Islamic State of Afghanistan

Afghanistan- a state in the southwest of Central Asia. In the north it borders with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, in the east - with China, India (the disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir) and Pakistan, in the south - with Pakistan, in the west - with Iran.

The name of the country comes from the name of the legendary ancestor of the Afghans - Avgan.

Capital

Square

Population

26813 thousand people

Administrative division

The state is divided into 29 provinces (wilayats) and 2 districts of central subordination.

Form of government

Islamic State.

Head of State

The president.

Supreme legislative body

It does not work.

Supreme executive body

Government.

Big cities

Kandahar, Herat.

Official language

Pashto, dari.

Religion

Islam (85% - Sunni, 15% - Shia).

Ethnic composition

38% are Pashtuns, 25% are Tajiks, 19% are Khazars, 6% are Uzbeks.

Currency

Afghani = 100 pula.

Climate

Subtropical, continental, arid, with sharp daily and annual temperature fluctuations. Kabul, located at an altitude of 1830 m above sea level, has cold winters and warm summers (in July + 25°C, in January from 0°C to + 7°C). Precipitation, mainly in winter and spring, does not exceed 375 mm. On the northern plain the average temperature in July is + 30°C, in January - +2°C
(at minimum temperatures up to - 20 ° C). Only in the southeast of Afghanistan, where the Indian monsoon affects, are summer rains observed, and the mountain slopes here receive up to 800 mm of precipitation. In Jalalabad (550 m above sea level) the climate is subtropical, in Kandahar (1070 m above sea level) it is mild.

Flora

About 3% of the territory is occupied by coniferous forests, which are located at an altitude of 1830 to 3660 m; deciduous forests (juniper, ash) grow below. Common fruit trees include apple, pear, peach, and apricot. In the far south, date palms, olives, and citrus fruits grow in irrigated oases and the Jalalabad Valley.

Fauna

Afghanistan is home to camels, mountain goats, bears, gazelles, wolves, jackals, wild cats and foxes. A famous breed of dogs bred here is the Afghan Hound.

Rivers and lakes

The largest rivers in Afghanistan are the Amu Darya, Kabul, Helmand and Harirud.

Attractions

Cave monastery in the Bami-ana valley (I-VIII centuries); palace in Busta (11th century); minaret in Jam (XII century); Gauharshad mausoleum, Juma Masjid mosque in Herat (XVB.); the remains of fortress walls of the 7th-8th centuries, medieval garden and park ensembles, including Bagi-Bagur with the tomb of Babur (16th century), in Kabul, etc. Many monuments in Kabul and Kandahar were destroyed during the fighting.

Useful information for tourists

Due to the turbulent situation and destruction during the fighting, the country is not popular with foreign tourists.

This is due to the fact that the land border with a total length of 5,529 km has economically developed neighbors: Pakistan - 2,430 km, Tajikistan - 1,206 km, Turkmenistan - 744 km, Uzbekistan - 137 km, China - 76 km, Iran - 936 km. Geography Afghanistan played an important role in the development of the country's economy.

One of the directions: Afghanistan tourism, which attracts more and more travelers every year. The total area of ​​the territory is 652.2 thousand km 2. The main part of the country consists of mountain ranges (about 4/5). The Hindu Kush is the main mountain system, it is located in the northeast of the country. The average height is about 4,270 meters, the highest point of the ridge in the country is Mount Turgaran (6,729 meters). In the west are the Bandi-Turkestan and Safedkokh ranges. The highest point of the country is Mount Novshak (7,475 meters). The following plains predominate in the north and southwest: Bactrian, Registan, Dashti-Margo. The mountain ranges are intersected by deep river valleys, the main of which are Helmand, Kabul, and Harirud. The northern border of the country stretches along the Amu Darya River.

Afghanistan time

The territory of this country is in the UTC+4 time zone and does not switch to daylight saving time. Afghanistan time ahead of Moscow time by 1.5 hours in winter and half an hour in summer.

Afghanistan Climate

Thanks to geography This country is quite advantageous; the country's climate is characterized by variability: from continental dry in the central part of the state (with low temperatures in winter and high in summer) to subtropical in the Kandahar region. Afghanistan Climate characterized by sharp fluctuations in both annual and daily average temperatures

Afghanistan weather

In the valleys in summer, daytime temperatures reach +50° C. Average temperatures and the amount of precipitation vary with altitude: in winter from +8 to −21 ° C and below, in summer – from +33 to 0 ° C. In deserts, 41-51 mm of precipitation falls, on plateaus - 200-250 mm, on the windward slopes of the Hindu Kush Mountains 400-599 mm, in the south-eastern part of Afghanistan 801 mm per year. The rainy season in the country lasts from October to April. Favorable for travel is one of the factors attracting tourists to this amazing country.

Nature of Afghanistan

Afghanistan rich in diversity of both flora and fauna. The plains of the country are dominated by deserts. The steppes took over the plateau. Forests (5% of the country's territory) are concentrated in the east. In mountainous areas at altitudes above 2400-3500 meters, coniferous forests dominate. Deciduous trees grow below: ash, juniper. The most common fruit trees are peach, apricot, apple, and pear. In the valley of the Amudarya River there are tugai forests, dominated by vegetation such as poplar-turanga, willow, comb, and reeds. In the desert and steppe there are spotted jackals, hyenas, wild donkeys, saiga antelopes and antelopes, in the mountainous areas - leopard-irbis, mountain goats, mountain sheep. In the river valley you can meet the jungle cat, Turanian tiger and wild boar. The Afghan fox is widespread, causing great damage to sheep flock owners, especially in winter. Nature of Afghanistan is famous for its famous dog breed: the Afghan Hound, bred in the country.

Economic and geographical position of Afghanistan

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is located in the Middle East, far from the seas.

The country's western border runs with Iran; in the north it borders with the former union republics of the USSR - Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.

The eastern border lies with China, India, and Pakistan. The longest border with Pakistan is 2430 km.

Afghanistan is an ancient center of trade and migration between East and West.

The country occupies an important geopolitical position, located on the one hand between South and Central Asia, and on the other hand, the Middle East.

Note 1

Not only in the region, but also in the world, Afghanistan today is the most unstable state, and the factor of this instability is the civil war, which has been going on since 1978.

The Silk Road, which once passed through the country, is awaiting revival and Afghanistan does not lose its key importance in the new project, because new promising routes are opening up.

Rail transport is practically undeveloped. The only major railway channel in Afghanistan's trade was the transport corridor with Uzbekistan. It remains key today.

There are promising projects for the construction of railways through Afghanistan, which are supported by Tajikistan and Iran. One such project is already in operation, a railway from Iran to Afghanistan, built in 2008, where Iran was the only sponsor of its construction.

The road gives Iran access to mineral resources in western Afghanistan.

Iran and Tajikistan are leading the development of transport and infrastructure projects.

In addition to the construction of railways, it is planned to construct pipelines for pumping water and oil pipelines. Water in this region is a valuable resource.

This extremely poor country is entirely dependent on foreign aid

The bulk of the population engaged in agriculture produces opium, grain, fruits, and nuts. Industrial products include clothing, soap, shoes, fertilizers, cement, carpets, gas, coal, and copper production.

The country exports mainly what it produces from agriculture, as well as precious and semi-precious stones. In terms of exports, Afghanistan is connected with India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and the USA.

Being the world's main producer of opium, the country receives its main profit from its trade. The Taliban and other anti-government groups are involved in opium production.

The import item includes industrial goods, food, textiles, oil and petroleum products, the suppliers of which are Pakistan, USA, Germany, India.

Note 2

The economic and geographical position of the country is favorable, primarily because it is located at the intersection of routes running from east to west and borders on fairly developed countries of the world, but for objective reasons it cannot yet take advantage of this position to develop its economy.

Natural conditions of Afghanistan

The relief of Afghanistan is mountainous - it is the northeastern part of the Iranian Plateau.

The east of the country is crossed by the high ridges of the Hindu Kush, the height of which in this area is more than 4000-5000 m. The ridges stretch from southwest to northeast.

The highest point of Afghanistan, Mount Naushak (7485 m), is located on the border with Pakistan.

To the west of the Hindu Kush lies the inaccessible Hazarajat Highlands, more than 3,000 m high, from which lower ridges fan out to the west and southwest.

A vast plain is located in the north of Afghanistan, called Bactrian. It gradually turns into a sandy desert.

The Herat-Farakh plateau stretches along the border with Iran and goes to the extreme northwest. The height of the plateau is from 600 to 800 m.

Hilly plateaus up to 1000 m high are located in the southwest of Afghanistan.

The Afghan sandy deserts of Registan, Garmsir, and Dashti-Margo occupy large areas, which are closed in the extreme south by the Chagai Mountains. Among the mountains there are also oases. Several oases are confined to the weakly dissected Ghazni-Kandahar plateau. The largest of them is located in the vicinity of the city of Kandahar.

The country's subtropical continental climate is extremely varied and depends on the altitude. There is eternal winter on the peaks of the Hindu Kush.

Cool summers and long, cold winters with snow are characteristic of the mountain plateaus of central Afghanistan.

The climate is temperate in the mountain valleys, and on the plains the climate is hot - the average July temperature is +24...+32 degrees.

The absolute maximum was recorded in Helmand province +45 degrees. Summer lasts 4-5 months. The amplitude of day and night reaches 20 degrees.

Spring begins in February and ends in April. The rivers flood heavily at this time. In September autumn comes and with it rare rains.

The duration of the winter period is 2 months; in mountainous areas this is a very harsh time of year with strong snowstorms and deep snow cover.

The plains receive about 200 mm of precipitation throughout the year, the mountainous areas up to 800 mm. A special precipitation regime is typical for the southeast of the country - the summer monsoons penetrate here and heavy rainfall occurs in July-August. In some areas in the southwest of the country there is no precipitation at all.

Frequent sandstorms in deserts and arid plains are brought by a dry westerly wind.

Natural Resources of Afghanistan

In the mountains of Afghanistan, nature has created many mineral resources, but the lack of infrastructure and very difficult terrain limit their development.

In the depths of Afghanistan there are hydrocarbon reserves, the Sari-Pul oil field and the Shibergan gas field.

Several coal deposits - Karkar, Ishpushta, Darai-Suf, Karrokh.

There are salt-bearing structures, especially pronounced in the north of the country.

To the south of Kabul and Kandahar, industrial deposits of copper, iron, manganese, lead-zinc and tin ores are known. Chromium ores occur in the Logar valley, and beryl ores are mined in Nangarhar province.

There is a deposit of high-quality lapis lazuli and other precious and semi-precious stones, in particular such expensive ones as:

• emeralds,
• rubies,
• aquamarines.

Placer gold deposits have been discovered in Badakhshan and Ghazni.

It is possible to mine marble, talc, granite, dolomite, gypsum, limestone, amethyst, and jasper.

There are few deep rivers in Afghanistan, with the exception of the river. Kabul, flowing into the Indus and further into the Indian Ocean. Most of the country's rivers are lost in the sand or end in drainless lakes.

River water is taken to irrigate the fields, so they become shallow in the second half of summer. The Balkh and Khulm rivers, flowing along the Bactrian Plain in the north, have an inconsistent flow and dry up in the summer.

Mountain rivers are not navigable, but have significant hydropower potential.

There are few lakes; Sarykul in the Hindu Kush Mountains stands out among the large ones. Lakes in the western and southwestern parts of the country are also drying up. The largest salt lake is Hamun-i-Helmand, located on the border with Iran.

Chestnut soils, brown soils and gray soils have formed in the foothills and valleys. Where the mountain slopes are moist, chernozems and mountain meadow soils are found. Gray desert soils and solonchaks are distributed in the south and southwest of the country. The soils of oases are usually fertile.

In the plant world, the predominant species are wheatgrass and fescue, characteristic of dry steppes and deserts. In rocky and sandy deserts, wormwood, camel thorn, and saxaul predominate. The open spaces of deserts and steppe plains are inhabited by spotted hyenas, antelopes, goitered gazelles, saigas, and many reptiles.

In mountainous areas there are mountain goats, bears, and argali sheep. Along the river valleys you can meet wild boars, jungle cats, and Turanian tigers. Birds of prey include the kite, vulture hawk, golden eagle, Himalayan vulture, etc. To protect nature, two reserves and a national park were created in the late 90s.

Authors: E. V. Baranchikov (General information), V. V. Maklakov (Public system), A. I. Voropaev (Nature: physical-geographical sketch, Economy), V. E. Khain (Nature: geological structure and useful fossils), V. G. Korgun, T. K. Karaev (Historical sketch), V. S. Nechaev (Health), A. L. Simakova (Education), A. S. Gerasimova (Literature), V. N. Yunusova (Music), K. E. Razlogov (Cinema)Authors: E.V. Baranchikov (General information), V.V. Maklakov (Governmental system), A.I. Voropaev (Nature: physical-geographical sketch, Economy); >>

AFGHANISTAN, Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

General information

A. is a state in South-West Asia. It borders on the north with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, on the east on China and India, on the southeast and south on Pakistan, on the west on Iran. Area 645.7 thousand km2. Population 27.1 million people. (2015, evaluation). The capital is Kabul. The official languages ​​are Pashto and Dari. The monetary unit is Afghani. Administrative division: 34 wilayats (provinces) (Table 1).

Table 1. Administrative-territorial division (2015)

Vilayat	Area, thousand km 2	Population, thousand people	Administrative center
Baghlan	21,1	910,8	Puli-Khumri
Badakhshan	44,1	951,0	Faizabad
Badghis	20,6	496,0	Kalai-Nau
Balkh	17,2	1325,7	Mazar-i-Sharif
Bamiyan	14,2	447,2	Bamiyan
Wardak	8,9	596,3	Maidanshahr
Ghazni	22,9	1228,8	Ghazni
Herat	54,8	1890,2	Herat
Helmand	58,6	924,7	Lashkar Gah
Gore	36,5	690,3	Chagcharan
Daikundi	8,1	424,3	Neely
Jowzjan	11,8	540,3	Shibergan
Zabul	17,3	304,1	Kalat
Kabul	4,5	4373,0	Kabul
Kandahar	54,0	1226,6	Kandahar
Kapisa	1,8	441,0	Mahmoud-Raqi
Kunar	4,9	450,7	Asadabad
Kunduz	8,0	1010,0	Kunduz
Lagman	3,8	445,6	Mehtarlam
Logar	3,9	393,0	Puliyalam
Nangarhar	7,7	1517,4	Jalalabad
Nimruz	41,0	165,0	Zaranj
Nuristan	9,2	148,0	Parun
Paktika	19,5	434,7	Sharan
Paktia	6,4	552,0	Gardez
Panjshir	3,6	153,5	Bazarak
Parvan	6,0	664,5	Charikar
Samangan	11,3	387,9	Samangan (Aybak)
Sari-Pul	16,0	559,6	Sari-Pul
Takhar	12,3	983,3	Talukan
Uruzgan	22,7	386,8	Tarinkot
Farah	48,5	507,4	Farah
Faryab	20,3	998,1	Maymene
Host	4,2	574,6	Host

A. - member of the UN (1946), IMF (1955), IBRD (1955), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO; 1992); observer at the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO; 2012), CSTO (2013).

Political system

A. is a unitary state. The Constitution was adopted on January 16, 2004. The form of government is a presidential republic.

The head of state and executive power is the president, elected for a term of 5 years through direct elections (with the right to one re-election). Under the president there are two vice-presidents. Only a Muslim by religion born of Afghan parents can be president. The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. His powers include the implementation of national policies subject to approval by the National Assembly; appointment of ministers, director of the central bank, judges of the Supreme Court, prosecutor general, etc.

Legislative power belongs to the National Assembly, consisting of two chambers: the lower - the People's Chamber (Valesi Jurga) and the upper - the House of Elders (Meshrano Jurga). The People's Chamber (250 deputies) is elected by direct voting according to the proportional system for 5 years; at least 64 deputies (2 from each province) must be women. The House of Elders includes an indefinite number of members (appointed by local officials, provincial and district councils, and the president). The House of Elders reviews laws, the country's budget and international treaties after they are approved by the People's Chamber.

Executive power is exercised by the government - the cabinet of ministers (27 members appointed by the president with the approval of the National Assembly).

Nature

Relief

A. is located in the northeast of the Iranian Plateau. The mountains occupy approx. 3/4 of the country's territory (see map of Afghanistan). In the northeast stretch the ridges of the Hindu Kush mountain system. The highest is the eastern part of the Hindu Kush with peaks above 6000 m [height up to 6843 m, Mount Tirgaran, according to other sources up to 7485 m; Mount Noushak (Noshak, Naushak) is the highest point of the country] and passes at an altitude of 3500–4600 m (the most important are Salang, Barogil, Khavak). Alpine ridges with narrow ridges, steep slopes, deep valleys and mid-mountain ranges with smooth peaks and soft outlines are typical. Increased seismicity is characteristic, avalanches, screes and rockfalls often occur, and mudflows occur in the valleys. Located south of the Hindu Kush Central Afghan mountains(Hazarajat), fan-shaped to the southwest. In the north-west is the Paropamiz mountain system, consisting of a number of folded latitudinal chains: the Bandi-Turkestan mountains (up to 3485 m), the axial Safedkokh ridge (Ferozkokh, up to 3371 m) and the Siakhkokh mountains, separated by river valleys. The foothills, covered with loess, pass in the north into Bactrian plain. Closer to the Amu Darya valley, loess deposits are replaced by sands.

In the southeast is the Ghazni-Kandahar plateau (height up to 3265 m, Mount Khumbur-Khule-Ghar), crossed by wide river valleys. The southern and southwestern parts are occupied by hilly plateaus up to 1200 m high with the clayey-gravelly desert of Dashti-Margo and the sandy deserts of Registan, Garmser with loose dunes. Near the border with Pakistan there is a depression with the drying up salt lake Gaudi Zira, on the border with Iran there is the large Sistan Basin, in which the deltas of the Helmand and other rivers flowing from the surrounding mountains are located. The lowest part of the depression is occupied by the fresh end lake Hamun. In the south are the Chagai Mountains (height 1729 m).

Geological structure and minerals

The territory of A. is mainly located within Alpine-Himalayan mobile belt. The northern part belongs to the southern edge of the Turan young platform (plate), deformed in the Oligocene - Quaternary due to the collision (collision) of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian lithospheric plates. The platform has a Paleozoic granite-metamorphic basement and a Jurassic-Eocene sedimentary cover. Its southern part - the Bandi-Turkestan ridge - was pulled into uplifts, and the northern part - into subsidence with the formation of the Afghan-Tajik intermountain depression, filled with thick Oligocene-Quaternary molasse. To the south of the Gerirud (Main Hindu Kush) fault - in the narrow Bandi-Bayan zone - highly dislocated Paleozoic formations can still be traced. To the south, the Farakhrud zone stands out, in the place of which, starting from the Triassic, there existed a branch of the Tethys oceanic basin. Fragments of its crust ( ophiolites) and sedimentary infill (Upper Triassic-Middle Jurassic shales and Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous flysch) are developed. The strata are intensely deformed and intruded by granites. To the southeast is the Central Afghan middle massif (in the past - microcontinent in Tethys) with a heterogeneous Precambrian basement and Phanerozoic cover. The Seistan depression, filled with Neogene-Quaternary molasse, is superimposed on the southern part of the massif and the southwestern continuation of the Farakhrud zone. To the south of it is the Chagai volcanoplutonic uplift, a link in the Cretaceous volcanic arc bordering the middle massif from the east. In the east there is a large Chaman-Mukur submeridional fault ( shift), behind which there is the Katawaz Paleogene flysch trough and the Kabul Precambrian block. Northern Afghanistan is a highly seismic region. Destructive earthquakes - in 1993, 1998, 2002, 2015.

On the territory of Azerbaijan there are known deposits of oil (Angot), natural combustible gas (Dzharkuduk), and coal (Darai-Suf). Large deposits of iron ores (Hadzhigek), copper (Ainak, one of the largest in South Asia), and rare metals (Darai-Pich) have been explored. There are deposits of alluvial gold, ornamental and precious stones (the best lapis lazuli in the world is the Sari-Sang deposit, marble onyx, jewelry tourmaline, ruby, emerald), as well as barite, sulfur, talc, magnesite, rock salt and other minerals.

Climate

The territory of A. has a subtropical continental, dry climate. Climatic conditions vary depending on the altitude of the area, and in the mountains also on the exposure of the slopes. Average air temperatures in January on the plains are from 0 to 8 °C, in the highlands in some places below –20 °C (positive up to an altitude of 1300–1600 m), in July 24–32 °C and 0–10 °C, respectively. In Kabul (at an altitude of 1791 m) the average temperature in January is –2.3 °C, in July 25 °C. In the deserts, 40–50 mm of precipitation falls per year, in the driest regions in the west and southwest – 50–75 mm, on the plateaus – 200–250 mm, on the windward slopes of the Hindu Kush 400–600 mm, in the southeast of A. , where the monsoons penetrate from the Indian Ocean, about 800 mm. Maximum precipitation occurs in winter and spring (except for the southeastern part). At an altitude of 3000–5000 m, snow cover lasts 6–8 months. The snow line lies on the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush at an altitude of 4700 m, on the southern slopes - about 5400 m, and there are large glaciers on the alpine ridges. The plains are characterized by severe droughts, the frequency of which has increased in recent decades. Dust storms are typical for the south of Africa.

Inland waters

Most of the rivers belong to the area of ​​internal flow; the largest of them is the Amu Darya (in the upper reaches - Pyanj) with its tributaries Kokcha and Kunduz. 55% of Amu Darya's water resources are concentrated in the Amu Darya basin. Other rivers flow into lakes (Hilmand, Farah-Rud) or are lost in desert areas (Gerirud, Murghab - on the territory of Turkmenistan, Balkh, etc.). The Kabul River (a tributary of the Indus) belongs to the Indian Ocean basin. The mountains are characterized by a dense river network, 80% of the river flow is formed in the Hindu Kush, the rivers are fed mainly by melt water from mountain snow and glaciers. The rivers of the plains experience high water in the spring; in the summer they become shallow or dry up, and their waters are diverted for irrigation. Mountain rivers have significant hydropower potential. There are few lakes; the largest are Navur, Abi-Istadayi-Ghazni, etc. Small desert lakes dry up in summer (salt lakes turn into salt marshes). Groundwater in many regions of Azerbaijan is the main source of irrigation and water supply, as well as water supply to populated areas. Large artesian regions are North Afghan and South Afghan.

Annually renewable water resources are 65.33 km 3 (2011), water availability is low – 823 m 3 per person per year. Annual water intake is 20.28 km 3, including for the needs of agriculture 98%, industry - 1%, municipal sector - 1%.

Soils, vegetation and fauna

Gray soils, brown desert-steppe soils and saline soils are common in the foothills and valleys. On the mountain slopes there are mountain gray soils and gray-brown soils. In the highlands there are mountain meadow-steppe and mountain meadow soils. Large areas are occupied by rocky, gravelly surfaces and sand.

There are 3,500–4,000 species of vascular plants growing on the territory of Armenia. The vegetation is predominantly desert and desert-steppe. Typical desert subshrubs are teresken, astragalus, cushion-shaped acantholimons, wormwood. On the northern foothill plains, ephemeral sedge-bluegrass deserts with an abundance of early flowering ephemerals are developed. Above that, desert-steppe types of communities with wormwood, bulbous bluegrass, and camel thorn are common. Northern Africa is an area of ​​the best pastures and arable land. At altitudes of 2000–2500 m, mainly in Paropamise, there are juniper and pistachio woodlands. In the highlands there are formations of mountain xerophytes. In the mountainous regions bordering Pakistan at altitudes of 750–1500 m, steppes alternate with forests of Indian palm, acacia, fig, and almond; up to an altitude of 2200–2400 m – forests of evergreen balut oak and Gerard pine; higher (up to 3500 m) – forests from Himalayan pine with an admixture of Himalayan cedar and Western Himalayan fir. At altitudes of 3500–4000 m, thickets of elfin juniper and rhododendron are common; higher up there are alpine and subalpine meadows. In the Amu Darya valley there are tugai forests. Closed forests occupy 2.1% of the territory, open forests and sparse thickets - 45.2% (2015).

The animal life of the world is diverse. According to various estimates, Africa is home to 137–150 species of mammals, 428–515 species of birds, 92–112 species of reptiles, and 101–139 species of fish. Spotted hyenas, jackals, kulans, gazelle and saiga antelopes are common in deserts and steppes; in the mountains - snow leopard, mountain goats, and argali. Afghan fox, stone marten, and wolves are widespread. Wild boar and jungle cat are found in the tugai thickets. Endangered - argali, snow leopard, etc. Many reptiles (monitor lizards, agamas, snakes, including poisonous ones - viper, cobra, efa, copperhead), rodents, insects, including agricultural animals. pests (locusts), and poisonous arachnids (scorpions, karakurt).

Condition and protection of the environment

The ecological situation is tense. 75% of Azerbaijan's territory is subject to desertification processes, especially in the northern, western and southern provinces. Among the main factors of desertification are overgrazing by livestock on scarce semi-desert pastures, plowing of sloping lands and soil degradation. Soils are severely depleted on 16% of the territory as a result of water and wind erosion, loss of fertility, and salinization.

Illegal logging and export of wood to Pakistan, and the collection of wood for fuel needs by the local population lead to deforestation of mountain slopes and destruction of woodlands. The frequency of catastrophic landslides and floods has increased due to spring rains and accelerated melting of snow in the mountains. Uncontrolled hunting and trapping of large animals and birds are common.

On the territory of Africa there is the Bandi-Amir National Park, located at the sources of the river of the same name and preserving the ecosystems of high-mountainous dry steppes and lakes on the slopes of the spurs of the Hindu Kush. 2 waterfowl reserves (Abi-Istadayi-Ghazni and Navur) and 2 reserves (Adjara Valley and Great Pamir). 6 OPTs are occupied by St. 258 thousand hectares. It is planned to create 8 more protected natural areas.

Population

Between 38 and 50% of Afghanistan's population (2014) are Pashtuns, who predominate in the west, south and east of the country. In the south (the south of the provinces of Nimruz, Helmand and Kandahar) there are also Western Baluchis (over 1%) and Brahuis (over 1%). In the north, Tajiks predominate (from 18 to 27%, mainly in the provinces of Herat, Bamiyan, Samangan, Baghlan, Takhar, Badakhshan, Panjshir, Parwan, Kabul), Hazaras (from 8 to 19%, mainly in the provinces of Badghis, Ghor, Daykundi, Uruzgan, Ghazni, Bamiyan, Baghlan), as well as firuzkuhi (4%, in mostly provinces Ghor, south of Badghis province and east of Herat province), Uzbeks (6 to 9%, mainly Faryab, Jawzjan, Sari-Pul, Balkh, Samangan, Kunduz, Baghlan, northern Takhar provinces), Turkmens (2.5%, mainly the north of the province of Faryab, Jawzjan, Balkh). In the west live the taimen (2%, west of the provinces of Farah and Herat) and the Dzhemshid (north of the province of Herat), in the northeast - Pamir peoples(east of Badakhshan province) and Nuristanis(Nuristan province). Persians (3%) and others also live there.

A characteristic feature of the population of A. is its young composition (average age 18.4 years); St. 41.5% – youth under 15 years of age inclusive, persons over 65 years of age – 2.6%. In 2015, the population growth of A. was estimated to be 2.32%. The birth rate is 38.6, the death rate is 13.9 per 1000 inhabitants. With a high fertility rate (5.33 children per woman), infant mortality is high (115.08 per 1000 live births). The average life expectancy of the population is 50.9 years (men - 49.5, women - 52.3 years). There are 105 women for every 100 men. The average population density is 42.0 people/km 2 . The most densely populated are the east (971.8 people/km2 in the Kabul vilayat) and the north of the country (wilayats adjacent to the Pyanj River), the least deserted is the southwest (4.0 people/km2 in the Nimruz vilayat). The cities are inhabited by approx. 28% of the population. The mass migration of rural residents to cities began in the 1960s. in connection with the construction of new roads and accelerated industrial development. Largest cities (thousand people, 2012–13): Kabul 3289, Kandahar 491.2, Herat 436.4, Mazar-i-Sharif 368.1. Afghan conflict 1979–89 and the civil war led to significant migrations both abroad (about 1/3 of the population left the country) and within Armenia (the population of the capital more than doubled between 1985 and 1995). The largest number of refugees settled in Iran and Pakistan (4–6 million people; after partial return, more than 2 million people remained). Economically active population 8.0 million people. (2013). Employment structure (%, 2008–09): agriculture 78.6, service sector 15.7, industry and construction 5.7. Official unemployment rate is 35% (2008). 36% of the population lives below the poverty line (2008–09).

Religion

The vast majority of residents are Muslims; of which approx. 80% – Sunni, approx. 19% are Shiites (2014 estimate). Shiism is widespread mainly among Hazaras and Tajiks; the majority of Afghan Shiites are Imami. Punjabis and Sindhis living in Kabul and Kandahar profess Sikhism and Hinduism. Christians, including Catholics and representatives of the Armenian Apostolic Church, Judaists, Zoroastrians (Parsis) and Bahais are small in number.

In pre-Christian times, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism were practiced in Africa. On the territory of A. (in Bamiyan) there were statues of Buddha, which were a Buddhist shrine included in the list World Heritage; were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. Christian communities arose in the 3rd and 4th centuries. in the western part of modern Africa, which was part of the Sassanid state. Nestorianism and Monophysitism became widespread. In the 7th–10th centuries. As a result of the Arab conquests, the majority of the population of Africa converted to Islam, but Christianity remained on the territory of the state until the 2nd half. 14th century In the 20th century Small communities of Catholics and Protestants (Anglicans, Evangelical Christians, Seventh-day Adventists) reappeared in Africa. On the territory of Azerbaijan there are large Muslim pilgrimage centers (including in Mazar-i-Sharif one of the supposed burial places Ali ibn Abi Talib).

The current constitution of A. (2004) declares Islam the state religion, and at the same time guarantees followers of other religions the right to perform their rituals within the framework established by law.

Historical sketch

Afghanistan in antiquity and the Middle Ages

According to archaeological data, the northern part of the territory of modern Africa was inhabited by humans in the Paleolithic (Kara-Kamar cave, ca. 40–30 thousand years BC), the southern. part - in the Bronze Age (4th–2nd millennium BC). In the 1st half. 1st millennium BC e. oasis agriculture develops.

In the beginning. 1st millennium BC e. On the territory of modern Africa, state formations arose, the most significant of which was Bactria. In the 6th century. BC e. these lands became part of Achaemenid states. In the 4th century. BC e. armies invaded A. from Persia Alexander the Great. After the collapse of his empire, on the territory of modern A. formed Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, captured to con. 1st century BC e. nomadic Kushans (Yuezhi), who created their own powerful state centered in the north of Africa. During the era of the Great Kushans (late 1st–4th centuries AD, see Kushan kingdom) urban culture and crafts, and international trade developed. Buddhism was proclaimed the state religion. The conquest of part of the territory of Africa by the Hephthalites and the undermining of the power of the Kushans by the Sassanids led to political fragmentation. Some local rulers obeyed Turkic Khaganate, the other part is the Sassanids. This period was accompanied by the decline of cities and the increasing influence of dynasties of local landowners.

In the 7th–8th centuries. b. Part of the territory of Azerbaijan was invaded by the Arabs who brought Islam. Within the Caliphate, this territory was ruled by dynasties of governors - Tahirids, Saffarids, Samanids (from 900). Replaced by the Arabs in the 10th century. Central Asian Turks arrived. One of their leaders, Sultan Mahmud, created in the 11th century. Ghaznavid Empire, which included Iran, south Wed. Asia and the northwestern part of Hindustan. The Ghazni-Kandahar Plateau, as well as the Suleiman Mountains and the Quetta-Pishinsky Highlands became the main territories for the formation of the Afghan people. Bactrians, Sakas and Hephthalites also participated in Afghan ethnogenesis, and later Indian, Tajik and, possibly, Turkic elements. The first mentions of Afghans (Abgan, Afghan) are found in sources from the 3rd–6th centuries.

In the 13th century The economic and cultural development of the Afghan lands was stopped by the invasion of the hordes of Genghis Khan, which also led to the formation in the 14th–15th centuries. new nationality - the Hazaras. The negative consequences of Mongol expansion were not completely overcome in Afghanistan and during the Timurid era (late 14th – early 16th centuries), although the collapse of Timur’s empire after his death (1405) did not prevent his successors Shahrukh and Sultan Hussein Bayqara from creating a prosperous state in Khorasan with its capital in Herat. The revitalization of the economic and cultural life of western Africa under the Timurids attracted people in the 16th century. attention Great Mughals and Safavids: in the 16th–17th centuries. the former held the southeast of Afghanistan as vassals, and the latter conquered the south and west of modern Afghan territories. The long struggle against foreign power (including the Roshanite movement) created the preconditions for the unification of the Afghan tribes. In the beginning. 18th century During the uprisings against the Mughals and Safavids, the independent Gilzai principality in Kandahar and the principality of the Abdali tribe in Herat arose. In the 1730s. they were conquered by Nadir Shah, but after his death (1747) his state collapsed.

Afghanistan in the middle 18 – beginning 20th centuries

In Oct. 1747 the leaders of the Pashtun tribes elected the military leader Ahmad Khan as their leader. Under the name Ahmad Shah Durrani he became the head of the first independent Afg. state - the Durrani state with its capital in Kandahar. Ahmad Shah annexed Ghazni, Kabul, Peshawar, and then Herat to his possessions. Following this, it included Khorasan, Baluchistan (as a vassal possession), Panjab (Punjab; soon lost), Kashmir and Sindh. Under him, the Durrani state became the largest state in the Middle East, but under Ahmad Shah's successors (Timur Shah and Zaman Shah), its gradual decentralization began during civil strife. In 1818, the collapse of the state led to the formation of independent possessions - Herat, Kandahar, Kabul and Peshawar principalities. Nevertheless, the experience of the Afghan tribes in the system of the state of Ahmad Shah created favorable conditions for their subsequent consolidation around the Principality of Kabul under the leadership of its emir Dost Muhammad (from 1834). The reunification of the Afghan tribes was interrupted by the British colonialists, whose borders were already approaching Afghan lands. In 1838, troops of the English East India Company, under the pretext of ensuring the security of the territories under its control, occupied Kandahar and Kabul, thereby beginning the first of Anglo-Afghan wars . A powerful popular movement in 1841–42 led to the collapse of the British occupation and forced British troops to leave A. In the 1850s. Dost Muhammad continued to gather the disparate regions of Afghanistan: he subjugated the northern regions (Afghan Turkestan) to his power, annexed Kandahar (1855) and Herat (1863). However, he was forced to simultaneously confirm the rights of the English East India Company to Peshawar and other Afghan regions captured earlier (see. Anglo-Afghan treaties and agreements 1855, 1879, 1893, 1905).

Under Dost Muhammad's successor, Sher Ali Khan (reigned 1863–66, 1868–79), the left bank of the Amu Darya and Badakhshan were annexed to the Afghan state. Sher Ali Khan strengthened the central government, increased the army, and carried out a number of administrative, military and financial reforms. Its transformations were interrupted by the 2nd Anglo-Afghan War, started by Great Britain in 1878 in conditions of intense rivalry with Russia in Central Asia. The stubborn resistance of the Afghan tribes forced British politicians to abandon plans to extend their influence to Afghanistan. Despite the conclusion of the Gandamak Treaty of 1879, which effectively deprived Afghanistan of its independence, British control over the country remained fragile.

In 1880, the British were forced to recognize the grandson of Dost Muhammad as the Emir of Afghanistan. Abdurrahman. Arriving in Afghanistan from Russia, where he was in exile, he was able to gather a tribal militia and extend his power to Kandahar and Herat. After the defeat of the British troops by the ruler of Herat, Muhammad Ayub Khan, at Maiwand (1880), they left the country (1881). However, in 1893, Emir Abdurrahman was forced to agree to the annexation of the territories of the eastern Pashtun tribes, previously separated from Azerbaijan, into the English possessions, and to recognize the so-called. Durand Line as the border between Afghanistan and British India.

During the years of his reign (1880–1901), Emir Abdurrahman consistently pursued a policy of consolidating Afghan lands and strengthening central power throughout the country. He managed to suppress the uprisings of Pashtun tribes and Hazaras, occupied Kafiristan - a semi-independent region in the east of Afghanistan - and contributed to the Islamization of the local population (kafirs), recreated the regular Afghan army, streamlined taxation and the administrative apparatus, and improved the communications system. Under Abdurrahman, the territory of Armenia was demarcated from the possessions of Russia and Great Britain. Despite the “closing” of Azerbaijan to the outside world, carried out both by Abdurrahman and the British, cities grew in Azerbaijan, the specialization of agriculture increased, the internal market developed, and signs of Europeanization of social life appeared.

During the reign of Abdurrahman's successor, Emir Habibullah (1901–19), A. continued to remain in foreign policy isolation. At the same time, the country’s sovereignty was infringed by the agreement between Great Britain and Russia (1907) on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Africa, and Tibet. In the beginning. 20th century the creation of secular educational institutions of the European model intensified socio-political thought. During these years, an opposition movement of Young Afghans appeared in Afghanistan, demanding true independence, the adoption of a constitution and reforms. Their inspirer and ideological leader was the educator and publicist Mahmud Beg Tarzi.

During the First World War, despite pressure from Germany and its allies, A. strictly adhered to the policy of neutrality.

Afghanistan in the 1920s–60s.

After the end of the First World War, the position of national-patriotic circles strengthened in Armenia. Emir's reign Amanullah Khan(1919–29) was marked by the restoration of the independence of Afghanistan. During the 3rd Anglo-Afghan War, the British government recognized the sovereignty of the emir over the territory of Afghanistan (see. Anglo-Afghan treaties 1919, 1921). Having established relations with a number of states, including Great Britain and Soviet Russia (see. Soviet-Afghan treaties and agreements), Amanullah Khan carried out a series of reforms aimed at overcoming the country's backwardness. In 1923, the first constitution of Armenia was proclaimed, which established civil rights and freedoms. Amanullah's economic reforms (transfer of taxes into cash, free purchase and sale of state lands, expansion of secular education) were aimed at encouraging national entrepreneurship and strengthening the market principle and the role of commodity-money relations in the economic life of Amanullah. The transformations of the Amanullah government caused dissatisfaction among the conservative layers of the Afghan society - tribal khans and Muslim leaders. In con. 1928 – beginning 1929 conservative opposition during anti-government special The uprising achieved the abdication of Amanullah and brought to power the emir Bachai Sakao (ruled under the name Habibullah), who abolished all the reforms of his predecessor. In Oct. 1929 The former minister of war in the government of Amanullah, hero of the war for independence, Muhammad Nadir, came to power. He took the name Nadir Shah , the title of king and founded a new dynasty. The constitution proclaimed under him (1931) consolidated the position of the Muslim clergy in the sphere of education and law and ensured the participation of the tribal nobility in state affairs. In the 1930s Measures were taken to encourage industry and trade: merchant associations (shirkets) were created, and factory production arose. After the assassination of Nadir Shah (11/8/1933), his son Muhammad was elevated to the throne Zahir Shah However, real power was seized by his relatives, led by Nadir Shah's brother, Prime Minister Muhammad Hashim Khan, who established a despotic regime in Azerbaijan.

Before World War II, the influence of Germany and Italy increased in Africa, striving to involve the country in their military plans. The activation of Nazi agents, operating in Austria under the guise of advisers and consultants, created a threat to Soviet and British interests in the region. In connection with the demands of the governments of the USSR and Great Britain (October 1941), the Afghan leadership stopped the activities of German agents. In World War II, A. traditionally adhered to a policy of neutrality.

During the war years, Armenia experienced serious economic difficulties due to the disruption of world economic ties. The deteriorating economic situation caused discontent among the Pashtun tribes, who launched an anti-government uprising. Under these conditions, Prime Minister Hashim Khan resigned in 1946, and the government was headed by another uncle of the king, Mahmud Shah. The new cabinet proclaimed a course towards the liberalization of social and political life. Under him, free parliamentary elections were held (acted from 1949–52).

In con. 1940s - early 1950s In Armenia, opposition groups emerged: “Vish Zalmiyan” (“Awakened Youth”), “Vatan” (“Motherland”) and “Nida-ye Khalq” (“Voice of the People”), which demanded the democratization of the political system and the implementation of socio-economic reforms. The leading role in them was played by small and medium-sized entrepreneurs and the Afghan intelligentsia. The conservative forces of Afghan society (tribal leaders, religious leaders) in the situation of Afghan-Pakistani contradictions (since 1947) chose to support the king’s cousin, General L. Muhammad Daoud, who led the government since 1953.

The government of M. Daoud (1953–63) proclaimed the policy of a “guided economy” in Africa. Throughout the 1950s and 60s. within its framework, state organizations in the field of foreign trade were established, state control was established over industrial enterprises and banks, economic development planning was introduced, and conditions were created for the concentration and centralization of national capital. A significant role in the economic life of A. in the 1950s–1960s. played a role in the foreign policy of the government of M. Daoud, who, after unsuccessful attempts to obtain military and economic assistance from the United States, turned to the USSR. Soviet-Afghan agreements on economic (1955) and cultural (1960) cooperation made the USSR Afghanistan’s leading partner in the outside world. However, during the Cold War, the Afghan leadership pursued a policy of non-alignment with military-political blocs and pushed the United States and Western European countries towards economic competition with Soviet influence in Afghanistan.

M. Daoud carried out a number of reforms in the public sphere in Azerbaijan, in particular, he abolished the compulsory wearing of a veil by women. However, the activities of the opposition were nullified by force and were regularly suppressed. In 1963 M. Daoud was dismissed. In 1964, a new constitution was adopted in Armenia. On its basis, a gradual liberalization of social and political life took place (“democratic experiment”): a private press was published, political parties functioned, and elections were held (1965, 1969). In 1965 it was created People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan(PDPA), which proclaimed a course towards building socialism. In 1967, it split into two factions - radical (Khalq) and liberal (Parcham).

Con. 1960s was marked by an aggravation of Azerbaijan's internal political problems and an increasingly clear ideological polarization - from Islamic fundamentalism to extreme leftist views. The problem of political self-determination of the eastern Pashtun tribes living south and southeast of "Durand Lines" and found themselves within Pakistan after the partition of British India (1947). The Afghan-Pakistani conflicts, the instability of governments, and the authoritarian political steps of the king led to the beginning. 1970s to a general political crisis, aggravated by the drought of 1971–72. Under these conditions, a coup d'etat led by former Prime Minister M. Daoud took place in Afghanistan (July 17, 1973). The monarchy was abolished and the country declared a republic.

Afghanistan under Republican regimes (1973–92)

M. Daoud's coup was supported by military and civil activists of the PDPA (Parcham faction). A number of its supporters took part in the creation of republican government bodies. However, throughout the 1970s. M. Daoud's leadership style became more and more conservative and authoritarian. The regime's gradual abandonment of socialist ideas and the removal of left-wing politicians from government positions were enshrined in the new constitution (adopted in February 1977), which consolidated the almost unlimited power of the president. A noticeable element of Armenia's foreign policy was its distance from the USSR. M. Daud intensified negotiations with Pakistan on the Pashtun problem, and also expanded and strengthened Pakistan’s relations with Iran and the Persian Gulf countries, which promised large financial assistance to the Afghan government.

In 1977, the forces of the Afghan opposition - Khalq and Parcham - with the assistance of the USSR, united against the regime of M. Daoud. After a year of political murders, anti-government demonstrations and arrests of the opposition, left-wing army officers brought the PDPA to power on April 27, 1978, led by its leader N. M. Taraki (see. April Revolution 1978). The country was proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA). The new regime was actively supported by the Soviet leadership, which soon concluded a Treaty of Friendship, Good Neighborhood and Cooperation with A. (December 5, 1978). In 1978–79, the PDPA regime carried out a series of radical socio-economic reforms that undermined the traditional economic foundations of the Afghans, which caused discontent among large sections of the population. The situation in the country was soon aggravated by a new split in the PDPA. The radical extremist faction of the PDPA (“Khalq”), led by H. Amin, relying on military circles, actually removed the liberal wing of the party, “Parcham,” led by B. Karmal, from power. The policy of mass purges and repressions in the PDPA and in the country as a whole was consistently carried out after the appointment of Kh. Amin to the post of head of government (March 1979). Overthrow and murder of N. M. Taraki (Sept. 1979 – Oct. 1979) allowed H. Amin to assume key powers in the party and government of Afghanistan. In the summer and autumn of 1979, armed resistance to the PDPA regime took the form of spontaneous mass protests both in Kabul and in remote provinces of the country.

Under these conditions, the USSR carried out an armed invasion of Afghanistan (December 25, 1979), the purpose of which was declared to be “assisting the Afghan people in repelling external armed aggression” (see. Afghan conflict 1979–1989). The regime of H. Amin was liquidated (December 27, 1979). B. Karmal was put in power, combining the posts of head of government and secretary general of the PDPA.

In the 1st half. 1980s Attempts by the government of B. Karmal to build “Soviet-style socialism” in Azerbaijan were unsuccessful. This policy was opposed by a broad Islamic opposition, which received support not only b. including the population, but also Western countries led by the United States and its allies in the region. Resistance to the PDPA regime took the form of a large-scale civil war. More than 5 million refugees left the country.

With the arrival of the former head of the special services A. Najibullah to the post of Secretary General of the PDPA (May 1986), the development of measures for national reconciliation and the liberalization of the socio-political and economic life of the country began. Najibullah was elected president of the Republic of Afghanistan, proclaimed according to the new constitution (1987). However, the PDPA leader's calls for compromise did not meet with a positive response from the resistance leaders, and his reforms were unable to lead the country out of the military-political deadlock. The strengthening of the military-technical potential of the armed opposition, as well as diplomatic pressure from Western countries and the democratization processes taking place in the USSR, confronted the Soviet and Afghan leadership with the need for negotiations with opponents of the regime. Throughout the 1980s. such negotiations were conducted under the auspices of the UN between the foreign ministers of Azerbaijan and Pakistan. In con. 1980s A formula for an Afghan settlement was developed - the withdrawal of Soviet troops in exchange for stopping the supply of weapons to the Mujahideen. The settlement agreement was signed on April 14, 1988, and the withdrawal of Soviet troops was completed on February 15, 1989. In the beginning. 1990s The country's leadership made significant efforts to reach a compromise with the interim government of the Mujahideen operating in Pakistan. On January 1, 1992, the USSR and the USA stopped supplying weapons to both sides, and in April. In 1992, opposition forces occupied Kabul without a fight. The country was declared the Islamic State of Afghanistan. Power passed into the hands of the Mujahideen leaders. S. Mojaddidi became president, who was replaced in the same year by B. Rabbani.

Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan

Soon a fierce armed struggle for power unfolded in Azerbaijan between the leaders of the Mujahideen. In conditions where the government controlled only the capital region, warlords divided power in the provinces. In the 1990s. The political and administrative disintegration of Armenia intensified. In a number of regions, pockets of regional and even local power arose. Arbitrariness, violence, banditry, and interethnic conflicts have become a mass phenomenon. The country's economy found itself in a state of chaos and stagnation.

All R. 1990s The Taliban movement (young Islamic radicals who received training in a Pakistani madrasah) appeared on the political arena of Azerbaijan. In 1994, the Taliban captured Kandahar, and in 1996, Kabul, declaring the territory they occupied as the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, led by Mullah Omar. They were opposed by the Northern Alliance (a coalition of various ethnic forces led by Ahmad Shah Massoud). The Taliban leaders established a strict theocratic regime in the territories they controlled, imposing restrictions on the population in socio-political life within the framework of the “pure Islam” they preached. Massive violations of human rights, promotion of drug trafficking, and genocide of national minorities have become common political practices of the Taliban regime. Since 1996, the territory of A. has been used by Osama bin Laden and his organization Al Qaeda as a basis for preparing violent actions against the “infidels.” In con. 1990s Azerbaijan was actually turned into a hotbed of international terrorist activity.

The assassination of the leader of the anti-Taliban forces, Ahmad Shah Massoud (9/9/2001) and the terrorist attacks in the United States (11/9/2001), of which W. bin Laden was accused of organizing, caused a sharp anti-Afghan reaction from Western states. As a result of the military operation carried out in the end. In 2001, by the forces of the anti-terrorist coalition led by the United States, the Taliban regime in Afghanistan was eliminated. On Dec. 2001, at a conference of the leading political forces of A. in Bonn, the Provisional Administration of A. was formed, headed by Hamid Karzai, which declared the main goal of restoring peace in the country and creating a democratic society. In June 2002, at a meeting of the Emergency Loyal Jirga, the Transitional Government of Azerbaijan was formed, and H. Karzai was elected head of state and cabinet of ministers. In Jan. In 2004, a new constitution was adopted, proclaiming civil rights and freedoms. In Oct. 2004 H. Karzai was elected president of Azerbaijan. More than 3 million refugees have returned to the country, but the process of reconstruction of A. is extremely slow. The remnants of the Taliban units are waging an armed struggle against the government of Hamid Karzai and the forces of the international anti-terrorist coalition. The territory of A. is actively used for the production of narcotic drugs with their subsequent export abroad. Power in the provinces actually belongs to mujahideen field commanders, who are only nominally subordinate to the central government.

Due to escalating tensions, the presidential elections scheduled for June 2004 were postponed. In March, the command of the American contingent conducted a major anti-terrorist operation with the participation of units of the Afghan army in areas bordering on Pakistan, which at the same time acted independently. These actions remained ineffective, while in the north and west of Africa the redistribution of spheres of influence continued: in Herat, clashes broke out between government troops and the police of Governor Ismail Khan; The militia of General A.R. Dostum captured the province of Faryab and clashed with the troops of the governor of the province of Balkh A.M. Nur. In August, Ismail Khan successfully resisted regular formations sent from Kabul in Shindand. In October, in the presidential elections, H. Karzai received 55.4% of the vote and took office as president in December. His government set the task of limiting the arbitrariness of regional military leaders, building an effective national security system and continuing reconstruction.

The most important step towards the construction of new armed forces was the implementation of the program of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) of former Mujahideen, aimed at the same time at strengthening the central government on the ground. At its first stage, by July 2005, over 250 units were disbanded, approx. 63 thousand fighters, over 30 thousand units of heavy and light weapons were delivered to warehouses. However, more than 1,000 armed gangs continued to operate in the country (according to various estimates, from 60 to 100 thousand participants). In June 2005, a decree was promulgated on the start of the 2nd stage of the program (“Disarmament of illegal armed groups”), which was expected to be completed within a year. By September, the strength of the Afghan National Army (ANA), which was staffed on a voluntary basis and consisted of 5 regional commands and several corps, including individual brigades and battalions, reached 30 thousand people. By the end of the year, approx. 20 thousand so-called military personnel international coalition forces.

Repeatedly postponed parliamentary elections took place in September 2005 and brought predominance to independents and oppositionists (conservatives, Islamists and traditionalists): the largest factions formed the New A party. (Yu. Kanuni), “Islamic Society of A.” (B. Rabbani, Ismail Khan and A. M. Nur), “National Movement of A.” (A.V. Masud), “National Islamic Movement of A.” (A.R. Dostum), “Islamic Unity Party of the People of A.” (M. Mohakkek). A close ally of Karzai, S. Mojaddidi, was elected chairman of the upper house in December, and oppositionist Y. Kanuni, who defeated the radical Islamist A. R. Sayyaf in the elections, was elected chairman of the lower house.

The remnants of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda continued their anti-government attacks from Pakistan with weapons in their hands. In the provinces, field commanders held positions, often not subordinate to Kabul. Due to economic instability, drug production and trafficking increased, and political violence and ethnic strife continued. The drug business has merged with crime in the person of individual representatives of local authorities and militants. The task of reunifying the country remained no less difficult, given the many religious contradictions that worsened during the war. The problem of refugees returning from abroad stood apart.

The inability of the Karzai cabinet to cope with these problems prompted the world community to return to the issue of increasing aid to Azerbaijan and taking a more active role in its reconstruction. At a conference in London (January - February 2006), 70 countries approved the allocation of $10.5 billion for the “Afghan Package” - a 5-year development plan (disarmament of all illegal groups and completion of the construction of a national army; reduction of the area of ​​mined areas by 70 %; creation of an effective judicial system; strengthening the fight against drug trafficking and corruption; expanding the structure of education; solving social issues and fighting poverty; modernizing transport and energy infrastructure).

In the 2014 presidential elections, the favorites among 8 candidates were A. Abdullah, ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs (from the National Coalition), and A. Ghani Ahmadzai, ex-Minister of Finance (non-party), who received 45 in the 1st round (April 2014), respectively % and 31%. In June, the 2nd round took place, after which a political crisis erupted, as Abdullah demanded a recount of votes, which gave rise to disagreements over which body would carry out this procedure: Ghani Ahmadzai, who supported the idea of ​​centralized power, demanded the involvement of the Central Election Commission A., Abdullah , who defended the division of powers between the president and the prime minister, advocated the participation of international representatives. As a result of the mediation of ex-President Karzai and US Secretary of State John Kerry and under the auspices of the UN, a compromise was reached; in August the parties signed a Declaration on the joint formation of a government of national unity. According to the results announced in September, A. Ghani Ahmadzai, who became president, won with 56.4% of the votes; A. Abdullah, who received 43.5% of the votes, took the position of Chairman of the Executive Council.

Since January 2015, after the withdrawal of most of the international coalition forces from Afghanistan, the terrorist activities of the Taliban and the military confrontation between its supporters and government forces have intensified in the country.

Farm

Australia is one of the poorest countries in the world and is heavily dependent on foreign aid and transit trade. The hostilities, which have not stopped since 1979, have almost completely destroyed the economy; The consequences of the drought of 1998–2002 are also affecting. The only thriving industry during the years of war and instability was the production of opium poppy (according to some estimates, it provides up to 1/3 of GDP). In Jan. 2002, a conference of donor countries on the restoration of Afghanistan was held in Tokyo (representatives of 61 countries, including Russia, the USA and EU countries, as well as the UN, the World Bank, the IMF, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and a number of other organizations participated), at which a program was developed assistance ($4.5 billion before 2006). As a result, some positive trends have emerged in the development of the economy, especially the agricultural sector. Two fundamentals have been set for the coming years. objectives: to encourage peasants to abandon the cultivation of opium poppy and to explore for oil and natural gas deposits in the northern regions of the country.

GDP is $20 billion ($700 per capita; 2003). 60% of GDP is created in agriculture, 20% in industry, 20% in the service sector. Azerbaijan's external debt exceeds 8.5 billion dollars (2004), a significant part of it falls on Russia.

Industry

Since 1967, the large gas field Khoja-Gugerdag has been developed, since 1982 - the Dzharkuduk field; both are in the north of the country (near the city of Shibergan). In the 1980s gas was mainly exported to the USSR, in the beginning. 21st century entirely consumed domestically. Coal (Darai-Suf deposit), oil (Angot), rock salt (near the city of Talukan), lapis lazuli (Sari-Sang), and building materials are also mined (Table 2).

Table 2. Extraction of main types of mineral raw materials

The basis of Azerbaijan's energy sector is hydropower: hydroelectric power plants produce 84% of all electricity, thermal power plants - 16% (2002). The most significant hydroelectric power stations were built on the river. Kabul (Naglu and Surobai) and on the river. Helmand (Kajakai). The largest thermal power plant (powered by natural gas) operates in Mazar-i-Sharif.

The creation of a manufacturing industry began in the 1930s: a cotton factory was built in Puli-Khumri, a sugar factory in Baghlan, and a wool weaving factory in Kandahar. In the five-year plans for economic development (since 1956), the emphasis was placed primarily on the development of the public sector; a bakery plant, a house-building plant, an asphalt concrete and auto repair plant in Kabul, cement plants in Jabal-us-Siraj and Puli-Khumri, a nitrogen fertilizer plant in Mazar-i-Sharif, etc. were put into operation. 1960s - early 1970s New enterprises in the food, textile and pharmaceutical industries began to operate. During the war years, most industrial enterprises were destroyed or stopped working. In the beginning. 21st century Enterprises for the production of fabrics (Kabul, Kandahar, Mazar-i-Sharif), soap and medicines (Kabul), furniture, shoes, and minerals continue to operate. fertilizers (Mazar-i-Sharif) and cement (Gori, Jabal-us-Siraj) (Table 3). Hand-made carpet production is developed (mainly in the north of the country).

Table 3. Production of the most important types of industrial products

Agriculture

The economy of Armenia is traditionally based on agriculture, in which small peasant farms predominate. Total agricultural area land, including pastures, is approx. 62% of the country's territory, the share of arable land is 16%. Arable lands are predominantly occupied by grain crops, which are grown at altitudes of up to 2700 m. Harvesting (2003; thousand tons) of wheat - 2686, barley - 345, corn - 298. Rice is grown on the plains and in the foothills (388 thousand tons in 2003) . The most fertile areas of land are located mosaically: in the north - in the valleys of the tributaries of the Amu Darya, in the east - in the valleys of the Kabul, Logar, Sarobi and Lagman rivers, in the central part - in the Central Afghan Mountains, in the south - in the Helmand vilayat, in the west - in the Herat vilayat . Sugar beets, cotton, oilseeds and sugar cane are also grown. Gardening (apricots, peaches, pears, plums, cherries, pomegranates, citrus fruits), viticulture, and melon growing are developed; almonds and walnuts are grown. In the 1980s About half of the arable land was irrigated (there were underground drainage galleries with wells, as well as a system of ditches fed from rivers and underground springs). A significant part of the irrigation structures was damaged during the hostilities, and cultivation of the fields became dangerous due to mines. In the 1980s–90s. The opium poppy became the leading cash crop, and Africa became the world's main supplier of opium (1,670 tons in 1999, estimate).

Livestock farming, mainly the breeding of sheep (8.8 million heads, including the Karakul breed, in the north of the country) and goats (6 million heads; 2003), is mainly carried out by nomadic tribes. In winter, the herds graze on the plains, in the summer - on mountain pastures (at an altitude of 1000 to 3500 m). Cattle (zebu and buffalo 2600), donkeys 920, camels 290, horses 104 are also bred (thousand heads; 2003).

Transport and communications

There are practically no railways - a 9.6 km long line has been laid from Kushka (Turkmenistan) to Torgundi and 15 km from Termez (Uzbekistan) to Hairatan (it is planned to extend it to Mazar-i-Sharif). The length of roads is 21 thousand km, including 2.8 thousand km with hard surface (1999). During the period of hostilities, the condition of the roads deteriorated, and practically no repairs were carried out. The use of horse-drawn transport (camels, horses, donkeys) is common. Of particular importance is the ring road Kabul - Kandahar - Herat - Maymene - Mazar-i-Sharif - Khulm - Kabul, connecting the most important cities of the country. The only navigable river is the Amu Darya. The main river ports are Hairatan and Sherkhan. Two oil pipelines have been laid in Azerbaijan: from Turkmenistan to Shindand and from Uzbekistan to Bagram (both are inactive). The length of gas pipelines is 387 km. 10 airfields with paved runways, international airport in Kabul, 5 airfields for helicopters (2004).

External economic relations

The total value of legal exports of A. is $98 million, imports exceeded $1 billion (2002). The main export items are fruits, nuts, carpets, wool, cotton, tanned and untanned animal skins, precious and semi-precious stones. The main countries that purchase goods from Africa: Pakistan (28.6%), India (27.6%), Finland (6.1%), Belgium (5.1%), Germany (5.1%), Russia (4.1%) and the USA (4.1%). Capital goods, food products, textiles, petroleum products, etc. are imported, mainly. from Pakistan (24.3%), South Korea (14%), Japan (9.1%), USA (8.7%), Germany (5.7%) and Kenya (5.6%).

Foreign tourism has been actively developing since the end. 1960s before the Afghan conflict of 1979–89 (in 1978, more than 100 thousand foreign tourists visited Afghanistan).

Healthcare

Total health expenditure is 8.2% of GDP (2014). There are 26 doctors per 100 thousand inhabitants (2014), 18 paramedical personnel (by 2010). The incidence of diphtheria was 854 cases, measles – 2486, whooping cough – 1439.

Sport

Since ancient times, equestrian sports, archery, fencing with sticks, stone pushing, etc. have been cultivated and popular in the country. The most developed and popular sports are: wrestling, athletics, football, field hockey.

The National Olympic Committee was created in 1935 and recognized by the IOC in 1936. Athletes made their debut at the Olympic Games in Berlin (1936); subsequently participated in all Olympic Games (with the exception of 1952, 1976, 1984, 1992, 2000). Two bronze Olympic medals (as of January 1, 2016) were won by R. Niklay in taekwondo competitions in Beijing (2008, weight category up to 58 kg) and London (2012, up to 68 kg). Athletes of A. participated in 13 Asian Games; (as of January 1, 2016) 5 silver and 6 bronze medals were won. The most popular sports: football, field hockey, volleyball, basketball, boxing, chess, national wrestling - pakhlavani. Since 1996, the national chess team of Armenia has been participating in the World Chess Olympiads.

Education

Azerbaijan's education system was completely destroyed during the years of civil war and the rule of the Taliban. In 2002, an emergency plan for the restoration of the education system “Back to School” was prepared, designed for 2 years. Education is administered by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education. Main regulatory documents: Law on Education (2008), Law on Higher Education (2013). In 2015, a plan was developed for the development of the education system in Azerbaijan until 2020. The education system includes: 6-year primary, 6-year secondary (3-year incomplete and 3-year complete) education. Training is free and separate at all levels. Initial training covers approx. 100% children, average - 46.8% (2013; data from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics). The literacy rate of the population over 15 years of age is 24.2% (2015). In many regions, the problem of gender equality remains unresolved. According to the Ministry of Education in 2015, of the 11.5 million Afghan children attending school, 4.5 million (42%) were girls.

Secondary vocational education (2–5 years of study) is carried out on the basis of junior high school. Post-secondary vocational education programs (grades 13–14) are offered in vocational colleges, teacher training colleges, and Islamic schools. The qualifications they provide are generally intended for access to the labor market. The higher education system operates: Kabul University (founded in 1932, closed in the 1990s; resumed classes in 2002); state universities: medical (1932), polytechnic (1951, modern status since 1963), pedagogical named after Burhanuddin Rabbani (history dates back to 1964, modern status since 2002), American (2006), national defense named after Marshal Fahim (2005, modern name and status since 2014) – all in Kabul; Nangarhar University (Jalalabad city, founded in 1963, initially trained medical personnel), Balkh, Herat (1988), Kandahar (1990) universities; Agricultural Science and Technology University (2014, Kandahar Province), as well as universities in Bamyan, Badakhshan and Khost and other provinces. There are also private universities: Kardan (2003), Bakhtar (2005), Karwan (2008), RANA (2009), Salam (2009), etc. Libraries: Ministry of Education (1920), Department of Press and Information (1931) public - in Kabul (1920) and Herat, etc. National Archives of A. (1890). Kabul National Museum (dates back to 1919; closed in the mid-1990s - 2001; reopened in 2004), Herat National Museum (1925), Museum of Islamic Art in Ghazni (1966; restored 2004- 07) and others. National Gallery of Art (2003).

mass media

The media system in Azerbaijan, practically destroyed during the reign of the Taliban, has been undergoing a restoration process since 2001. The country has (2004) state television, radio broadcasting and a news agency. In addition, there are 3 independent radio broadcasters (including the most influential Radio Kabul), a private television company and a private news agency, Afghan Islamic Press. ). More than 260 newspapers and other periodicals are published.

Literature

Armenian literature develops in two languages ​​- Pashto and Dari. Literature in Pashto also exists in parts of Pakistan; literature in Dari is the heir to the Persian classical literary tradition (see Iran, section Literature). Among the earliest surviving monuments of Pashtun literature is the “Cadastral Book” of Sheikh Mali (15th century). By the 16th century creativity applies Bayazid Ansari, founder of the Roshanite sect. The heyday of classical literature in Pashto occurred in the 17th–18th centuries, when 4 main poetic schools emerged: “Roshani” (which called for a struggle against the conquerors and was colored by the ideology of Sufism), Khushkhal Khan Khattak(professed national liberation ideas and used secular forms of poetry), Abdurrahman Mohmand(who developed Sufi themes) and Abdulhamida Mohmanda(notable for the complexity of artistic images and poetic speech).

In the 19th century In connection with the political consolidation of the peoples of Azerbaijan, bilingual literature of Azerbaijan is being formed in Dari and Pashto (the works of panegyric poets Kabuli Vasiri, Tarshizi Shahab, A. Faiz Muhammad; epic poets A. Ghulam Muhammad, H. Kashmiri, emir Abdurrahman, poetess A. Durrani, poets R. Badakhshi, Y. Mukhlis). In the beginning. 20th century Modern Armenian literature is emerging, associated with educational trends (Mahmud-bek Tarzi, G. M. Afgan, Davi Abdulhadi, M. Salih). In 1936, Pashto was declared the second official language along with Dari. In 1937, the Afghan Academy of Language and Literature was created. New prose genres are being mastered, in particular the story (works by S. M. Alamshahi, Miraminuddin Ansari, G. M. Zhvanday - in Dari; B. Kushkaki and K. M. Rafik - in Pashto).

In literature A. 2nd half. 20th century social issues prevailed (poetry Ulfata Gul-Pachi and A. Benawa, essays by K. Khadim and S. Rishtin, fiction by N. M. Taraki, Muhammaddin Zhvak, Abdullah Bakhtani). Adherence to traditional motifs is maintained by Abdulhak Betab, H. Khalili (in Dari), J. G. Jeilani, S. Majrukh, M. S. Psarlai (in Pashto); modern forms are mastered by S. Laik (in the Pashto and Dari languages), Sh. Barik (in the Dari language). In modern prose, new directions are being formed: romantic (A. Pazhvak and G. G. Khaibari), and then realistic (G. H. Faal, F. A. Parvana, N. Khatir, I. Kheir, R. Rahim, A. . Habib, K. Mazhari). After the PDPA regime came to power, the Union of Writers of Armenia was created (1980), and the magazine “Zhvandun” (“Life”) became its official organ. The work of prose writers A. Usman (Kuzagara), A. R. Zaryab, dates back to this time. Afghanpura Amina, A. Kargara, Z. Anzor, B. Bajaurai, Habib Kadir, I. Atayi. In poetry, the classical tradition was continued by N. Hafiz, N. Takhuri, A. Thakor, A. Khazan. V. Bakhtari, L. Nazimi, S. K. Tufani, A. Naibi, F. Farda turned to new poetic techniques and genres. Themes of social struggle and revolutionary pathos are characteristic of the poetry of D. Panjsheri.

War of the last quarter of the 20th century. led to the emigration of a significant part of Afghan writers. Prominent representatives of Pashtun literature abroad are the novelist S. Shpun, poets A. Jahani, P. M. Karavan, S. Siddiqui, M. Parvin Faiz-zada.

Architecture and fine arts

The artistic culture of the peoples of ancient and medieval Africa developed in close connection with the cultures of the peoples of Central Asia, India, and Iran. The territory of Northern Africa, as part of Bactria and Tokharistan, formed a single historical and cultural region with the southern regions of Central Asia; the territory south of the Hindu Kush was more closely connected with Hindustan. In con. 4th – 3rd millennium BC e. in Southern Africa, early agricultural settlements (Mundigak) arose with adobe buildings, painted ceramics, and clay figurines of animals and women—goddesses of fertility; from the 2nd millennium BC e. with the growth of these settlements, defensive walls and monumental structures were erected (a building with closed semi-columns - “corrugations” on the facade in Mundigak).

In the oases of Northern Africa in the 2nd millennium BC. e. the settlements were also surrounded by walls and included monumental buildings (“round temple” and “palace” in Dashly-3), decorated with pilasters, in some rooms - alabaster mosaics with floral patterns; In settlements and burial grounds, copper and bronze seals with geometric motifs, less often with incised images of a winged goddess and animals, metal pins with sculpted tops in the form of proto (the front part of the figure) of rams and bull heads with a human face, etc. were discovered. In terms of style, the art of A. 4 – 2nd millennium BC e. is included in the range of artistic cultures of the Ancient Near East, but includes elements of the Harappan culture. The Achaemenid period (6th–4th centuries BC) includes monumental structures discovered by archaeologists in the settlements of Northern Africa (the round “temple” of Kutlug-Tepe, the “summer” and “winter” palaces in Altyn-10), developing the ancient Bactrian tradition, as well as the main part of the so-called products. Amudarya treasure. During the period of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250–140 BC), one of the schools of Hellenistic art developed in Northern Africa (the most significant monuments were found in Ai-Khanum). The first centuries BC. e. - first centuries AD e. rich burials of the leaders of nomadic tribes date back to Tillya-Tepe, Northern Africa, where approx. 20 thousand jewelry (gold, inserts of turquoise, carnelian, lapis lazuli, etc.), the visual and ornamental forms of which indicate the assimilation by local craftsmen of the ancient Middle Eastern, Indian, Far Eastern, steppe (see Surkhkotal, associated with the dynasty cult. Numerous preserved monuments of Buddhist religious architecture of the 1st–8th centuries and related works of monumental sculpture, painting, and ornamental decoration.Ground monasteries (near Balkh, Kunduz, in Hadda), like other buildings, were erected from adobe and pakhsa, less often from stone, had courtyards with a massive stupa and rooms with beamed or vaulted coverings, and from the 3rd to 4th centuries, domes appeared on trompe l'oeil... A cave monastery developed in Bamyan, in whose paintings and stucco decoration the influence of the art of India and Iran is noticeable.

After the Arab conquests (7th–8th centuries) and the spread of Islam, Arabic art developed in line with the artistic culture of Muslim countries. Among the outstanding monuments of medieval architecture: the domed Nu-Gumbed mosque in Balkh (10th century); palace complex Lashkari Bazar residences of the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in Busta (11th–12th centuries); the star-shaped memorial towers and palace of Masud III in Ghazni; stepped, round minaret in the village. Jam (between 1153 and 1202); Cathedral Mosque and Musalla ensemble in Herat.

In the medieval art of Azerbaijan, enriched by constant contacts with the states of Central Asia, Iran, and partly India, distinctive schools emerged. The most significant school of decorative and fine arts was formed in Herat (art metal working, carpet weaving, wood carving, etc.). From the beginning 15th century the court library-workshop (kitabhane) worked here, with which the development of Herat school miniatures, the work of K. Behzad, his most famous student Qasim Ali and other famous miniaturists, calligraphers and ornamentalists. Subtle color harmony, refined linear drawing, virtuoso calligraphy and exquisite ornamentation of the Herat manuscripts had a great influence on Iranian, Central Asian and Indian masters of handwritten books. In the beginning. 16th century The leading role in the artistic life of Azerbaijan passed to Kabul as the residence of Babur, the founder of the Mughal dynasty. From ser. 18th century significant construction took place in Kandahar (the 8-sided domed mausoleum of Ahmad Shah Durrani). Folk architecture in Africa, 18th–20th centuries. The type is similar to residential buildings in Central Asia and Pakistan; domed houses are common in many areas.

A new stage in the development of architecture and fine arts began with the end. 1920s, when, under the leadership of the French architect A. Godard, a project for the development of new areas of Kabul was developed. Masters from other countries, including Russian ones, took part in the development of Afghan architecture. From the end 1970s intensive construction of residential and public buildings, schools, kindergartens, and hydraulic structures was carried out. According to the general plan of 1978, a Television Center, a hospital, and a complex of buildings for the Medical Institute were built in Kabul. In some monumental buildings, 1st floor. – sir. 20th century Along with modern architectural forms and new materials (glass, concrete), traditional ones were used (Abidaya Maiwand column in Kabul with decor of blue tiles and black marble, architect Ismatullah Seraj, 1950s). In the fine arts of Azerbaijan, an important role was played by the School of Fine and Applied Arts and Crafts, founded in Kabul in 1921, headed by Abdulgafur Breshna, and the work of his students and followers - Gausuddin, Khair Muhammad, Wafa and others. In the 1950s and 60s. Afghan artists participated in international art exhibitions. After 1978, various forms of propaganda (posters, newspaper and magazine graphics) and amateur art developed intensively. Since 1989, a trend in painting associated with the revival of the traditions of Herat miniature has become popular. Floral motifs predominate in the decorative design of mosques and public buildings.

During the reign of the Taliban, a number of the most valuable monuments of art on the territory of Azerbaijan were destroyed (Bamiyan, etc.). In modern art, traditional types of crafts continue to occupy a large place (Herat glassmaking, Pashtun painted lacquerware, jewelry, etc.), and carpet weaving remains an important item of Afghan export.

Music

Musical culture in ancient times was associated with Achaemenid, Bactrian, Kushan, and Sasanian traditions. It is known to exist in the first centuries AD. e. Zoroastrian cult chants. In the Buddhist cult centers of Bamiyan and Hadde, images of musicians were preserved. Islam had a significant impact on musical culture (this was manifested, in particular, in the traditionally low social status of musicians and dancers). From the 15th century, with the movement of the center of Timurid musical culture from Samarkand to Herat, classical musical art took shape, uniting the traditions of Arabic (based on the maqam system) and Indian (based on the principle of raga) music; a music theory oriented towards it was born (for example, A. Jami, the author of the “Treatise on Music”, lived in Herat, 2nd half of the 15th century; parts of the treatise “Dastarnama” - “The Book of the Turban” by H. Khattak, 1665) are devoted to music ). The heyday of classical music in Africa occurred in the 17th–19th centuries.

The musical culture of modern Africa, due to the ethnic, linguistic, religious and sociocultural heterogeneity of the population, is a complex phenomenon. For centuries, music developed in close interaction with Arab-Iranian, Indian, Middle Asian cultures, and until the beginning. 21st century The southern region of Azerbaijan remained close to the music of Pakistan, the western - Iran, the northern - Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Pashtuns, Balochis, Tajiks, Nuristanis, Turkmens, Pamiris, and various nomadic tribes have independent traditions. Cult music is associated with the traditions of normative Islam and Sufi brotherhoods; In the central regions of Africa, the Hazaras have specific genres associated with Shiism. Folklore is represented by work songs (performed during digging ditches, harvesting, collecting firewood in the mountains, working at the mill) and ensemble instrumental music; music of rituals - calendar, healing, wedding (the crying of the bride babulala is specific; the song performed when the bride’s hands are dyed with henna); women's home music playing; comic songs laba (“game”). Music accompanies caravan movements and performances by snake charmers. The Landyi vocal genre is widespread (known since the 8th–9th centuries, in the Pashto language, in 2 text varieties: women's love-lyrical songs bazmi and men's warlike razmi). Popular art, sarinda, archaic bow harp (so-called kafir), santoor dulcimer, chang; wind instruments - nay, tuiduk, surnay, koshnay, karnay, binbaja bagpipes; drums – doira, daf membranophones, double-sided dhol drum.

At the turn of the 19th–20th centuries, with the penetration of European instruments (piano, mandolin, accordion, so-called Indian harmonica) and other elements of European musical culture into Africa, new trends emerged. Forms of musical theater began to develop, urban song styles became widespread (singers Sarahang, Y. Kosimi, Nashenas, A. Zoir, Hafizullah Khyal were popular), and various performing groups were organized: the Orchestra of National Instruments of the Kabul Radio (1946), the Variety Orchestra (1961), song and dance ensemble “Nargis”. Among the performers on traditional instruments are Muhammad Omar (rubob), Abdulmajid (tanbur), M. N. Mazari (gijak), M. Hussein (surnay). Since 1978, art festivals of the peoples of Armenia have been held, and the Union of Artists was created (with a music section, 1980). Many Afghan musicians studied in the USSR. After 1992, all types of entertainment music were banned; a number of musicians left the country (for example, the famous classical singer Mahvash emigrated to the USA). In the 2000s. The process of revival of religious and folk music began.

Movie

The first film in Afghanistan is considered to be the film “Like an Eagle” by F. M. Khaerzade (1963, jointly with India), although foreign films were shown in cinemas already since 1915. In 1968, the film studio “Afghanfilm” was founded, where they were filmed as documentaries (“Afghanistan in development”, 1969, “The Secret of Happiness”, 1970), and feature films (“Time Men”, 1970, “Mother’s Order”, 1973, both directed by A. Kh. Alil; “Hard Days” by V. Latifi, “ Rabia-Balkhi" M. Nadiri, both - 1974; "Statues laugh", 1976, directed by Shafik). An attempt to modernize the Azerbaijani film industry was made after the so-called. April Revolution 1978 (“Hot Summer in Kabul” by A.I. Khamraev with the participation of Latifi; 1983, together with the Mosfilm film studio). Afghan students received their education at VGIK, and full-length feature films were created mainly in film studios of the USSR. At the turn of the 20th–21st centuries, after the overthrow of the Taliban regime (1996–2001), the support of the international creative intelligentsia contributed to the formation of Afghan film production itself (“Osama” by S. Barmak, 2002, IFF Prize in Cannes; “Earth and Ashes” by A. Rahimi , 2004). In collaboration with various countries of the East and West, films were created by Barmak (“The Opium War”, 2008), Rahimi (“The Stone of Patience”) and N. Haya (the documentary “My Afghanistan: Life in the Forbidden Zone”; both 2012), X Muruvata (“Flight without wings”, 2014), etc.