era, contemporary to the scientists who studied them) provides rich ethnographic material about primitive healing.

FORMATION OF PRIMARY SOCIETY AND PRIMARY MEDICINE

(more than 2 million years ago - about 40 thousand years ago)

The formation of human society. The transition from the closest human ancestors (Australopithecines) to the subfamily of hominids (i.e. people) is a long evolutionary process that took place over millions of years and ended, as archaeological studies show, at the turn of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods. In establishing the boundary between the animal world and man, there are two approaches: anthropological and philosophical. The anthropological approach is based on the biological originality of man, his morphological difference from the ancestral forms closest to him. This difference is determined by the hominid triad:

1) upright posture, or bipedia;

2) a free brush with an opposing thumb, capable of fine labor operations;

3) a relatively large highly developed brain.

The basis of the philosophical approach to defining the criteria of a person and his separation from the animal world is the social essence of a person - his instrumental (or labor) activity, thinking, language, social relations.

One of the most important problems of anthropogenesis is the question of the place of human formation - the ancestral home of mankind. Ch. Darwin (Darwin Ch., 1809-1882) put forward the assumption that the ancestral home of mankind is the African continent, where anthropoids, chimpanzees, and gorillas, closest to humans, live. Archaeological research in recent decades confirms the idea of the African ancestral home of mankind. Nevertheless, in modern historical science there are two hypotheses: monogenism and polygenism. According to the monogenism hypothesis (which most researchers adhere to), humanity originated from one limited focus of the globe - the highlands of East and South Africa (some scientists attribute this process to an increased background of radiation in highland Africa as a whole). The hypothesis of polygenism allows the existence of several centers of human formation - in Africa and Asia.

The beginnings of healing The emerging human society went through two main stages in its development: the era of the most ancient people - archanthropes (about 2 million years ago - 300/200 thousand years ago) and the era of ancient people - paleoanthropes (Neanderthals) (about 300/200 thousand years ago). . years ago - 40/35 "thousand years ago). The most ancient people (archanthropes) were upright and led a nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyle. They made the simplest tools from stone, wood and other natural materials; they were engaged in gathering, fishing and hunting, created the first dwellings and made fire by carving and friction, began to maintain it in the hearth.The tool activity contributed to the formation of primitive articulate speech among the archanthropes, the rudiments of language, the development of thinking and primitive consciousness.The idea that the most ancient people ate (and for , treatment of ailments) only plants are very outdated Archaeological studies of recent years have shown that the closest ancestors of the most ancient people - Austria Lopithecus - along with gathering, they hunted small and large animals, that is, they were omnivores. Consequently, thousands of years of empirical experience and everyday labor practice of the most ancient people allowed them to learn the healing and toxic properties of plants, minerals and animal parts and use them in the fight against their ailments. The most ancient people already showed collective care for sick relatives. Discovery of E. Dubois on about. Java confirms this conclusion: without the support of a collective of relatives, a seriously ill individual, in all likelihood, lame, with limited self-protection, would inevitably die in the early stages of the disease; however, he lived for many years as a cripple. Consequently, the formation of social relations took place at the earliest stages of the development of human society. However, at this stage of history, there were no burials and related religious ideas, the cult of the dead and magical actions. This is explained by the fact that the abstract thinking of the archanthropes was not yet sufficiently developed. Ancient people (paleoanthropes) - the ancestors of modern humans - lived in caves, in the open air in permanent camps and in artificially constructed dwellings. They created a high stone culture; engaged in collective purposeful gathering, fishing and driven hunting; maintaining the fire in the hearth, they used it for cooking and hunting for large predators, whose skins were used to make clothes and warm their homes. Thanks to this, the Neanderthal species not only survived a sharp deterioration in the climate (in Europe) and the subsequent ice age, but also settled in vast regions of Eurasia.

People of the Neanderthal species began to make the first burials of the dead. The oldest of them (made 70/50 thousand years ago) were found in. Le Moustier and La Ferrassi caves (on the territory of France), in Kiik-Koba in the Crimea (now the territory of the CIS), in the Shanidar cave (on the territory of Iraq) and other areas of the expanding ecumene. The appearance of burials testifies to the development among ancient people (the period of transition from a primitive human herd to an early primitive tribal community) of initial abstract ideas about the afterlife, the cult of the dead, rituals - that is, the formation of abstract thinking and the final separation of man from the animal kingdom as a being social. This is also confirmed by a significant decrease in cannibalism and more frequent finds of the skeletons of seriously ill ancient people who could survive only under the protection of a collective of relatives and receiving a sufficient amount of food that they themselves did not get. So, in the cave of La Chapelle (on the territory of France), a skeleton of a male paleoanthrope was found, who died at the age of about 45, being a complete cripple "(deforming arthritis of the spine, arthritis of the lower jaw and hip fracture). Nine skeletons of seriously ill patients were found in the Shanidar cave ancient people buried in the period from 70 to 44 thousand years ago.

Archaeological and paleopathological studies in the Shanidar cave, conducted under the guidance of the American archaeologist R. S. Solecki R. S., also provided the first reliable information about the purposeful use of medicinal plants by primitive man. Analysis of numerous soil samples from the burial of Shanidar-IV male showed that he was buried on a bed of tree branches and medicinal flowers of eight species. Among them were yarrow (Achillea), centaury (Centaurium), ragwort (Senecio), ephedra (Ephedra), marshmallow (Althaea). from the Malvaceae family, a plant of the genus Muscary from the lily family (Liliaceae), etc. All of them were tied into bouquets and laid out at the level of the torso and at the base of the feet. Plants of these species still grow in northern Iraq to this day. Moreover, some of them were found in the Zagros mountains, at a fairly large distance from the Shanidar cave. Apparently, relatives specially visited the slopes of distant mountains, deliberately collecting these medicinal plants.

The discovery of "flower people" (as RS Solecki called them) was made in 1960. This is the first and so far the only reliable evidence of the use of medicinal plants by ancient hominids of the Neanderthal species.

MEDICAL DURING THE FLOWING OF PRIMARY SOCIETY

(about 40 thousand years ago - X millennium BC)

The heyday of primitive society began in the era of the Upper Paleolithic. By this time, the process of anthropogenesis was finally completed, the ecumene expanded significantly. The development of primitive collectivism, tool technology, the invention of the bow and arrow (XIV-VII millennia BC) led to a further rise in productive forces and an improvement in the organization of human society, i.e., social relations. During the heyday of primitive society, this was expressed in the emergence of a communal-tribal system, first in the form of an early tribal community of hunters, gatherers and fishermen, and then in the form of a more developed late tribal community of farmers and pastoralists. The early tribal community of hunters, gatherers and fishermen (the era of the Upper Paleolithic and partly of the Mesolithic) was a fully formed human society.

Along with primitive collectivism, one of the leading characteristics of the genus is a unilinear (unilinear) kinship account. Historically, ideas about kinship on the maternal side developed earlier than ideas about kinship on the paternal side; this explains the fact that in the early stages of sociogenesis, consanguinity was established between the descendants of one mother, i.e., matrilineally (matrilineal organization of the genus).

A developed (late) tribal community of farmers and pastoralists (Mesolithic, Neolithic) is characterized primarily by the transition from an appropriating economy to a producing economy - agriculture (from the 9th-3rd millennia BC) and breeding of domestic animals (from the 8th-3rd millennia BC). e.). According to most researchers, agriculture originated in the Eastern Mediterranean region and on the territory of the modern states of Iraq and Iran. This is confirmed by archaeological research and photographs taken from space. During the period of the late tribal community, the dog, sheep, goat, bull and horse were domesticated; ceramics, spinning and weaving, wheeled transport and a sailboat were invented; the construction of buildings made of bricks and underground mining of stone have been mastered. By the end of the period (4th millennium BC), pictorial writing began to develop from painting - pictography. Medicine in this period of human history developed in close interaction with both rational and irrational ideas about the world around. The result of a rational worldview was positive knowledge and methods of healing. Rich material for their reconstruction is provided by studies of traditional medicine of synpolitean societies of the aborigines of Australia, America, Oceania, who lived in the recent past, according to archaeological terminology, in the Stone Age. Thus, the natives of Australia, widely using the flora and fauna of their continent, used castor oil, eucalyptus resin and orchid bulbs to treat digestive disorders; stopped bleeding with cobwebs, ash or iguana fat; with snake bites, they sucked out blood and cauterized the wound; in case of skin diseases, urine was washed and clay was applied.

Primitive healers also knew the methods of surgical treatment: they treated wounds with medicines prepared from plants, minerals and parts of animals; used "tires" for fractures; they knew how to make bloodletting, using thorns and thorns of plants, fish scales, stone and bone knives. However, the empirical knowledge of primitive man, obtained as a result of practical experience, was still very limited. Primitive man could not foresee or explain the causes of natural disasters, to understand the phenomena of nature around him. His impotence before nature gave rise to fantastic irrational ideas about the world around him. On this basis, already in the period of the early tribal community, the first religious ideas (totemism, fetishism, animism, magic) began to emerge, which were also reflected in the methods of healing.

Totemism (Algonquian. from-otem - his kind) - a person's belief in the existence of a close family relationship between his genus and a certain type of animal or plant (for example, a kangaroo or eucalyptus). The totem was not worshiped, he was considered a "father", "elder brother", a protector from troubles and illnesses. Totemism was an ideological reflection of the connection of the clan with its natural environment. The early tribal community was characterized mainly by zoomorphic totemism, that is, the veneration of animals.

Fetishism (Portuguese fetico - amulet, talisman) - Belief in the supernatural properties of inanimate objects. At first, this belief extended to tools (for example, a particularly successful spear), fruit-bearing trees or useful household items, that is, it had a completely material basis. Subsequently, fetishes began to be made specifically as cult objects and received an idealistic interpretation. This is how amulets and talismans appeared (from plague, cholera, wounds in battle, etc.).

Animism (lat. anima, animus - soul, spirit) - belief in souls, spirits and universal spiritualization of nature. It is believed that these representations are associated with early forms of the cult of the dead.

Magic (greya, mageia - witchcraft) - belief in the ability of a person to supernaturally influence other people, objects, events or natural phenomena. Not yet understanding the true connection between events and natural phenomena and misinterpreting random coincidences, primitive man tried using special techniques (magic actions) to cause the desired result (weather changes, good luck hunting or recovery from illness).

Among the numerous varieties of magic was healing magic - the healing of wounds and ailments, based on cult practice. At first, cult practice was not a secret: simple ceremonies and rituals could be performed by anyone. Over time, the development of beliefs and the complication of rituals required a certain specialization. The circle of persons capable of assimilating them sharply narrowed, and cult actions began to be performed by the elders of the clan or the most skilled community members.

At the end of the Late Paleolithic, special sanctuaries began to be created in the depths of the caves, on the walls of which “clergymen” were also depicted. The most famous among them is a small polychrome image of a “sorcerer” (as scientists called it) in the cave of the Three Brothers in France - a half-bent figure with a long tail, human legs and animal paws, a long beard and deer horns.

The primitive cult practice finally took shape during the period of a developed tribal community, when the zoomorphic totemism of animal ancestors gradually transformed into anthropomorphic totemism and the cult of human ancestors - patrons of the clan (male ancestors - during the transition to patriarchy and female ancestors - during the transition to matriarchy).

The cult of ancestors was also reflected in the ideas of primitive man about the causes of diseases: the onset of an ailment was sometimes understood as the result of the spirit of a deceased ancestor entering the body of a sick person. Similar interpretations also influenced the methods of healing, the purpose of which was the expulsion of the spirit of the disease from the body of the patient. In a number of cases, this "expulsion" was carried out by quite natural means. So, the natives of America sucked out the "spirit of disease" with the help of a hollow buffalo horn (the prototype of modern cans). It was customary for many peoples to feed the patient with bitter food, unpleasant for the “inhabiting spirit” (it also included medicines). However, in general, the desire to expel the spirit of the disease from the body of the patient gave rise to a whole direction of cult practice - shamanism, which combined irrational rituals with the use of rational means and methods of healing.

The ritual ceremonies associated with the expulsion of the spirit of illness include trepanation of the skull, known from archaeological data from the 12th millennium BC. e. (Mesolithic), - it began to be produced only by a modern man - Homo sapiens.

The first trepanned skull of a fossil human on our planet was found in Latin America - in the region of Cusco (on the territory of Peru) in 1865. An analysis of numerous trepanned human skulls in Peru showed that in most cases (about 70%) trepanations ended successfully , as evidenced by the formation of callus along the edges of the holes. The absence of a callus indicates that the person died during or shortly after the operation.

The cause of trepanation is still a debatable issue. Most scientists believe that it was more often made for ritual purposes: the hole, as a rule, was made in the stereotypical zones of the brain skull. Perhaps the primitive man hoped that through the hole in the skull the spirit of the disease could easily leave the body of the patient.

At the same time, there is another point of view, which admits that trepanations in the primitive era were more often performed after a traumatic injury to the brain skull and were associated with the removal of bone fragments. Both points of view have the right to exist. However, for history: medicine, the very fact of successful (experienced) trepanation is fundamentally important, which indicates the reality of successful surgical interventions on the brain skull, which took place already in the periods of the late tribal community and the decomposition of primitive society.

MEDICINE IN THE PERIOD OF THE DECEPTION OF THE PRIMARY SOCIETY

(from 10 millennium BC)

The decomposition of the primitive communal system began in the X-V millennia BC. e. The main content of this process was the emergence of private property and private economy, classes and states. The decomposition of primitive society proceeded in two main forms: patriarchy and matriarchy, which developed in parallel. The most important event in the field of cultural development of mankind at the end of the primitive era was the invention in the 4th millennium BC. e. hieroglyphic writing. In the field of healing during this period, traditional skills and techniques were consolidated and developed, the range of medicines expanded, tools for healing were made from metal (copper, bronze, iron), help was developed for wounded community members during more frequent wars. Among the operational methods of healing, which were carried out in synpolitean tribes, which were at the stage of decomposition of primitive society, are amputations of limbs, and according to some sources, caesarean section.

During the period of decomposition of primitive society, the formation of class inequality led to intra-tribal stratification, the strengthening of tribal organization, and, consequently, to the strengthening of the cult of tribal patrons and religious ideas. This led to the emergence of professional clergymen. The scope of their activities included: the preservation and transmission of positive knowledge, the interpretation of customs and religious functions, healing, legal proceedings, etc. Often their main occupation was healing.

The medicine man knows the flora and fauna of the surrounding area perfectly, more than any of his fellow tribesmen, he is privy to the laws and customs of the tribe, unshakably preserves them and passes them on by inheritance. The training of healers was carried out individually. Knowledge was kept secret and passed on from parent to child or to the most capable child in the tribe chosen for this purpose.

MEDICINE IN THE COUNTRIES OF THE ANCIENT EAST

MEDICINE IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

MEDICINE IN SUMER (III millennium BC)

History From ancient times, the lands of Mesopotamia were inhabited by two peoples: the Sumerians, who occupied the southern Mesopotamia and about 3000 BC. e. created the first city-states in Mesopotamia, and their northern neighbors - the tribes of the Eastern Semites, who from the second half of the III millennium BC. e. began to be called Akkadians (after the name of their main settlement - the city of Akkad). The heyday of the Sumerian-Akkadian culture falls on the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. e. The Sumerians knew pottery, burned tiles and bricks, built city walls and temples, laid canals and irrigated fields, spun and weaved, built chariots and ships, forged from copper and bronze, created masterpieces of jewelry art, composed music and composed poetry. They laid the first foundations of arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, learned to calculate time and created the first written language in the history of mankind - cuneiform. The creation of writing led to the emergence of schools that were secular in Sumer. They were called "tablet houses" - e-dubba (Akkad. e-dub-da). Information about the teaching of medical knowledge in Sumerian schools is currently not available.

Development of medical knowledge During archaeological excavations of one of the most ancient Sumerian cities - Nippur (160 km from modern Baghdad) in 1889, a cuneiform tablet containing 15 recipes was found. Its text was written in Sumerian at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Thus, this is the oldest text of medical content that has come down to us and at the same time the oldest "pharmacopoeia" in the history of mankind. An analysis of the text of this tablet showed that the healers of Sumer used medicines primarily of plant origin in their practice: mustard, fir, pine, thyme, plum tree fruits, pears, figs, willow, the plant lecanora ("manna"), etc. The composition of medicines included oil, natural asphalt resin, table salt (i.e., products of mineral origin), as well as animal products: milk, internal organs of water snakes, tortoise shell, wool, etc. The Sumerian healer, who compiled a tablet from Nippura, in his practice, proceeded from empirical experience - there is not a single word about gods or demons in it; it does not contain spells or incantations that are found in the medical texts of ancient Mesopotamia of a later period. The plate had a practical application in the preparation of medicines. Its text is extremely concise. Unfortunately, the tablet does not contain indications for which ailments these medicines were to be used. The knowledgeable healer must have known this, especially since during this period of Mesopotamian history a significant amount of knowledge continued to be transmitted orally; only specific, precise information was recorded, the growing volume of which human memory could no longer retain.

One of the Mesopotamian tablets preserved an imprint of the seal of the Sumerian healer Ur-lugal-edinne, who lived in the city of Lagash in the 24th century. BC e. It depicts instruments for healing and vessels for medicines. Every free person had a seal in ancient Sumer. It was a small carved stone cylinder with a hole along the longitudinal axis, through which a string was threaded. She wore it around her neck and always had it with her. When compiling important documents, the seal was rolled over a wet clay tablet and served in ancient Sumer as a signature that appeared later.

Strict hygienic traditions based on the collective experience of the people have long been developed in Sumer: do not drink water from unclean dishes, do not extend unwashed hands to the gods, limit yourself to a certain kind of food, etc. The most stringent requirements were imposed on the priest: in front of the statue of the god, the Sumerian the priest had to appear thoroughly washed and clean-shaven from head to toe (one of the reasons for this custom was to prevent lice, i.e. head lice).

MEDICINE IN BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA

(II millennium - middle of the 1st millennium BC)

History The Babylonian kingdom reached its highest prosperity and power in the Old Babylonian period during the time of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC), one of the most prominent rulers of antiquity, who united under his rule the scattered lands of Mesopotamia and created a powerful state that included the entire Lower and most of Upper Mesopotamia. They achieved great success in agriculture and pottery, in the manufacture of fabrics and the production of metals, in the development of law and the development of architecture, linguistics, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.

The powerful neighbor of Babylonia was the Assyrian kingdom. Its original capital was the city of Ashur. During the Sargonid dynasty (end of the 8th-7th centuries BC), the city of Nineveh became the capital of the kingdom. Assyria reached its highest power under Ashurbanipal (c. 668-626 BC), whose aggressive campaigns significantly expanded the boundaries of the kingdom.

At the same time, this cruel king created the largest royal repository of cuneiform texts in the world at that time (the so-called “library” of Ashurbanapal). At the behest of the king, cuneiform tablets were copied in all territories subject to him and brought to Nineveh. Thus, almost all Sumerian and Akkadian literature was collected in originals and copies: texts on philosophy, religion, mathematics, astronomy, business correspondence, divination, etc. Some of the tablets of this collection are devoted to describing diseases and methods of their treatment.

For centuries, in culture and natural science, Assyria adhered mainly to Babylonian traditions. This allows us to speak of the Babylonian-Assyrian culture (and healing) as a whole.

TASKS FOR INDEPENDENT WORK ON THE TOPIC "MEDICINE IN THE PRIMARY SOCIETY"

TASK #1. Fill in the table "Periodization of the history of medicine":

Table. Periodization of the history of medicine

№ pp	History period (civilization- approach)	Period of history (formational approach)	Chronological framework period	Absolute age period	Characteristic features of medicine and its features
	ANCIENT WORLD (Primitive society)	Primitive communal	200000 to 40000 From 40000 to 4000	42 thousand years 2040000 thousand years	Collective medicine, cults, Religious beliefs, magic
	ANCIENT WORLD but ) The Ancient East (Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China) b ) ancient world (Greece and Rome)	slaveholding	4 thousand BC-mid 1 thousand BC	About 4 thousand years	medical ethics, embalming, Mummification, medical Specialization, Ayurveda, Temple Healing, Hippocratic Collection, Sanitary facilities, hospital business.
	MIDDLE AGES a) Byzantium b) Arab East c) Western Europe d) America e) Ancient Russia	feudal	476 - mid-17th century	About 1200 years old	Alchemy, teachings on eye diseases, medical schools in Salerno, epidemics, ceremonies, Empirical principles in medicine, healers, herbalists.
	NEW TIME a) Western Europe b) Russia	capitalist	Mid 17th - early 20th century	About 300 years	International character of sciences, anatomy, general pathology, microbiology, physiological therapy, surgery, hygiene.
	MODERN TIME (modern history)	Communist/Capitalist	Since 1918 (20th century)	About 100 years old.	Nobel Prizes, Red Cross and Red Crescent Organization, WHO, medical ethics, medical oath.

TASK #2. Define concepts and terms :

Anthropogenesis is part of the biological evolution that led to the emergence of Homo sapiens, separated from other hominids.

Homo erectus - upright man, the presence of speech centers, pronounced sociality

Homo habilis is a skilled person. Features: bipedalism, progressive development of the hand, dental system, neuromorphological progress.

Homo sapiens - neoanthrope, supplanted the palenthrope, because. possessed a more advanced technique of tools.

Sociogenesis is the process of historical and evolutionary formation of society.

Paleopathology is a science that studies the diseases of humans and animals that lived on Earth in remote times.

Paleontology is the science of extinct plants and animals preserved as fossils, of their change in time and space, of all manifestations of life available to study in the genealogical past.

Empirical knowledge is knowledge gained through experience.

Irrational knowledge is knowledge acquired subconsciously.

Fetishism is the belief in the supernatural properties of inanimate objects.

Totemism is the belief of a person in the existence of a close family relationship between his genus and a certain type of animal or plant.

Animism is the belief in souls, spirits and the universal spiritualization of nature.

Animatism is the belief in the existence of a supernatural force that is ubiquitous and influences people's lives.

Healing magic is the healing of wounds and ailments based on cult practices (ceremonies and rituals).

Rational knowledge is logically substantiated, theoretically conscious, systematized universal features of the subject.

Craniotomy is a surgical operation to create a hole in the bone tissue of the skull in order to access the underlying cavity.

Scarification - scarification, scarring, the custom of applying to the skin of the face and body a pattern of scars (scars), into which inflammatory compounds are rubbed.

Emerging medicine - medicine (healing) at the stage of formation of primitive man and the collective pattern of life, medicine at a conscious level.

TASK № 3.draw conclusions about the topic :

- What direction of medicine came out of the depths of primitive society? Define

Traditional medicine is a part of alternative medicine, which includes knowledge about diseases, methods and means of their treatment, which are passed on from generation to generation among the people.

What are the features of traditional medicine? Highlight a few features.

Traditional medicine uses only natural natural products, without chemicals. In its composition, it is closer to a person, folk remedies are cheaper than traditional medicinal ones. Traditional medicine does not affect a specific disease, but the whole organism as a whole.

History of medicine is a science that studies the formation and development of medical theory and practice in various socio-economic formations in close connection with the general culture of mankind.

1. The history of medicine as part of the culture and history of mankind. Definition of the concepts of "doctoring" and "medicine". Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine.

The history of medicine is an independent subject that is studied in higher medical schools. Her teaching makes it possible to enrich the spiritual world of students, to acquaint them with the history of their future profession, reveals the development of healing, reveals achievements in medicine, and instills a sense of professional medical ethics.

Definition of the concepts of "doctoring" and "medicine".

The process of action by value. verb: to heal Doctor1) Engage in treatment (usually traditional medicine). 2). Heal, facilitate mental suffering, bring release from smth. unpleasant, difficult, etc.

Medicine (lat. "medico" - I treat, heal) - a system of scientific knowledge and practical activities aimed at maintaining and strengthening people's health, preventing and treating diseases.

Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine.

The past of medicine is recreated on the basis of the study of facts and sources. All historical sources are divided into 7 main groups: written, material (material), ethnographic, oral (folklore), linguistic, film and photo documents, sound documents.

Written sources are a handwritten or printed document made on papyrus, ceramics, paper, stone, clay, wood, bark, etc. They can be authentic or copies.

Material (material) sources, the main part of which are archaeological sites, include anthropological material (human fossils

Ethnographic sources characterize the phenomena of cultural and social life inherited by mankind from previous eras. These include superstitions, rituals, beliefs, customs, beliefs, etc.

Oral (folklore) sources are created by the people and characterized by an oral form of transmission of images of reality.

Linguistic sources - a reflection in speech form of real historical reality.

Sound documents reflect the sound side of a historical fact and represent a soundtrack made at the time of the event.

2. Hippocrates. Collection of Hippocrates. The system of theoretical ideas of Hippocrates. Principles of medical art of Hippocrates.

Hippocrates- the famous ancient Greek healer and doctor. He went down in history as the "father of medicine".

Collection of Hippocrates.

The first collection of writings of ancient Greek doctors, the Hippocratic Collection, was compiled many years after the death of Hippocrates, in the 3rd century BC. It is not known exactly what part of these works belongs to the disciples of Hippocrates, what part - to himself: according to the tradition of that time, doctors did not sign their writings. The works, which reflect the medical ideas of the Greeks, are united by the name of Hippocrates. According to ancient historians, "the books written by Hippocrates are known and valued by everyone who comes into contact with medical science as the voice of God, and not as coming from human lips."

Most researchers believe that the most outstanding works of the Hippocratic Collection belong to Hippocrates himself. Let's name some of them:

1. "Aphorisms" (from the Greek "aphorismos" - a complete thought). They contain instructions for the treatment of diseases. The “Aphorisms” begin with the well-known words: “Life is short, the path of art is long, opportunity is fleeting, experience is deceptive, judgment is difficult. Therefore, not only the doctor himself should use everything that is necessary, but also the patient, and those around him, and all external circumstances should contribute to the doctor in his activity.

2. "Prognostics" (from the Greek "prognosis" - foresight, prediction). This essay describes in detail the elements that make up the prognosis of the disease (observation, examination and questioning of the patient), outlines the basics of observation and treatment at the patient's bedside.

3. "Epidemics" (from the Greek "epidemia" - an epidemic disease). The word "epidemics" in ancient Greece was understood not as infectious, contagious diseases, but as those that were widespread and especially common in a particular area.

4. "About airs, waters and localities." This is the first medical work of the Greeks that has come down to us, which discusses the causes of diseases depending on the specific properties of the surrounding nature. It was believed that a person's place of residence (south, east, highlands, fertile valley, marshland, etc.) determines his character and physique, as well as his tendency to certain diseases.

The system of theoretical ideas of Hippocrates. (inserted as a picture, so the first 2 words are superfluous)

Principles of medical art of Hippocrates.

Since the time of Hippocrates, uniform ethical principles have developed in medicine. Here are the main ones:

· All the doctor's actions should be directed only to the benefit of the patient, and not to the detriment (if the doctor can foresee it in advance).

· Actions that can cause suffering to the patient and his relatives should be avoided.

· Actions taken by a doctor should not harm other people, including patients.

· Decisions of the doctor are based on the provisions of modern science.

· The doctor has no right to look at the patient as a source of enrichment.

· The doctor is obliged to keep confidential information concerning the patient's health and circumstances of his life, which became known in the course of treatment.

The system of theoretical ideas of Hippocrates.

The unity of the organism and the natural sphere, the natural connection of life phenomena with natural phenomena, consideration of the organism in its perpetual motion and change - these are the main starting positions of Hippocrates in building the system. The Universe is one and material, its diversity is determined by the movement and various combinations of the main primary matter. Consequently, the whole life of the organism, its diseases should be explained not by manifestations of the divine will or an evil spirit, but by natural causes - the influence of natural phenomena. The life of an organism, according to Hippocrates, is determined by 4 juices (or liquids), which are based on various combinations of the primary principles of nature (heat, cold, humidity and dryness). Everything in the universe is in perpetual motion. Consequently, the disease is also a changing phenomenon, in a healthy body the fluids must be mixed in the correct proportion, the violation of which under the influence of natural factors means the onset of the disease. from here flowed many other ideas of Hippocrates, which were long ahead of the era - faith in the healing properties of nature and the task of using the natural properties of the body by the doctor, the requirement to observe the patient at the bedside and guesses about the influence of people's living conditions on their health, etc. and no matter how naive some of the theoretical positions of Hippocrates were with the position of modern medicine, the connection of his humoral theory with the original materialistic principles of ancient Greek philosophy is undeniable.

A manual on the topic of the lesson: an introduction to the history of dentistry

Introduction

The history of mankind begins with the appearance of man on Earth. Modern historical science defines two eras in the development of mankind: non-literate (primitive or pre-class) and written (from the 4th millennium BC). The history of the primitive era covers the period from the appearance of man (about 2 million years ago) to the formation of the first class societies and states (4th millennium BC). despite the absence of writing (and written history), this period is an integral part of the world-historical process of human development and cannot be defined as "prehistory", "prehistory", and primitive man - as "prehistoric". This era covers 99% of the entire history of mankind.

In the bowels of the development of mankind, the origins of all subsequent spiritual and material achievements were formed: thinking and consciousness, tool (or labor) activity, speech, languages, agriculture, cattle breeding, social division of labor, marriage and family, art and religious beliefs, morality and ethics, healing and hygiene skills. An analysis of this path from the very beginning is a necessary link in an objective assessment of the historical development of medicine as a whole.

According to the stages of primitive history, 3 periods are determined in the development of primitive healing:

1. healing of the era of the fore-community (the longest period), when the initial accumulation and generalization of empirical knowledge about healing techniques and natural remedies (of plant, animal and mineral origin) took place;

2. healing of the era of the primitive community, when the purposeful application of the empirical experience of healing in social practice was developed and approved;

3. healing of the era of class formation, when the cult practice of healing (originated in the period of the late primitive community) was developing, the accumulation and generalization of empirical knowledge of healing (the collective experience of the community and the individual activities of professional healers) continued.

The history of dentistry in our country has not received such development as in the West. Even at present, there is not as much material on this issue as we would like. Despite the abundance of "dental specialties" that is now observed, dentistry for almost a whole millennium made extremely poor progress, which led to such consequences. Scientists, physicians, and surgeons have for a long time attached only cosmetic significance to this medical branch. For them, it was one of many medical disciplines, and even then, not the most important. Uncertified representatives of these professions, due to the lack of necessary knowledge, were not able to improve and develop this industry. But meanwhile, knowledge of this subject is of undoubted interest in many respects.

Firstly, the natural desire to know the history of the emergence and development of the branch of human knowledge to which he devoted himself is inherent in every person. Knowing how, step by step, as a result of centuries-old work of outstanding scientists and practitioners, a scientific foundation is being laid for empirical methods, helps to see a holistic picture of modern dentistry. But acquaintance is important not only because it satisfies our curiosity. Knowledge of history allows us to avoid past mistakes, and also, based on the patterns of formation of this medical industry, to understand the direction of its subsequent development.

The history of medicine, and the history of dentistry in particular, clearly reflects the shifts and fundamental changes taking place in it in connection with changes in society. Each socio-economic formation is characterized by certain features of medical theory and practice.

The medicine of the ancient peoples of the East, with the exception of the Hindus, did not rise above primitive empiricism. She dealt only with the treatment of individual painful symptoms. Her successes are mainly in the field of medicines and partly in surgery. The desire to know the whole human body as a whole, to find out the essence of diseases and to connect them with one common system, was alien to oriental medicine. In the period of the 6th-5th centuries BC, the political power of the countries of the East was in decline. They fall under the rule of new state formations that arise on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea - Greece and Rome. Simultaneously with political influence, influence in the field of science, culture, as well as medicine, which at all times bears the stamp of a general worldview and cultural level of the era, also passes to these peoples. The emergence of rational medicine is historically associated with this era.

Dentistry in Greece

The era of Greco-Roman medicine represents a huge step forward in comparison with the medicine of the Eastern peoples, although the latter undoubtedly had a certain influence on its development. In Greece, especially in a later period, eminent philosophers appear for the first time - doctors who are not content with crude symptomatization. They study human anatomy and physiology, create various theories that seek to explain the cause of diseases, and most importantly, ways to treat and prevent them. Despite the fact that from a modern point of view their views are naive, nevertheless, they laid the foundation for the method on the basis of which all scientific medicine subsequently developed.

According to M.O. Kovarsky, the reason for the relatively low level of development of Eastern medicine should be sought in the religion of the East, which enslaved the psyche and mind of a person, paralyzed any possibility of independent thinking. All natural phenomena were considered as a manifestation of the will of a good or evil deity. This religious outlook doomed the Eastern peoples to mental stagnation and handed them over to the power of the younger and more viable peoples of the West.

The religion of the Greeks, whose gods were attributed human traits, was devoid of those frightening and overwhelming elements of the human mind, which we saw among the Egyptians or the Babylonians. Characteristic of the Hellenic spirit, along with cheerfulness, inquisitiveness, the desire to penetrate into the essence of things, found their expression in Greek art and philosophy. The famous philosophers and doctors of ancient Greece - Pythagoras, Aristotle, Plato and Heraclitus - sought to cover the entire world accessible to them with one general idea and built various ideas of the universe based on observations of the surrounding natural phenomena. The range of these phenomena included the human body, its structure and activity in a healthy and diseased state. Thus, Greek medicine was closely associated with philosophy and in its methods proceeded from one or another philosophical system of understanding of the world. In Greek medicine of the 5th century we already find all those elements on the basis of which scientific medicine subsequently developed: the study of human anatomy and physiology, the view of the disease as a manifestation of a general disorder of vitality, the desire to combat it by strengthening the body, an accurate study of the patient, diagnosis. These provisions reached a special development with the great Greek physician Hippocrates, who is called the "father of medicine."

Hippocrates

Hippocrates was born at the beginning of the 5th century BC on the island of Kos and came from a family of doctors who were considered descendants of Aesculapius (Asklepiada). According to K. Marx, he lived in the period of "the highest internal flowering of Greece." During his almost hundred years of life, he, being a periodical doctor, visited many countries of the East, the cities of Greece, the lands of Asia Minor, Scythia, the eastern coast of the Black Sea, Libya, and possibly Egypt. He was a physician-philosopher who combined great medical experience with a deep understanding of people and the nature around them. He practiced medicine in various cities of Greece and left behind numerous writings, which for almost two thousand years served as a dogma for doctors and the basis of medical science. There is no doubt that many of the works attributed to him actually belong to his students and followers, but they are all united by the common name of the "Hippocratic Corpus".

The well-known aphorisms of Hippocrates, which expressed the essence of his medical views, testify as much to his deep penetration into the meaning of medical intervention and the role of the doctor as to the extraordinary power of thought and observation.

– “In medicine,” says Hippocrates, “there are three things: the disease, the patient, and the doctor; the doctor is the servant of his science, and the patient must fight the disease together with him.

- "The doctor must keep in mind two points: to strive to help the patient and not to harm."

“In the body, everything is one harmonious whole; all parts are coordinated with each other and everything is directed towards one common action.

According to the teachings of Hippocrates, the human body is constructed from 4 main juices (humoral theory): blood, mucus, black and yellow bile. The healthy state of the body depends on the balance of these juices. Its violation leads to various diseases. These disorders also underlie dental diseases, the description of which is scattered throughout the various books of Hippocrates and his followers.

Toothache occurs because mucus penetrates to the roots of the teeth. Damage to the teeth is due either to mucus or food, if the tooth is by nature weak and poorly strengthened. Diseases of the teeth and gums are also observed in diseases of other organs: the liver, spleen, stomach, and female genital organs. According to his theory of the origin of diseases, Hippocrates also treats toothache mainly by general means: bloodletting, laxatives, emetics, and a strict diet. Drugs, rinsing with a beaver stream, infusion of pepper, poultices from lentil broth, astringents (alum), etc. are applied locally. Hippocrates resorts to tooth extraction only in cases where the tooth is loose. “If pain appears in the tooth, then it should be removed if it is destroyed and mobile. If it is not destroyed and sits firmly, then it is burned and dried; drooling agents also help.” Apparently, here he used a saliva (pyrethrum), which in ancient times was credited with the ability to cause a diseased tooth to fall out.

The fact that Hippocrates removed only weakly seated teeth that were easy to extract is also evident from the fact that he considered extraction an art that did not need to be learned, because. it is available to everyone: "As for the extraction forceps, everyone can handle them, because the way to use them is simple and obvious." The fact that Hippocrates and his contemporaries avoided extracting firmly seated teeth can only be explained by the imperfection of the extraction forceps they used. The latter were made, apparently, from such a soft material as lead, which did not make it possible to develop the force necessary for difficult extraction. An example of such lead tongs from the Alexandrian era, Hierophilus, was kept in the temple of Apollo at Delphi.

Instead of removing firmly seated teeth, various means were resorted to, which, supposedly, were supposed to cause spontaneous loosening and loss of the diseased tooth. In Hippocrates, we first meet the case history and description of the clinical course of various kinds of dental diseases - from pulpitis to alveolar abscess and bone necrosis:

“Aspasia's wife developed severe pain in her tooth and chin; gargling with beaver and pepper gave her relief. The son of Metrodorus, as a result of a toothache, developed a hot ulcer on his jaws; growths on the gums secreted a lot of pus, his teeth and bone fell off. It is fatal if fever and delirium (sepsis) join strong toothaches and necrosis of the tooth; if the patient survives, then abscesses appear and pieces of bone come off.

Hippocrates learned from observation of patients that the first molar is more often damaged than other teeth, and that the result of this is "thick discharge from the nose and pains extending to the temples (sinusitis)"; wisdom teeth are also destroyed more often than others. The following descriptions of Hippocrates also reveal the sharp observation of Hippocrates: in whom the bone containing the teeth departs, the tip of the nose is flattened. Sharp-headed ones, in which the palate is high and the teeth are not properly set, so that some protrude outward, others inward, suffer from headaches and leakage from the ears.

In the book of the seventh work of Epidemics, Hippocrates cites many cases confirming the importance of modern dental treatment: “Cardias, the son of Metrodorus, had gangrene of the jaw and severe inflammation of the lips from a toothache, a lot of pus flowed out, and teeth fell out.”

We find in Hippocrates a description of various diseases of the gums and oral cavity: gingivitis, stomatitis, scorbutus, diseases of the tongue. Children's illnesses accompanying teething are also described in detail: fever, diarrhea, convulsions, cough. But he mistakenly believed that milk teeth are formed from mother's milk. The surgical methods used by Hippocrates for the treatment of dislocation and fracture of the jaws testify to his great skill in this area and differ little from modern methods.

“If the teeth (in case of a fracture of the jaw) on the affected side are displaced and loosened, then after the bone is set in place, tie the teeth, not only two, but more, best with the help of gold wire, until the bone strengthened."

In the works of Hippocrates, we find little information on human anatomy and physiology; this is explained by the fact that the laws of that time strictly forbade the dissection of corpses, and the structure of the human body was judged by analogy with the animal world.

Aristotle

The great Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 BC), who lived a century later than Hippocrates, studies in more detail the structure and functions of the body, including the dental system. He laid the foundations of Natural Science and Comparative Anatomy (including Dental Anatomy). In one of his books, On Different Parts of Animals, there is a chapter devoted to the study of teeth. In his book, History of Animals, he compares the dental systems of various animals. In describing the functions of the various classes of teeth, he was very precise. It seems surprising, however, that the brilliant Greek scientists-philosophers did not see the need to conduct careful experiments, and to compare and analyze their observations before drawing final conclusions. As a result, errors like Aristotle's assertion that men have more teeth than women were accepted and perpetuated for eighteen centuries. Aristotle also erroneously believed that teeth grow throughout life, which explains their elongation in the absence of an antagonist.

But Aristotle must be given credit for some very astute observations and conclusions. He knew that there were blood vessels in the tooth, that the molars did not change and erupted later than other teeth. In his book Problems, he wondered why figs, despite their sweet taste and softness, damage teeth. He came to the conclusion that perhaps the smallest particles of figs penetrate the tooth and cause the process of decay. But he was not supported, and for many centuries no other scientists, except for him, made a connection between sweet fruits and caries.

Therapy and prevention of dental diseases

The practice of oral hygiene was introduced slowly in Greece. Aristotle's student Theophrastus (372-287 BC) wrote that it was considered a virtue to have white teeth and brush them often. In his famous "Natural History of Plants" Theophrastus also described the healing properties of medicinal plants (marshmallow, walnut, calendula, sea buckthorn, skumpia, etc.), which are still used in dental practice to this day.

Of the doctors of a later era, Diocles of Caristus (4th century BC) deserves mention; the remedy for toothache attributed to him has been widely used for many centuries. This remedy consists of gum resin, opium, pepper, which are mixed with wax and placed in the hollow of the tooth. Diocles also points to the need for oral hygiene; he recommends in the morning, at the same time as washing the face and eyes, rub the teeth and gums inside and out with just a finger or with the juice of crushed palea (heart mint) to remove food debris.

Yet regular prophylaxis was not widespread until Greece became a province of Rome. Under Roman influence, the Greeks learned to use materials such as talc, pumice, gypsum, coral and corundum powder, and iron rust to clean their teeth. It is known that in a later period in Greece, a toothpick made of mastic wood (Greek schinos) was in great use. The inhabitants of Athens, for their habit of constantly picking their teeth with it, were called "toothpick chewers" (Greek schinotroges). Hippocrates gives only a remedy for eliminating bad breath, obviously of a cosmetic nature, since it is intended for women. The recipe for this remedy is:

“If a woman has bad breath, and the gums look bad, then you should burn the head of a hare and three mice - each separately, and the insides of two mice are first removed, except for the kidneys and liver; then grind together with marble in a mortar, sift through a sieve and clean teeth and gums with this powder; then wipe your teeth and mouth with sweaty sheep's wool smeared with honey; for rinsing are used: anise, dill, myrrh, dissolved in white wine. These remedies, called Indian, make the teeth white and give them a pleasant smell.

The above recipe for tooth powder appears to have been borrowed by Hippocrates from folk medicine of the time, as bears an imprint of superstition not characteristic of this great physician. Among later writers, for a very long period, almost down to modern times, superstition in the field of dentistry, as we shall see later, was widespread; various mystical objects, and most often the organs of mice, hares and toads, are their favorite means of dental therapy and hygiene.

In the 3rd century BC, a new center of Greek culture arose in Alexandria, founded by Alexander the Great in the Nile Delta. Thanks to the patronage of sciences and arts on the part of the rulers of Egypt from the Ptolemaic family, scientists from all over the ancient world flock here, the famous Library of Alexandria is created, which contained over 500,000 scrolls and, according to legend, was burned by the Arabs in the XII century when they took Alexandria. Along with other sciences, medicine is developing here, especially anatomy, due to the fact that the rulers of Alexandria not only did not prohibit the dissection of corpses, but even patronized it. The well-known Alexandrian physicians and clinicians Erisistratus and Hierophilos were also engaged in dentistry, however, they did not give anything new in this area compared to Hippocrates.

Surgical instruments of ancient Greece

In one of his works, Aristotle described iron tongs (Greek Sideros - iron), built on the same principle as modern extraction tongs, i.e. consisting of two levers, the fulcrum of which is in the lock connecting them. Now these tongs are kept in the National Museum in Athens. The well-known German medical historian Karl Sudhoff in his "Geschichte der Medizin" studied them in detail. These forceps, not adapted to the anatomical shape of the alveoli, were very primitive and were not suitable for extracting firmly seated teeth. Zudgof measured their dimensions in open and closed form, establishing that the distance between the extreme "captures" of the cheeks of the forceps was 3 mm, and their length did not exceed 64 mm.

Forceps in ancient Greece were used not only to remove teeth, they were also used to remove deep-seated arrowheads and bone fragments from the body. The forceps were small in size and consisted of 3 parts: long handles, a lock and rounded cheeks to grip the crown. The ends of the handles were button-shaped or platform-shaped. The cheeks of the forceps could be barrel-shaped, wide and narrow, but they did not correspond to the anatomical shape of the tooth. Such forceps did not make it possible to use great force, with a tight pressure on the tooth, its crown could break. They could be used only after preliminary loosening of the tooth. The latter circumstance limited the indication for tooth extraction and did not contribute to the development of extraction techniques. This explains the fear of extraction, as a dangerous operation, not only among ancient authors, but also in the period of Arabic medicine and even the Middle Ages.

Dentistry in Rome

For the first time in the century A.D., Greek slaves and freedmen, and later famous Greek doctors who voluntarily settled in Rome, like Soranus or Galen, attracted by the world fame of this center of ancient culture, were engaged in healing in Rome for the first time in the century of our era. Many of them later reached a prominent position and fame, acquired numerous students, and some, like Antony Musa, the physician of Caesar Augustus, were even ranked among the nobility.

However, in the masses, Greek doctors enjoyed a bad reputation, and a free Roman citizen considered it below his dignity to practice medicine as a profession. Satirists of that time repeatedly ridicule doctors for their quackery, greed, and pursuit of rich clients. Pliny also gives an unflattering characterization to his contemporaries, doctors: “There is no doubt,” he says, “that they all trade in our lives in order to become famous for something new. Hence the heated arguments at the bedside of the sick, since neither shares the views of the other. Hence the ill-fated inscription on the grave monument: "He died from the confusion of doctors." The famous Galen asserts that "the only difference between robbers and doctors is that some commit their crimes in the mountains, while others in Rome."

The division of doctors according to specialties, which began in Alexandria, reached great development in Rome: obstetricians, eye doctors, dentists, women's doctors, doctors who treated dropsy, skin diseases. Treatment methods also varied greatly. Some were treated only with gymnastics, others with wine, others with water, etc. Physicians usually practiced at home, but some established hospitals or outpatient clinics - tabernae medicinae - furnished with a special brilliance that impressed the patients. Often these tabernae did not differ from barbershops and served as a gathering place for onlookers.

Invited to the home of the sick, well-known doctors usually appeared accompanied by their many students, who, together with the teacher, carried out an examination of the patient and listened to his explanations. The social conditions of imperial Rome were in many respects similar to those that currently exist in the capitalist countries: the same poverty in the lower classes, and along with this the insane extravagance, idleness and gluttony of the Roman nobility, owners of slaves and vast latifundia. This similarity of the social situation also created similar conditions in relation to diseases of the body and, in particular, the masticatory apparatus. Tooth decay was almost as common among the inhabitants of Rome as it is today. Lenhossek, who made a study of skulls from Roman sarcophagi, found over 80% of them with carious teeth. An unhealthy life and the gluttony of the Roman patricians, known from history, usually led to another disease - to the so-called alveolar pyorrhea and all kinds of gum diseases. Most medical writers of that era also describe premature loosening and loss of teeth.

Information about dentistry in the early period of Roman history is very scarce. From the era of imperial Rome, medical writings of two authors dating back to the first century of our era have been preserved: Cornelius Celsus and Pliny the Elder. Both came from noble Roman families and were not practical doctors. Although the profession of a doctor was considered at that time unworthy of a Roman citizen, Celsus and Pliny, like many educated patricians of that time, devoted their leisure time to the study of various sciences, including natural science.

Cornelius Celsus

Cornelius Celsus left behind a rich literary heritage, among which are works on agriculture, military affairs, rhetoric; his eight books on medicine and called "De re medica" contain such extensive information on dentistry that Celsus, not without reason, is considered one of the most knowledgeable dental authors of antiquity. Contemporaries called him the "Roman Hippocrates" and "Cicero of Medicine".

In his medical views, Celsus, like all Roman authors, is entirely under the influence of Hippocrates and the Greek doctors of the Alexandrian era. However, he does not follow any particular school, but is an eclectic, i.e. takes from each school what seems most correct to its critical mind. He rejects the purely empirical method, since in his opinion, only knowledge of the essence of the disease and an accurate diagnosis can determine the correct therapy.

Separate chapters are devoted to dentistry in the medical writings of Celsus. His anatomical information about the teeth is more perfect than that of Hippocrates, although not without errors. A person has 32 teeth, not counting the wisdom teeth: 4 incisors - primores, 2 canines - canini, 10 molars - maxi-lares. Primores have one root each, maxilares: 2–4 roots. Short teeth have long roots, straight teeth have straight roots, crooked teeth have crooked roots. Permanent and milk teeth come from the same root. He does not know about the existence of the dental chamber and considers the tooth to be a massive formation.

The therapy of toothache, which Celsus lists as one of the greatest sufferings, is, like all authors of that time, mainly of a general nature: a strict diet - do not drink wine, eat little and only starchy food, laxatives, inhalation of water vapor, keeping the head in warmth, steam baths, distractions (yellow plaster on the shoulders). Locally warm poultices, rinsing with infusion of herbs, dip a toothpick wrapped in wool into oil and lubricate the gum near the tooth; drugs are also used: a decoction of henbane and poppy heads.

The insufficient effect of these remedies is obviously known to Celsus, since in one place he says that the only way to get rid of a toothache is to remove a bad tooth. However, he considers extraction a dangerous operation and recommends not rushing to extract the tooth. In extreme cases, if this cannot be avoided, then the tooth is removed with various compounds, and not with forceps. "Seeds of pepper or ivy (Epheu) placed in the hollow of a tooth split it and cause it to fall out."

Celsus describes tooth extraction as follows: before extraction, the gum around the entire tooth should be separated until it loosens, because. it is extremely dangerous to remove a firmly seated tooth in view of the possibility of damaging the eye and temples or dislocating the jaw. If possible, then remove the tooth with your fingers; only in extreme cases should resort to the help of tongs. If there is a large hollow in the tooth, then it is preliminarily made with lead wrapped in a cloth to avoid breaking off the crown. The tooth is extracted with forceps upwards (without luxation) to avoid breaking off the bone when the roots are bent. If severe bleeding occurs after extractions, then you can be sure that a bone has been broken off; in this case, you should find a fragment with a probe and remove it. When the crown is broken, the roots are removed with special forceps.

Samples of extraction tongs from that time have been found in what were once Roman camps in what is now Germany and Austria. They are rather neatly made of bronze or iron, and although more perfect in form than the Alexandrian forceps, they are still ill-suited to the extraction of firmly seated teeth.

Inflammations around the tooth, which Celsus calls parulis, are first treated by rubbing rock salt, field mint into the gum, rinsing with lentil tea or astringents, poultices on wool or hot sponges. If pus is formed, then it is necessary to open the abscess in a timely manner so that the bone does not become dead; if suppuration continues and a fistula is formed, then the tooth and sequester should be removed and the wound scraped out.

Ulcers on the mucosa are treated with pomegranate peel; in childhood they are dangerous and are called aphthae (Greek aphtai). Tongue ulcers can be caused by sharp edges of the teeth, which therefore need to be cut down.

Loose teeth are tied with gold wire and strengthened with astringent pomegranate peel or ink nuts. Against retraction of the gums (alveolar atrophy, pyorrhea), chewing of unripe apples and pears, weak vinegar is useful.

Celsus describes in great detail the fracture of the jaws, which at that time, the time of constant wars, seemed to be a frequent occurrence: displaced fragments are set in place, and the teeth are tied with horsehair. A double compress of flour, incense, wood (olive) oil and wine is applied to the patient, and all together is strengthened with a common bandage of a soft belt over the head; fracture healing occurs in 2-3 weeks.

Periodization of the world history of medicine. Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine. The value of medical and hygienic knowledge in the life of the primitive population of the modern territory of the Republic of Belarus

Modern periodization of world history and the history of medicine. 1 page

1. The history of medicine as part of the culture and history of mankind. Definition of the concepts of "doctoring" and "medicine". Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine.

2. Hippocrates. Collection of Hippocrates. The system of theoretical ideas of Hippocrates. Principles of medical art of Hippocrates.

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Periodization of the world history of medicine. Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine. The value of medical and hygienic knowledge in the life of the primitive population of the modern territory of the Republic of Belarus

Modern periodization of world history and the history of medicine. 1 page

1. The history of medicine as part of the culture and history of mankind. Definition of the concepts of "doctoring" and "medicine". Periodization and chronology of the world history of medicine.

2. Hippocrates. Collection of Hippocrates. The system of theoretical ideas of Hippocrates. Principles of medical art of Hippocrates.

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