The part of the nervous system that innervates the internal organs. The autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic parts.

Adrenaline is a hormone of the adrenal medulla, the secretion of which is enhanced in stressful situations.

Axon - a process of a neuron, through which excitation is transmitted to other neurons or to a working organ.

Alveolus - bubble-like formation in the lungs, braided with blood capillaries.

Analyzers are complex systems of sensitive nerve formations that perceive information from the environment and analyze it (visual, auditory, gustatory, etc.). Each analyzer consists of three sections: peripheral (receptors), conductor (nerve) and central (corresponding zone of the cerebral cortex). Currently, along with the term analyzer, the concept of "sensory system" is used.

Androgens are male sex hormones produced mainly by the testes, as well as by the adrenal cortex and ovaries.

Antigens - substances that are perceived by the body as foreign and cause a specific immune response.

Antibodies are human plasma proteins that have the ability to bind antigens. Interacting with microorganisms, antibodies prevent their reproduction and/or neutralize the toxic substances they release.

The aorta is the main artery of the circulatory system; supplies blood to all tissues and organs of the body.

Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the organs and tissues of the body.

The tympanic membrane is a thin membrane that separates the external auditory canal from the tympanic cavity in the human ear.

Unconditioned reflexes are relatively constant, innate reactions of the body to the influences of the outside world, carried out with the help of the nervous system. For example, blinking, sucking, sneezing in newborns.

Pregnancy is a physiological process in a woman's body, in which a fetus develops from a fertilized egg. It lasts an average of 280 days. It ends with childbirth - the birth of a child.

Myopia is a lack of vision in which close objects are clearly seen and distant objects are poorly seen.

The vagus nerve is a large parasympathetic nerve that slows down the rhythm and force of the heart contractions.

The bronchi are the airways that connect the trachea and the lungs.

Veins are blood vessels that carry blood from organs and tissues to the heart.

Vitamins are low molecular weight organic compounds that have high biological activity and are involved in metabolism. A person must receive vitamins from food. With their deficiency, beriberi develops - diseases associated with metabolic disorders. There are water-soluble (C, B1, B6, etc.) and fat-soluble (A, E, D, etc.) vitamins.

Taste analyzer - perceives and analyzes soluble chemical irritants acting on the organ of taste (tongue).

The inner ear is a system of communicating, fluid-filled canals and cavities in the cartilaginous or bony labyrinth in vertebrates and humans. In the inner ear are located the perceiving parts of the organs of hearing and balance - the cochlea and the vestibular apparatus.

Excitability - the ability of organs and tissues to respond to the action of stimuli with a specific reaction - excitation, in which a living system passes from a state of rest to activity.

Villi are microscopic outgrowths of the intestinal mucosa, which greatly increase the absorption surface.

Inflammation is a complex adaptive vascular tissue response of the body to the effects of various pathogens: physical, chemical, biological.

Absorption is a set of processes that ensure the transfer of substances from the digestive tract to the internal environment of the body (blood and lymph).

Isolation (excretion) - removal from the body into the environment of the end products of metabolism - water, salts, etc.

Higher nervous activity - the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system, providing the most perfect adaptation of a person to the environment. The basis of higher nervous activity is conditioned reflexes. The doctrine of higher nervous activity was created by IP Pavlov.

Gamete is a sex cell.

A ganglion is a ganglion located outside the central nervous system. Formed by a cluster of bodies of neurons.

Hemoglobin is the red respiratory pigment of human blood. A protein that contains iron (II). Found in erythrocytes. Carries oxygen from the respiratory organs to the tissues and carbon dioxide from the tissues to the respiratory organs. Co-

The amount of hemoglobin in human blood is 130-160 g / l, in women it is somewhat less than in men.

Hygiene is a field of medicine that studies the influence of living and working conditions on human health. Develops measures to prevent diseases, ensure optimal living conditions, maintain health and prolong life.

The hypothalamus is a part of the diencephalon in which the centers of the autonomic nervous system are located. Closely related to the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus regulates metabolism, the activity of the cardiovascular, digestive, excretory systems and endocrine glands, the mechanisms of sleep, wakefulness, and emotions. It connects the nervous and endocrine systems.

The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland that produces hormones that affect the growth and development of the body, as well as metabolic processes. The pituitary gland regulates the activity of other endocrine glands. Damage to the pituitary gland leads to various diseases - dwarfism, gigantism, etc.

Glycogen is a polysaccharide made up of glucose molecules. It is synthesized and deposited in the cytoplasm of liver and muscle cells. Glycogen is sometimes referred to as animal starch because it serves as a reserve nutrient.

The pharynx is the part of the digestive canal that connects the oral cavity with the esophagus, and the nasal cavity with the larynx.

Homeostasis is the relative dynamic constancy of the composition and properties of the internal environment of the body, as well as the mechanisms that ensure this stability.

The brain is a part of the central nervous system located in the cranial cavity. Includes 5 departments: oblong, posterior (bridge and cerebellum), middle, intermediate (thalamus and hypothalamus) and telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres and corpus callosum).

Gonads are the sex glands in humans and animals.

Hormones are biologically active substances produced in the body by special cells or organs (endocrine glands) and released into the blood. Hormones have a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues. With their help, humoral regulation of body functions is carried out.

The larynx is the initial section of the airways, protecting them from food ingress.

Thorax - a set of thoracic vertebrae, ribs and sternum, forming a strong support for the shoulder girdle. The space inside the chest (thoracic cavity) is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm. Inside the chest cavity are the lungs and the heart.

Humoral regulation - coordination of vital processes in the body, carried out through liquid media (blood, lymph, tissue fluid) with the help of hormones and various metabolic products.

Farsightedness is a lack of vision that makes it difficult to see clearly at close range. Depends on the weak refractive power of the cornea and lens or too short anterior-posterior axis of the eye.

Dendrites are branching processes of neurons that conduct nerve impulses to the body of a nerve cell.

Dermis is the connective tissue part of the skin of vertebrates and humans, located under the outer layer - the epidermis.

The diaphragm is a muscular septum that completely separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.

Dominant - a strong, persistent focus of excitation that occurs in the central nervous system. The dominant focus has an inhibitory effect on the activity of other nerve centers.

Respiration is a set of processes that ensure the entry of oxygen into the body, its use for the oxidation of organic substances with the release of energy and the release of carbon dioxide into the environment.

The respiratory center is a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata and other parts of the brain that provide the rhythmic activity of the respiratory muscles.

Glands are organs that secrete special substances (secrets) that are involved in metabolism. There are glands of external, internal and mixed secretion.

External secretion glands - usually have excretory ducts and secrete secrets on the surface of the body (sweat, sebaceous) or in the cavity of internal organs (salivary, intestinal, etc.).

Endocrine glands - do not have excretory ducts and secrete the substances they produce into the blood or lymph (pituitary, epiphysis, thymus, thyroid and parathyroid glands, etc.).

Glands of mixed secretion - have intra- and exocrine secretion (pancreas and genital - ovaries and testes).

The yellow spot is an area on the retina located along the optical axis of the eye, where the largest number of cones is concentrated.

Gastric juice is a colorless liquid that contains digestive enzymes, mucus and hydrochloric acid solution.

Bile is a secret produced by liver cells. Contains water, bile salts, pigments, cholesterol. Bile promotes emulsification and

absorption of fats, increased contractions of the muscles of the intestine, activates the enzymes of pancreatic juice.

Vital capacity is the sum of tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, and inspiratory reserve volume. measured with a spirometer.

A zygote is a fertilized egg. The initial stage of development of the embryo.

The visual analyzer is a set of visual receptors, the optic nerve and parts of the brain that perceive and analyze visual stimuli.

Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist the action of damaging agents, while maintaining its integrity and biological individuality. Protective reaction of the body.

The immune system is a group of organs (red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, etc.) involved in the formation of immune cells.

Infectious diseases are diseases caused by pathogenic microorganisms.

Artificial respiration - therapeutic techniques used to stop natural breathing. The caregiver actively blows (exhales) his own air into the lungs of the victim. In the absence of palpitations, it is combined with an indirect heart massage.

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels through the walls of which the exchange of substances and gases between the blood and tissues of the body is carried out.

Caries is the gradual destruction of tooth tissues. One of the most common human diseases, manifested in the formation of a defect in enamel and dentin.

Valves - folds that separate the sections of the heart and prevent the reverse flow of blood (in humans - tricuspid, bicuspid, or mitral, two semilunar).

Cones are light-sensitive flask-shaped cells (photoreceptors) located in the human retina. Provide color vision.

The cerebral cortex is a layer of gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres. The highest department of the central nervous system, which regulates and coordinates all the vital functions of the body in its interaction with the environment.

The organ of Corti is the receptor part of the auditory analyzer, located in the inner ear and represented by hair cells in which nerve impulses arise.

Blood is a tissue of the internal environment, the intercellular substance of which is represented by a liquid (plasma). The composition of blood, in addition to plasma, includes formed elements - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.

Blood pressure is the pressure of blood on the walls of blood vessels and chambers of the heart, resulting from its contractions and vascular resistance. The pressure at the time of ventricular contraction is systolic, and during diastole it is diastolic.

Circulation - the movement of blood through the system of blood vessels (large and small circles of blood circulation), mainly due to contractions of the heart.

Leukocytes are white human blood cells. They play an important role in protecting the body from infections - they produce antibodies and absorb bacteria.

Lymph is a fluid that circulates through the vessels and nodes of the lymphatic system. Contains a small amount of proteins and lymphocytes. It performs a protective function, and also ensures the exchange of substances between body tissues and blood.

The lymphatic system is a collection of lymphatic vessels and nodes through which lymph moves.

Lymphocytes are a form of non-granular leukocytes. Participate in the development and maintenance of immunity.

A mediator is a chemical substance whose molecules are capable of reacting with specific receptors on the plasma membrane of a cell. In this case, its permeability for certain ions changes and an active electrical signal arises. Mediators are involved in the transfer of excitation from one cell to another. The role of mediators is carried out by adrenaline, acetylcholine, norepinephrine, etc.

Slow-wave sleep is a phase of sleep characterized by a decrease in all functions of the human body, the absence of dreams.

Tonsils - accumulations of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx, performing a protective role.

Myocardium is the muscular layer of the heart.

Myofibrils are contractile fibers made up of protein filaments.

The cerebellum is part of the human hindbrain. Plays a leading role in maintaining body balance and coordination of movements.

The mammary glands are paired human skin glands. Develop in women by the period of puberty. After childbirth, they begin to produce milk.

Urine is a excretory product of animals and humans, produced by the kidneys. Consists of water (96%) and the salts contained in it, as well as final

products of protein metabolism (urea, uric acid, etc.). In the process of urine formation, the primary urine is first obtained, and then the final urine.

The adrenal glands are paired endocrine glands. The cortical layer of the adrenal glands secretes corticosteroids, as well as partially male and female sex hormones; medulla - adrenaline and norepinephrine. They play an important role in the regulation of metabolism and in the adaptation of the body to adverse conditions.

The outer ear is the outer part of the auditory analyzer.

A neuron is a nerve cell, the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. There are sensory, intercalary and motor neurons. They consist of a body and processes - dendrites and axons that are involved in the transmission of excitation.

Neurohumoral regulation - joint regulation of body functions by nervous and humoral mechanisms.

Nervous regulation is the coordinating influence of the nervous system on cells, tissues and organs, bringing their activity in line with the needs of the body.

Nerve fibers - processes of nerve cells that conduct nerve impulses.

Nerves are bundles of nerve fibers covered by a common sheath.

The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidneys. It has the appearance of a cup-shaped capsule with a tubule extending from it.

Metabolism - a set of chemical transformations of substances, including the processes of their entry into the body, changes, accumulation and removal of metabolic products. Metabolism is carried out with the participation of enzymes and includes the reactions of synthesis and splitting.

Olfactory sensory system - performs the perception and analysis of chemical stimuli. It is represented by the epithelium of the nasal cavity, the olfactory nerve and the olfactory centers of the cerebral cortex.

Fertilization is the process of fusion of female and male sex cells. As a result of fertilization, a zygote is formed.

Posture is the body position habitual for each person when walking, standing and sitting.

Touch - provides the ability to perceive and distinguish the shape, size and nature of the surface of an object.

Rods are light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors) in the retina. Provides twilight vision. Unlike cones, they are more sensitive, but do not perceive colors.

The parasympathetic nervous system is a division of the autonomic nervous system, the centers of which are located in the spinal cord, medulla oblongata, and midbrain. Together with the sympathetic nervous system, it is involved in the regulation of the activity of all internal organs and glands.

The forebrain is the anterior part of the brain of vertebrates, subdivided into the final (large hemispheres of the brain) and diencephalon.

The pericardium is a pericardial sac, a connective tissue sac that surrounds the heart.

The liver is a digestive gland. In addition to the synthesis of bile, it is involved in the metabolism of proteins, etc. It performs a barrier function.

Nutrition - the entry into the human body and the assimilation of substances necessary to replenish energy costs, build and renew tissues. Through nutrition as an integral part of metabolism, the body is connected with the external environment. Insufficient and excessive nutrition leads to metabolic disorders (dystrophy, obesity).

Plasma is the liquid part of blood and lymph.

The placenta, a child's place, is an organ that communicates the fetus with the mother's body. Through the placenta, oxygen and nutrients are supplied from the mother, and metabolic products are removed from the body of the fetus. It also performs hormonal and protective functions.

A fetus is a human embryo in the period of intrauterine development after the laying of the main organs and systems (from the 9th week of pregnancy until birth).

Flat feet - flattening of the arch of the foot, causing pain.

The pancreas is a gland of mixed secretion. Its exocrine function is to produce enzymes involved in digestion, and its intrasecretory function is to secrete hormones (insulin, glucagon) that regulate carbohydrate metabolism.

Subcutaneous adipose tissue is a type of connective tissue. Serves as an energy depot of the body.

Sweat glands - external secretion glands involved in the release of metabolic products, thermoregulation. located in the skin.

The kidney is an organ of excretion. Nitrogen-containing metabolic products are excreted through the kidneys in the urine.

Conductivity - the ability of nerve and muscle cells not only to produce, but also to conduct an electrical impulse.

The medulla oblongata is a section of the brain stem located between the pons and the spinal cord. The medulla oblongata contains centers for breathing, circulation, sneezing, coughing, swallowing, etc.

The diencephalon is a part of the brain stem that includes several areas (including the hypothalamus). In the diencephalon are the higher centers of the autonomic nervous system.

Pulse - periodic oscillations of the walls of the arteries, occurring synchronously with the contractions of the heart.

The iris (iris) is a thin movable diaphragm of the eye with a pupillary opening in the center. Contains pigment cells that determine eye color.

Irritability is the ability of cells, tissues or the whole organism to respond to changes in the external or internal environment.

Rational nutrition is a nutrition system that maximally satisfies the current energy and plastic needs of the body.

The Rh factor is a protein (antigen) found in people's blood. About 85% of the world's population have the Rh factor (Rh+), the rest do not have it (Rh-). The presence or absence of the Rh factor is taken into account during blood transfusion.

Reflex - a response of the body to a change in the conditions of the external or internal environment, carried out with the participation of the nervous system. There are unconditioned and conditioned reflexes.

Reflex arc - a set of nerve formations involved in the reflex. Includes receptors, sensory fibers, nerve center, motor fibers, executive organ (muscle, gland, etc.).

Receptor - a formation that perceives irritation. Receptors can be nerve endings or specialized cells (eg, rods and cones in the retina). Receptors convert the energy of the stimulus acting on them into nerve impulses.

The cornea is the anterior transparent part of the sclera that transmits light rays.

Childbirth is a complex physiological act of expulsion of the fetus and afterbirth (placenta, membranes and umbilical cord) from the uterine cavity.

Sebaceous glands are glands located in the skin that secrete a secret that makes the skin and hair water-repellent and elastic.

Self-regulation - the ability of a biological system to independently maintain various physiological indicators (blood pressure, body temperature, blood sugar, etc.) at a relatively constant level.

Blood clotting is a protective reaction of the body, expressed in stopping bleeding (formation of a clot) when a vessel is damaged.

Secretion is the process of formation and secretion of special substances from gland cells - secrets.

The spleen is an unpaired organ of vertebrates and humans, located in the abdominal cavity. Participates in hematopoiesis, metabolism, performs immunobiological and protective functions.

The testicles (testicles) are the male sex glands in which spermatozoa are produced.

A cardiac cycle is a period that includes one contraction and one relaxation of the heart.

The heart is the main organ of the circulatory system. Consists of two halves, each of which includes an atrium and a ventricle.

The retina is the inner shell of the eye, which contains light-sensitive receptors - rods and cones.

Sympathetic nervous system - a section of the autonomic nervous system, including nerve cells of the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord and nerve cells of the border sympathetic trunk, solar plexus, mesenteric nodes, the processes of which innervate all organs. The sympathetic nervous system is involved in the regulation of a number of body functions: impulses are carried through its fibers, causing increased metabolism, increased heart rate, vasoconstriction, dilated pupils, etc.

Synapse - a zone of functional contact between neurons and other formations.

Systole is the contraction of the atria or ventricles of the heart.

The sclera is the outer opaque membrane that covers the eyeball and passes in front of the eye into the transparent cornea. Performs protective and shaping functions.

Auditory analyzer - performs the perception and analysis of sounds. Consists of the inner, middle and outer ear.

Salivary glands are external secretion glands that open into the oral cavity and produce saliva.

Contractility - the property of muscle fibers to change their shape and size - to perform a motor function.

The somatic nervous system is part of the peripheral nervous system that innervates the musculoskeletal system and skin.

Sperm - produced by the male gonads. Consists of

matozoids (male sex cells) and seminal fluid, which ensures their mobility.

The middle ear is a part of the organ of hearing, consisting of an air-filled tympanic cavity and three auditory ossicles - the malleus, anvil and stirrup. Separated from the external auditory canal by the tympanic membrane.

The vitreous body is a gelatinous mass that fills the cavity of the eye. It is part of the optical system of the eye.

Joint - a movable connection of bones, which allows the bones to move in different planes. There are uniaxial (only flexion - extension), biaxial (also adduction and abduction) and triaxial (rotation) joints.

Thermoregulation - regulation in the body of the processes of formation and release of heat.

Tissue fluid is one of the components of the internal environment of the body. Fills intercellular spaces in tissues and organs of animals and humans. Serves as a medium for cells, from which they absorb nutrients and into which they give metabolic products.

Inhibition is an active physiological process, manifested in the cessation or weakening of current activity. Along with excitation, it ensures the coordinated work of all organs and systems.

Trachea - part of the respiratory tract, located between the larynx and bronchi. Consists of cartilaginous semirings connected by ligaments. It branches into two bronchi.

Thrombocytes (red platelets) are blood cells involved in clotting.

Conditioned reflexes are reflexes developed under certain conditions (hence the name) during the life of an animal and a person. They are formed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes.

Phagocytes are leukocytes capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies (phagocytosis). Participate in the development of immunity.

Enzymes are biological catalysts, substances of a protein nature.

Fibrin is an insoluble protein formed from fibrinogen during blood clotting.

Fibrinogen is a soluble protein that is constantly present in the blood. Able to turn into fibrin.

Formed elements of blood - erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.

Photoreceptors - rods and cones of the retina - light-sensitive formations that convert light energy into nerve impulses.

The lens is a structure of the eye that looks like a biconvex lens and is located behind the iris. It is part of the optical system of the eye. Provides refraction and focusing of light rays on the retina.

The central nervous system (CNS) is the main division of the nervous system, represented by the spinal cord and brain.

A suture is a method of fixed connection of bones, in which numerous protrusions of one bone enter the corresponding recesses of another (for example, the bones of the skull).

The thyroid gland is an endocrine gland that secretes hormones that affect the growth and development of the body, as well as the intensity of metabolism.

Embryo - the embryo of animals and humans.

Endocrine glands - endocrine glands that do not have excretory ducts and secrete hormones directly into the blood (pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus gland, adrenal glands, etc.). Hormones secreted by the endocrine glands are involved in the neurohumoral regulation of body functions.

The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin.

Epithelium - a layer of closely spaced cells covering the surface of the body (for example, skin), lining all its cavities and performing mainly protective, excretory and absorbing functions. Most of the glands are made up of epithelium.

Erythrocytes are red blood cells containing hemoglobin. They carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and carbon dioxide in the opposite direction. Human erythrocytes do not have a nucleus.

The ovaries are a paired female sex gland, in which eggs (female sex cells) are formed and mature. The ovaries are located in the abdominal cavity and produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone.

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Glossary of basic biological terms and concepts

BUT

ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT - a set of inorganic conditions (factors) for the habitat of organisms. These include the composition of atmospheric air, the composition of sea and fresh water, soil, air and soil temperature, lighting and other factors.

AGROBIOCENOSIS - a set of organisms living on lands occupied by crops and planting crops. In agriculture, the vegetation cover is created by man and usually consists of one or two cultivated plants and accompanying weeds.

AGROECOLOGY is a branch of ecology that studies the patterns of organization of artificial plant communities, their structure and functioning.

NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA - bacteria capable of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen with the formation of nitrogen compounds available for use by other organisms. Among A.b. there are both freely living in the soil, and coexisting with mutual benefit with the roots of higher plants.

ANTIBIOTICS are specific chemical substances formed by microorganisms and capable of exerting a selective effect on other microorganisms and malignant tumor cells even in small quantities. In a broad sense, A. also includes antimicrobial substances in the tissues of higher plants (phytoncides). The first A. was obtained in 1929 by Fleming (although penicillium was used by Russian doctors much earlier). The term "A." proposed in 1942 by Z. Waksman.

ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS - factors of human influence on the environment. Human influence on plants can be both positive (plant cultivation, pest control, protection of rare species and biocenoses) and negative. The negative impact of a person can be direct - deforestation, collecting flowering plants, trampling vegetation in parks and forests, indirect - through environmental pollution, the destruction of pollinating insects, etc.

B

BACTERIA is the kingdom of living organisms. They differ from organisms of other kingdoms in the structure of the cell. Single-celled or grouped microorganisms. Motionless or mobile - with flagella.

BACTERICIDITY - the ability of plant juices, animal blood serum and some chemicals to kill bacteria.

BIO-INDICATORS - organisms whose developmental characteristics or number serve as indicators of natural processes or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Many organisms can exist only within certain, often narrow limits of changes in environmental factors (the chemical composition of soil, water, atmosphere, climatic and weather conditions, the presence of other organisms). For example, lichens and some coniferous trees serve B. to keep the air clean. Aquatic plants, their species composition and abundance are B. the degree of water pollution.

BIOMASS - the total mass of individuals of a species, group of species or community of organisms. It is usually expressed in units of mass (grams, kilograms) per unit area or volume of habitat (hectare, cubic meter). About 90% of biospheres of the entire biosphere are terrestrial plants. The rest is aquatic vegetation.

BIOSPHERE - the area of ​​distribution of life on Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which are determined by the joint activity of living organisms.

BIOCENOSIS - a set of plants and animals in the food chain that has developed in the process of evolutionary development, affecting each other in the course of the struggle for existence and natural selection (plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit the lake, river valley, pine forest).

AT

VIEW - the basic unit in the taxonomy of living organisms. A set of individuals that have a number of common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding with the formation of fertile offspring, inhabiting a certain territory.

germination - the ability of seeds to produce normal seedlings within a specified period under certain conditions. Express germination as a percentage.

HIGHER PLANTS - complex multicellular organisms with well-defined vegetative organs, adapted, as a rule, to life in a terrestrial environment.

G

GAMETE - sex cell. Provides transmission of hereditary information from parents to descendants.

Gametophyte - sexual generation in the life cycle of plants that develop with alternation of generations. Formed from spores, produces gametes. In higher plants, only in mosses, hyphae is represented by a leafy plant. In others, it is poorly developed and short-lived. In club mosses, horsetails, and ferns, G. is a growth that produces both male and female gametes. In angiosperms, the female G. is the embryo sac, and the male is pollen. They grow along the banks of rivers, in swamps and wet fields (reed, cattail).

GENERATIVE ORGANS - organs that perform the function of sexual reproduction. In flowering plants - flowers and fruits, more precisely - a speck of dust and an embryo sac.

HYBRIDIZATION - combining the hereditary material of different cells into one. In agriculture, the crossing of different varieties of plants. See also Selection.

Hygrophytes - plants of wet habitats. They grow in swamps, in water, in tropical rainforests. They have a poorly developed root system. Wood and mechanical fabrics are poorly developed. They can absorb moisture from the entire surface of the body.

HYDROPHYTES - aquatic plants attached to the ground and immersed in water only at the bottom. Unlike hygrophytes, they have well-developed conductive and mechanical tissues, a root system. But there are many intercellular spaces and air cavities.

GLYCOGEN - carbohydrate, polysaccharide. Its branched molecules are built from glucose residues. Energy reserve of many living organisms. When it is broken down, glucose (sugar) is formed and energy is released. Found in the liver and muscles of vertebrates, in fungi (yeast), in algae, in the grain of some varieties of corn.

GLUCOSE - grape sugar, one of the most common simple sugars. In green plants, it is formed from carbon dioxide and water as a result of photosynthesis. Participates in many metabolic reactions.

Gymnosperms are the most ancient of seed plants. Most are evergreen trees and shrubs. Representatives of gymnosperms are coniferous plants (spruce, pine, cedar, fir, larch).

MUSHROOMS - the kingdom of living organisms. Combine signs of both plants and animals, and also have special signs. There are both unicellular and multicellular fungi. The body (mycelium) consists of a system of branching filaments.

HUMUS (HUMUS) - a complex of specific dark-colored organic substances of the soil. It is obtained as a result of the transformation of organic residues. To a large extent determines the fertility of the soil.

D

Dioecious plants - plant species in which male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers are on different individuals (willow, poplar, sea buckthorn, actinidia).

DIFFERENTIATION - the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues.

WOOD is the water-conducting tissue of plants. The main conducting element is the vessels: dead lignified sex cells. It also includes fibers that perform a supporting function. It is characterized by annual increments: there are early (spring) and late (summer) wood.

BREATHING is one of the main vital functions, a set of processes that ensure the supply of oxygen to the body, its use in chemical reactions, as well as the removal of carbon dioxide and some other metabolic products from the body.

AND

ANIMALS - the kingdom of living organisms. Unlike most plants, animals feed on ready-made organic substances and have a limited body growth in time. Their cells do not have a cellulose membrane. In the process of evolution, animals developed organ systems: digestive, respiratory, circulatory, etc.

PLANT LIFE FORM - the general appearance of a plant. There are trees, shrubs, shrubs, herbs.

VENATION OF LEAVES - a system of conducting bundles in leaf blades, along which substances are transported. There are parallel, arcuate, palmate, pinnate Zh.l.

W

RESERVES - small areas of a temporarily protected area with limited economic activity and visits of people. Individual species of plants or animals are preserved in sanctuaries.

RESERVES - large areas where the entire natural complex is preserved in a natural state. Any human activity is prohibited here.

GEM - an organism in the early period of development.

ZYGOTE - a cell formed as a result of the fusion of two gametes.

ZONAL VEGETATION - natural vegetation that characterizes natural belts and zones (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert, etc.).

And

IMMUNITY - immunity, resistance, the body's ability to protect its integrity. A particular manifestation of I. is immunity to infectious diseases.

INDICATORS - See indicator plants and Bioindicators.

INDICATOR PLANTS - plants or plant communities that are closely associated with certain environmental conditions and allow them to be qualitatively and quantitatively assessed by the presence of these plants or communities. I.r. are used in assessing the mechanical composition, the degree of acidity and salinity of soils, in the search for fresh water in deserts and some minerals. For example, the content of lead in the soil is indicated by the species of fescue and bent grass; zinc - types of violet and yarutka; copper and cobalt - resins, many cereals and mosses.

EVAPORATION - the transition of water into a gaseous state. The main organ that evaporates water from a plant through stomata is the leaf. Together with root pressure, it provides a constant flow of water through the roots, stems and leaves. Evaporation prevents the plant from overheating.

To

Calcephiles - plants that live in alkaline soils rich in calcium. Alkaline soils can be identified by vegetation: forest anemone, six-petal meadowsweet, larch.

CALCEPHOBS - plants that avoid limestone soils. These plants are able to bind heavy metals, the excess of which in acidic soils does not harm them. For example, peat mosses.

CAMBIA - a single-row layer of cells of the educational tissue, forming wood cells inward from itself, and bast cells outward.

Carotenes are orange-yellow pigments. synthesized by plants. K. is rich in green leaves (especially spinach), carrot roots, rose hips, currants, and tomatoes. K. - accompanying pigments of photosynthesis. The oxidized derivatives of K. are xanthophylls.

GLUTEN - proteins contained in wheat grain and, accordingly, in flour. They remain in the form of an elastic clot after the removal of starch from wheat dough. Baking qualities of wheat flour largely depend on the properties of K..

A CELL is the basic unit of all living organisms, an elementary living system. It can exist as a separate organism (bacteria, some algae and fungi, protozoan plants and animals) or as part of the tissues of multicellular organisms.

CONE OF GROWTH - the apical zone of the shoot or root, formed by the cells of the educational tissue. Provides shoot and root growth in length. Ph.D. the shoot is protected by rudimentary leaves, and the tip of the root growth is protected by a root cap.

CONCENTRATION - the amount of a substance in a unit of volume or mass.

ROOT SYSTEM - the totality of the roots of one plant. The degree of development of K.s. depends on the environment. A person can influence the development of K.s. plants (hilling, picking, tillage). There are rod and fibrous K.s.

rhizome - a perennial underground shoot that allows the plant to survive adverse conditions.

STARCH (STARCH) CROPS - cultivated plants that are cultivated to produce starch (potatoes, corn). Starch accumulates in tubers or fruits.

STARCH GRAINS - inclusions in plastids of plant cells. Growth K.z. occurs by imposing new layers of starch on the old ones, so the grains have a layered structure.

SILICA - silicon dioxide (quartz, quartz sand).

CROWN - elevated (above the stem) branched part of the tree.

Xanthophylls - natural pigments from the group of carotenes, their oxygen-containing derivatives. Contained in leaves, flowers, fruits and buds of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms. Participate in photosynthesis as additional pigments. In combination with other pigments, they create leaf color in autumn.

Xerophytes - plants of dry habitats, capable of withstanding overheating and dehydration due to a number of adaptive features.

CUTICLE - a layer of fatty substance that covers leaves, stems or fruits with a film. Low permeability to water, pathogens.

TILLERING - branching, in which lateral shoots appear from buds located near the surface of the earth and underground.

L

LITMUS is a coloring matter obtained from some lichens. The water infusion of L. is violet in color, turning blue from the action of alkalis and reddening from the action of acids. As an indicator in chemistry, "litmus paper" is used - filter paper dyed with a solution of L. With the help of L., the acidity of the water infusion of the soil can be determined.

LANDSCAPE - 1) type of terrain, 2) geographical landscape - a territory within which the relief, climate, vegetation and wildlife form typical outlines that give the entire territory unity and distinguish it from neighboring territories.

LEUKOPLASTS - colorless plastids of a plant cell. They may have different shapes. One of the main functions is the synthesis and supply of nutrients: starch, oils. They can turn into chloroplasts.

LEAF MOSAIC - an arrangement of leaves that provides illumination for each shoot leaf. Perhaps due to the ability of the leaf petiole to grow for a long time and turn the leaf blade towards the light.

LEAF POSITION - the arrangement of leaves on a stem. There are alternate, opposite and whorled L.

LUB is a plant tissue that provides transport of photosynthesis products from leaves to places of consumption and storage. The main conducting element is living sieve tubes. L.'s fibers carry out mechanical function. Reserve nutrients are also deposited in the main cells of L..

M

OIL CROPS - cultural plants that are cultivated to produce fatty oils (sunflower, soybeans, mustard, castor beans, oil flax, sesame, etc.). Most M.K. accumulate oil in seeds and fruits.

INTERNODE - The section of a stem between two adjacent nodes. In rosette plants (dandelion, daisy), short shoots of trees (apple tree, birch), and some inflorescences (umbel, basket) M. are very short or absent.

INTERCELLULAR - spaces between cells. May be filled with air or water (more rarely).

INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE - a substance that connects cells to each other. The connection can be dense (in the integumentary tissue) or loose (in the storage tissue).

MESOPHITES - plants that live in conditions with sufficient, but not excessive soil moisture. Most of the plants in central Russia are found in the tropics and subtropics.

MYCOLOGY is a branch of biology that studies fungi.

MICROBIOLOGY - a branch of biology that studies microorganisms. The main object of M. is bacteria. However, the term "bacteriology" is used mainly in medicine. Yeast (the kingdom of fungi) also serves as a traditional object of M..

PERMANENT PLANTS - trees, shrubs, shrubs and herbaceous plants that live more than two years. They can bloom and bear fruit.

MOLECULE - the smallest particle of a substance that has the basic chemical properties of this substance. Consists of the same or different atoms.

PLANT MORPHOLOGY - the science that studies the structure of a plant and its forms.

UROUS ROOT SYSTEM - is formed with weak growth or death of the main root and intensive development of adventitious roots (buttercup, plantain, wheat).

MOSS (MOSSIVE) - department of higher plants. Most often these are terrestrial perennials. The body consists of a stem and leaves.

MULCHING - covering the surface of the soil with different materials in order to control weeds, preserve soil moisture and structure. For M., organic materials are used: peat chips, small manure, straw, as well as paper, cardboard, etc. M. helps to increase the yield of crops.

H

ABOVE-GROUND SEED GERMINATION - a method of seed germination, in which the cotyledons are brought to the surface (radish, buckwheat, beans, linden).

NATIONAL PARKS - large areas, usually located in picturesque places, where natural complexes of special value have been preserved. Unlike nature reserves, most of the N. p. open to the public.

LOWER PLANTS - a sub-kingdom of plants. Body N.R. (thallus or thallus) is not divided into root, stem and leaf. Such organisms have a special structure of cells, metabolism. K N.r. include only algae (see thallus). Previously, bacteria, lichens, algae, and fungi were included; all organisms except higher plants and animals.

NUCLEIC ACIDS are complex organic compounds whose biological role is to store and transmit hereditary information.

Department of Education, Science and Youth Policy of the Voronezh Region

state budgetary professional educational institution
Voronezh region

"Voronezh State

Industrial - Technological College "

Toolkit

Compiled by:

O.Yu. Nesvetaeva

Voronezh - 2016

The textbook is intended for students and teachers of the college. The manual discusses the basic terms in biology. A brief dictionary of biological terms is necessary for the successful development of natural science disciplines. The guide can be used to prepare to tests and exams, as well as handouts.

Published by decision of the methodological council of GBPOU VO "VGPTK", 2016

Explanatory note

Modern biology is a synthetic science, having absorbedwhich includes a complex of related sciences - physics, chemistry, coppercyn. At the same time, biology is one of the oldest sciences,having deep historical roots and traditions.The language of science is formed both from established concepts andand from terms introduced from other disciplines. Often aloneand the same concepts have different semantic meanings inspecific branches of knowledge.

Terms form the basis of the scientific vocabulary of any science.ki, reflect thinking and concepts in this branch of knowledge."Term - a word or phrase that is a nameI eat a certain concept of some special areaty science, technology, art. (S. I. Ozhegov, 1961).

In the past, Latin was considered the scientific language, and allscientists of the world wrote their works in this language. Latinlanguage adopted many terms from Greek. Therefore, most of the words of scientific terminology are associated with these classical languages. The vast majority of biological language is formed from parts of words (prefix, koren, suffix). Knowledge of individual elements of termsfacilitates memorization, enables groupingSort them by common elements of words. This will greatly helpgaet in the understanding of linguistic origin (etymology) andmakes it easier to remember terms.

For example, if the terms have the prefixendo-,- this is oz begins that the concept refers to some internal structure tour, and if exo..., then to the outside. Having learned several dozen parts of words of Latin and Greek origin,you can navigate in the meaning of hundreds of biological mines.

This guide makes it much easierpreparation for the test. The dictionary includes mainly termines of foreign origin and the provisions of thatsome conventional symbols for understanding, like a stamen, a dog teak, herd, etc.

In brackets after each term in Russian transcriptionparts of words and their translation from the language from whichthe term is formed. The following abbreviations have been adopted: lat. -Latin, gr. - Greek, English - English, French - franctsuzsky, it. - Deutsch.

Concise Dictionary of Biological Terms

ABIOTIC FACTORS (a - negation, bios - life, gr.) - a set of factors of inorganicchildbirth (temperature, humidity and etc.).

AVITAMINOSIS (a - negation, vita - life, lat.,amines - nitrogen-containing organic compounds) - onmetabolic disorder due to lack or lack of vitamins.

AUTO ... (autos - himself, gr.) - an integral part of complexwords denoting "himself", "the same", "own", "selfstvenny" or "automatic", "autonomous". For example,cell autoregulation, heart automation.

AUTOTOMY (auto and tome - section, gr.) - samokalechenie, the ability of some animals to throw off partshis body (for example, the tail during a predator attack - in lizards).

AUTOTROPHIC ORGANISMS (auto and trophy - food,gr.) - organisms capable of synthesizing organic mattersubstances from inorganic. “There are two groups:a photo synthetics, containing chlorophyll and synthesizing organs cal

substances from carbon dioxide and water due to the sun noah energy, and chemosynthetics - synthesizing substances frommineral compounds due to the energy of some chemicalchemical reactions (number of bacteria).

ADAPTATION (adaptation - adaptation, lat.) -a set of general defensive reactions that occur in the organnism of animals and humans under the influence of stimuli,contributing to the restoration of disturbed balance andaimed at maintaining the constancy of the internal environment organism (homeostasis).

ADENINE - purine base, along withguanine part of DNA, RNA, ATP and some enzymes.Found in all living cells.

ADP - adenosine diphosphoric acid.

ACCLIMATIZATION - (ak-k, pro, clima - tilt,lat., the ancient Greeks associated climatic differences withunequal inclination of the sun's rays to the earth's surfaceness) - the adaptation of a species to new conditionspits of existence into which he fell as a result of artits military overpopulation.

ALLELES (allelon - mutually, gr.) - modifiedor different states of the same gene, leading to different variations of the same trait, arise due to mutations.

ALLELIC GENES lie in homologous chromosomes max and occupy identicalloci.

AMINO ACIDS - organic compounds that combine the properties of acids andamines, i.e. containing carboc strong group (-COOH) and amino group N H 2 ). Have pain what is the importance in the life of organisms, i.e. are the mainmi structural units of protein molecules.

AMITOSIS (a - negative particle, mitos - thread) -direct nuclear fission by constriction without formationxro mosom, outside mitotic cycle. It is carried out without visible rebuilding of the kernel.

AMF - adenosine monophosphoric acid

AMPI... (amphi - around, around, on both sides) -part of compound words corresponding to the words "from both hundredron", "around", "twofold" (for example, amphibians livingin an amphibious environment).

ANABIOSIS (ana - back, biosis - life, revivenie, gr.) - the state of the body in which vital processes (metabolism etc.) are so slow thatall visible manifestations of life are absent.

ANALYZER (analysis - decomposition, dismemberment,parsing, gr.) - a complex system of nervous formations in highour vertebrates and humans, carrying outperception, analysis of stimuli from external and internalbody environment.

ANALYSIS CROSS - crossing an individual genotype which needs to be determined, with a form purely recessive for the studiedalleles. Such a cross ion makes it possible in the first generation of hybrids to determinegametes analyzed form.

AMPEL PLANT (ampel - hanging vase,it.) - an ornamental plant with long hanging downon the run, grown in hanging vases(ampels) or hanging pots (for example, tradescantia).

ANALOGY (analogy - similarity, correspondence, similaritybee, gr.) - secondary, i.e. not inherited from common prekov morphological similarity of organs in organisms of differentsystematic groups, due to the similarityfunctions performed by these bodies. The term was also introduced Aristotle (Similar organs).

ANATOMY (anatomy - dissection, dismemberment, gr.) - chapter morphology, studying the shape and structure of individualorgans, organ systems and the body as a whole. Allocateana plant tomia, phytotomsho, animal anatomy (zooto miyu), extracting from it human anatomy. Similarity studywa and differences animal dealscomparative anatomy animal mission.

ANAPHASE (ana - back, phase - manifestation, gr.) -one of the phases of division -meiosis or mitosis. Anaphase of meiosis stage 1 division of maturation(reducing division) primary spermatocytes and oocytes, as a result of which it is paired nye homologous chromosomes, separating from each othermove towards opposite poles.

ANAPHASE OF MITOSIS - the third one followingmetaphase oh stage of mitosis during which the longitudinal halvesmetaphase chromosomes - chromatids disconnect quickly and diverge along chromosome strandsachromatic faith tena towards its poles.

ANTHROPOGENESIS (anthropos - man, gr.) - originwalking of man, his formation as a species in the processsociety formation -sociogenesis. Anthropology - the science of man.Anthropogenic factor - impact human activity on natural ecosystems.

ANTHROPOMORPHISM - endowment with human kaqualities of animals, plants, objects and phenomena of inanimatenature, likeness to man.

APPENDIX (appendix - appendage, lat.)(worm figurative process) - appendage of the caecum to a mammalshchih. Removed from a personappendicitis.

AREAL (arealis - area, space, lat.) - aboutthe extent of distribution of any category of animals orplants (species, genus, etc.).

AROMORPHOSIS, AROGENESIS (airo - I raise, genesis - origin, occurrence, gr.) - one of the waysbiolo logical progress (according to A.N. Severtsev, 1931); adaptedions that arise in some in the process of evolution of the animalnyh, raising the taxon to a fundamentally new, moreprogressive stage of development (for example, the emergence flight).

ARTERIES (artery - windpipe, circulatoryvessel, lat.) - blood vessels that carry blood,enriched with oxygen from the heart to organs and tissues.

ASSIMILATION (assimilation - assimilation, lat.) - inbiology is one of the aspects of metabolism, the process of assimilationthe body's supply of nutrients necessary for life inactivity.

ATAVISM (atavi - progenitor, lat.) - manifestationin organisms of properties and signs characteristic of distant ancestors.

ATP - adenosine triphosphoric acid. Contained inevery cell of animals and plants.

AUTOSOME (autos - himself, soma - bodies, gr.) - allchromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants andmushrooms, exceptsex chromosomes. In diploid human cells contain 22 pairs of autosomes and 1a pair of sex chromosomes.

AEROBES (aeros - air, bios - life, gr.) - orgnisms, for the growth and reproduction of which it is necessary to have cashwhich free oxygen.

BENTHOS (benthos - depth, gr.) - a set of orgnisms living at the bottom of reservoirs.

BIOGENIC ELEMENTS - chemical elementsconstantly included in the composition of organisms and necessary for them to live (C, H, O - only about 20). In nature exist biochemical cycles or biogeochemical cru speech of substances having a cyclical nature.

BIOGEOGRAPHY (bio and geography) - a section of science,studying the patterns of distribution of organisms "on the globe. It is divided intogeography of plants and ogeography.

BIOGEOCOENOSIS (bios - life, ge - earth, koinos - common, gr.) - a homogeneous area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe surface with a definedcomposition of organisms (biocenosis) and their environmentabiotic environment, relatively selfproper metabolism and type of use of sweatas solar energy, relatively long-term self-sustainingliving homogeneous natural environment. The science of biogeocenoses is calledbiogeocenology.

BIOMASS (bios - life, gr., mass - lump, piece,lat-.) _ expressed in units of mass or energy of those orother organisms per unit area or volume.

BIONICS (bion - element of life, literally - I liveshchy, gr.) - one of the areas of biology and cybernetics,studying the features of the structure and life of the organnisms in order to create more advanced technicalsystems or devices.

BIOSYNTHESIS (bios - life, synthesis - education, GR. ) _ the process of formation of substances necessary for the body,flowing in its cells with the participationbiocatalysts - enzymes. In the process of biosynthesis from starting materials,more complex compounds are formed - proteins, polysaccharides and

others

BIOSPHERE (bios - life, sphere - ball, shell, gr. ) - the shell of the Earth, the composition, structure and energy of cowhich are determined by the cumulative activity of living organ nisms.

BIOTIC FACTORS (bio and factor - dogenerating, producing, lat.) - a set of influences of someorganisms to others.

BLASTOMERE (blast - sprout, meros - part, share, GR. ) _ the general name of the embryonic cells arisingdue to crushing of the egg by mitotic division andcharacterized by a lack of growth.

BLASTULA (blast - sprout, gr.) - embryonic phaseth development of multicellular animals, which completesprimary division of the eggblastomeres.

VACUOLES (vacuole, fr., from vacuum - empty) - cavities incytoplasm animal and plant cells, limitednye membrane and filled with liquid.

VEGETATIVE ORGANS IN PLANTS (vegetati vus - vegetable, lat.) - parts of the body of higher plants,performing the basic functions of nutrition and metabolismwith the environment (root, stem, leaf).

VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - education buthowling specimen from partpawalls, one of the waysasexually breeding (part of the stem, root, leaf, bulbs,tubers, rhizomes, etc.).

BEH S (vein - blood vessel, vein, lat.) - kroveins that carry blood from organs and tissues to the heart tsu .

VIBRIO (vibrio - I hesitate, tremble, fr.; vibrio - one of the genera of bacteria, lat.) - gram-negative, curved in the form of a comma, usually mobile cells with polarny flagella.

HABIT (habitus - appearance, appearance) - externalny appearance of the organism, a set of features that characterizethose with a general body type.

GAMETE (gamete - wife, gametes - husband, gr.) - polo wow cell, reproductive cell animals and plants, withhaploid set of chromosomes (when they merge, they form double - diploid set of chromosomes).

GASTRULA (gaster - stomach, gr.) - a lot of germcell animals duringgastrulation (process isolatedthe formation of two primary germ layers, the outer one -ectoderm and internal - endoderm).

GEM (hemat, hemato, hemo, gr.) - an integral part of the complexwords, denoting "pertaining to the blood." For example,hemoglobin in the blood of animals.

GENE (genos - genus, origin, gr.) - structural andfunctional elementary particle of hereditary information, which is a portion of the DNA molecule (for RNA viruses), which controls the occurrence of anytrait under certain conditions.Genes are allelic - alleles.

GENESIS (genesis - origin, occurrence) -part of compound words denoting origin, processeducation (eg.anthropogenesis).

GENETICS - the science of heredity and variabilityty living organisms.

GENERATIVE BODIES plants (gener - rozhI give, produce, lat.) - perform the functions of sexual time multiplication. generative cell - a cell that gives sweat stvo.

HERMAPHRODITE (Hermaphroditos - the son of Hermes and Aphrodite, a mythical bisexual creature, gr.) - bisexualcreature, the presence of male and female organs in onenoah and the same individual.

GENOTYPE (gene and typos - imprint, sample, type,gr.) - the totality of all genes inherent in a given individual.gene pool - the totality of genes that individuals havegiven population, group of populations or species.Geno protection fund - one of the central tasks of nature conservation.

HETHER - (hetero, heteres - different, gr.) - compositepart of compound words denoting "other", "dissimilar".

HETEROSYGOTE (hetero and zygotos - connected together, gr.) an organism (cell) thathomologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternativewe) of a particular gene.

HETEROSIS (heteronosis - change, transformation, gr.) (hybrid power) - superiority of hybridsa number of features and properties over parent forms.

HETEROTROPHIC ORGANISMS (HETEROTROPHS) (hetero and trophy - food, gr.) - organisms that are usedthey use ready-made organic compounds for their nutrition.

HYBRID (hybris, hybridos - incest, gr.)
a heterozygous organism that results from a crossmatching parent forms with differentgenotypes (by hybridization).

.

HYGIENE (hygienos - healing (about health)) sectionpreventive medicine, studying the influence of externalenvironment on human health, its working capacity, etc.A special section of hygiene issanitation.

HYDRO... (gidor - water, gr.) - part of compound words,indicating relationship to water.Hydrobiology - the science about aquatic organisms.

HYDROSPHERE - water shell of the Earth.Hydropo Nika - growing plants using aqueous solutions containing the necessary nutrients.Guide profile substances - Substances in which energy is attractedsolubility to water is high and, consequently, the solubility is especiallyquite large, as opposed tohydrophobic substance to you

HYDROPHILES organisms that prefer moist habitat.

HYDROPHOBS - avoid places with high humidity ness (fileo - love, phobos - fear, gr.).

GLYCOLYSIS (glycis - sweet, liz - dissolve,gr.) - an enzymatic oxygen-free decomposition processcarbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid.

HOMEO... (homonos - similar, identical, gr.) -"similar"; "similar", "the same".

HOMEOSTAS (homeo and stasis - immobility, consistingnie, gr.) - the ability of biological systems to resistchanges and keep dynamic relative constantvariety of composition and properties.

HOMO... (homos - equal, identical, mutual, aboutshchy, gr.) - part of compound words denoting equality,uniformity unity.

HOMOLOGY , in biology - the similarity in the structure of the organnew different species of animals and plants, due tobecause they come from the same primordia(homologous organs). homology - characteristics of the body(or group of organisms) having in the chromosome setcouple or more coupleshomologous sex chromosomes and as a result, they form gametes identical in the set of chromosomes.Homozygote - diploid or polyploida cell (individual) whose homologous chromosomes carry an identitytypical alleles of a particular gene.

HORMONE(S) (hormonium, gormao - to bring into motionmotion, induce, gr.) - biologically active substances,produced by endocrine glandswashed into the blood and affecting the activity of organs by actingvisualization or inhibition of enzymatic processes.

GRADATION (gradatio - gradual increase, gradus - step, degree, gr.) - stepwise perfectionorganization of living beings in the process of phylogenesis inevolutionary theory of J. B. Lamarck.

GRANS (granulum - grain, lat.) - located nye in chloroplast cylindrical, superimposed on each otherother flat sacs formed by membranes, wherechlorophyll is produced.

GUANING one of two purine basesalong with adenine in the composition of nucleic acids.

DEGENERATION (degenerate, degenero - degenerate,lat.) - 1. Simplification of the structure of organs and tissues in the processontogenesis of organisms(morphophysiological regression). 2. Reduction of individual organs and entire systems in the processphylogenesis.

denaturation (de-prefix denoting removal,loss, nature - natural properties, lat.) - loss withnative configuration by molecules of proteins, nucleic acidslot and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemicalchemical processing, etc.(protein denaturation).

DEPRESSION (depression, depression - to hit, to givelyat) - a painful state of melancholy, depression, hopelessnesshodnosti, despair in some psychological diseases. In selectiondepression denote negative effects inbreeding.

DIVERGENCE (divergo - deviate, depart,lat.) - in evolutionary doctrine - the divergence of signsorganisms during evolution.

DIPLOID (diploos - double, eidos - view, gr.) -an organism whose cells carry two homologous sets chromosomes (diploid set).

DISSIMILATION (dissimilis - dissimilar, lat.) -in biology, the destruction of organic compounds with transformationschenie organic substances (proteins, fats, etc.) in the prosolid substances (respiration, fermentation, glycolysis, etc.).

DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid. Contained inthe nucleus of the cell, as well as in small amounts in the mitochondriahs and chloroplasts. Consists of two spirally woundnyh, one around the other, chains.

DOMINANCE (dominantis - dominant,lat.) - the participation of only one allele in determining the prizenaka in a heterozygous individual(dominant trait).

ZYGOTE (zygotos - connected together, gr.) - cell,formed by the fusion of gametes of different sexesfertilized egg, the initial stage of embryonic development sha.

ZOO... (zoon - animals, gr.) - part of compound words,indicating a relationship with the animal world. For example,zoology, zoogeography.

IDIOADAPTATION (idios - special, peculiar and adaptation, gr.) (allomorphosis) - private accommodationorganisms to a certain way of life in specificenvironmental conditions. Corresponding direction evolucia is calledallogenesis.

VARIABILITY - property of living organismsto act in various forms (options). Variability may be hereditary (genotypic), which obus caught by the emergence of new genotypes and leads, asusually to change the phenotype. At the heart of this type of changemutations or a combination of fusions inzygote of pre-existing gametes carrying different genes(combinative variability).

NON-HERITAGE (MODIFICATION) from variability reflects a change in the phenotype under the influence ofconditions for the existence of an organism that do not affect the genotype.

IMAGO (imago - image, likeness, lat.) - sexual perceptionbarking form in the development cycle of ticks, insects, helminths.

IMMUNITY (immunitas - liberation, deliverancefrom something, lat.)(immunity, resistance, resistance resistance) - the body's ability to protect its own integrity and biological identity (including immunity to infectious diseases). The science - immunology

INSTINCT (instinctus - impulse, lat.) - evoevolutionally developed innate adaptive formma behavior characteristic of this species of animals, beforewhich is a collection of inherited similarreactions to external and internal stimuli.

INSULIN a protein hormone produced bygastric gland.

INTERPHASE (inter - between and phase, lat.) - the time of functional activity between two cell divisions niami.

CAMBIUM (cambium - exchange, gr.) - educationaltissue located between reclaimed wood andrich bast in dicotyledonous and gymnosperms andproducing an increase in their root or stem in thickness.

CAPILLARY (capillaris - hair, lat.) - strandedthe largest blood or lymphatic vessels.

GOLGI COMPLEX (Golgi apparatus, plates chat complex) - cellular organelle consisting of cytoplasma membranes, almost devoid of ribosomes.It performs a number of important functions: modification of proteins, upaforging secreted products into granules, synthesis of somepolysaccharides, the formation of a cell membrane, formed nie lysosomes.

COMPLEMENTARY (compliment - additionalnie, lat.) - mutually complementary action of two dominantsny genes that have an impact on the appearance of someor a new hereditary trait.

COMPLIMENTATION , in genetics - association inzygote of two mutant alleles of the same gene, resulting inrestoration of the originalphenotype.

CONVERGENCE (convergo - approaching, converging,lat.) - independent development of similar signs in differentgroups of organisms under similar environmental conditions.

CONJUGATION (conjugation - connection, lat.) - 1)at animals - the sexual process, which consists in a temporaryconnection of two individuals and the exchange of parts of a nuclear apparatusthat, as well as a small amountcytoplasm 2) in chromo catfish - pairwise temporal approachhomologous chromosomes, at which the exchange of their homologous regions is possible -crossing over. Conjugation is also observed in algae,lower fungi and bacteria as a form of the sexual process.

CRYSTA (krista - outgrowth, comb, lat.) - foldinner membranemitochondria.

THE CYCLE OF SUBSTANCES in nature - relatively repetitive interrelated physical, chemical andbiological processes of transformation and movement of substances in nature.

LEUKOPLASTS (leucos - white, plastos - moldedlenny, gr.) - colorless plastids of spherical or spindle-shaped form, are found in most higher andsome lower plants. In young cells of leaves and stems, they formchloroplasts.

leukocytes (leuko ... and kitos - cell, gr.) - foreblood elements, colorless, functionally differentshaped, motile animal cells, white blood cells body.

LYSOSOME (lysis - dissolution, decay, decompositionnie, soma - body, gr.) - organoid of animal cells, waspperforming intracellular digestion. Contains a set of enzymes involved in the processes of digestion.

LYMPH (lymph - pure water, moisture, lat.) - colorlessnaya fluid in the body of vertebrates, formedfrom blood plasma by filtering it.

LIP..., LIPO... (lipos - fat, gr.) - an integral part of the words denoting "fat", "fat".Lipids- giro similar substances found in all living cellsinvolved in many vital processes, includingle - in the formation of an energy reserve, thermal insulationcovers, etc. Sometimes they are indicatedlipoids.

MACRA..., MACRO... (macro - long, large) -an integral part of compound words denoting "big", "large". For example,macronucleus - vegetative nucleusciliates, Controlling vegetative and syntheticprocesses in the cell.macromolecule - molecule, moleculewhose mass is more than 1000 daltons. Possesses colloidproperties.

MACROEVOLUTION (macro and evolution), - evolution,leading to the emergence of genera, families and other higherof our systematic categories (above the species).

MALPIGIAN VESSELS (after the scientist Malpigs) - narrow, long, blindly closed on one sidetubules, excretory organs of insects, arachnids andcentipedes. Located on the border of the middle and back intestines.

MESO..., MEZ... (mesos - middle, intermediate,gr.) - part of compound words, denoting the middle velirank or intermediate position of something.

MESODERM (meso and dermis - skin, gr.) - mediumgerm layer in multicellular animals (exceptsponges and coelenterates).

MEIOSIS (meiosis - reduction, gr.) - a way of doingcells, which results in the reduction(decrease) in the number of chromosomes and the transition of cells from diploid state to haploid. Main linkgametogen per.

CELL MEMBRANE (membrane - skin,lat.) - a biological membrane surrounding the protoplasmliving cell, participates in the regulation of metabolism betweenthe cell and its environment.

META (meta - between, after, through, gr.) - part of thewords, denoting intermediateness, transition to somethingor to another, change of state, transformation, for example,metabolism(metabolism).

METAPHASE (meta and phase - manifestation) - the secondthe stage of cell division during which the nuclear envelopedissolves, and chromosomes are located at the equator cells.

METAMORPHOSIS (metamorphosis - transformation, gr.) -yanimal deep transformation of the body, in produring which the larva develops into an adult.Occurs in most invertebrates, minodin, lungfish, amphibians.

METHODS OF STUDYING HEREDITARY OF HUMANS CENTURIES , 4 methods stand out:

1Genealogical - the study of the genealogy of people for as many generations as possible; 2.Gemini - study nie signs in twins. The studyidentical twins tsov, if they live in different conditions, let us judgeabout the role of the environment in their development; 3.cytogenetic - the study chromosome complex, chromosome mutations, better formetnyh at the stage of metaphase of mitosis;

4 Biochemical - study of metabolism.

THE MENTOR METHOD - one of the selection techniques"education", developed by I. V. Michurin. signsdeveloping hybrid change under the influence of scion androotstock (stock and scion are replaced depending on the desiremy results).

MICRO... (micro - small, small, gr.) - partcompound words indicating small size or small-the size of something.Microbiology - the science of microorg nismah (bacteria), sometimes cinese is also included herealgae, microscopic algae and fungi, archaebacteria, protozoa. Termbacteriology more commonly used lyatsya in medicine.micronucleus, - small (generative) nucleus v ciliates.

MICROELEMENTS - chemical elements that haveXia in organisms in low concentrations (1: 4.00 000 and below).

MICROEVOLUTION - a set of evolutionaryprocesses within a species, within individual or adjacent populations.

MIMICRY (mimikos - imitative, gr.) - imitative similarity of an unprotected organism with a protectednym or with inedible. One of the typespatronizing noah coloring and forms.

MIO... (mios - muscle, gr.) - part of compound words,referring to the muscles. For example,myocardium (kard - heart, gr.) - cardiac muscle.myofibrils (fiber - fiber, lat.) - contractile fibers insarco plasma striated muscle fibers, cardiacmuscles and muscles with double oblique striation, providepulsating muscle contractions.

MITOSIS (mitosis - vit, gr.)(mitosis) - indirect division, characterized by complex processes, occurredwalking in the nucleus as a whole. Provides gene formationgenetically equivalent cells and maintains continuity in a number of cell generations. Occurs in separate stages yam: interphase (intekinesis), and then prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

MITOCHONDRIA (mito and chondrosis - grain, gr.) -cell organelles that are capable ofreplication and is are the energy system and the center of cellular respiration niya.

MODIFICATIONS (modification, modus - measure, type,fazio - do) - non-hereditary (phenotypic) ofvariability due to the action of the external environment on catfishtic cells and not affecting the chromosomal apparatusgametes. They are environmentally adaptive and reversible. ter.

MONO... (moios - one, only, one, gr.) -part of compound words meaning "one", "one".Mono hybrid - a hybrid heterozygous for one lare of alleles.monohybrid cross - one of the rules Mendel. Monosaccharides - simple sugars, one of the basesnyh groups of carbohydrates.

MUTATIONS (mutatio - change, lat.) - sudden, natural or caused artificially inherited fromchanges in genetic material that lead to a changecertain characteristics of the body. There are mutations:genetic - invasive, with qualitative changes from good genes, chromosome, related to transformationchromosomes (this includespolyploidy), somatic, in which there are changes in somatic cells.Most mutations are recessive and occur in genes located on the chromosomes of germ cells. So maybe arise recessive mutation.

HEREDITY - property of living mattertransfer the properties of parents to offspring, which providescontinuity of morphological, physiological, biochimical organization of organisms in a number of generations and obuscatches the specific nature of ontogeny in a certainenvironmental conditions. Genetic factors may benot only in the nucleus, but also in the cytoplasm. Therefore, there is concept - cytoplasmic variation.

NEURON (neuron - vein, nerve, gr.) - nerve cellka (neutrocyte), the main structural and functionalunit of the nervous system that has a specificexcitability phenomenon. Part of compound words -neuro... uka refers to the nervous system.

NOOSPHERE (noos - mind, sfeira - ball, gr.) -a new ratio of the biosphere, in which a reasonable actionhuman capacity becomes the main, determining factorthe torus of its development(sphere of mind).

REACTION RATE - in genetics - the limits of the modificationrational variability of the trait. Change in genotype withinfluence of the environment is calledmodification changeable stu.

NUCLEO... (nucleus - core, lat.) - part of complexwords related to "nucleus", "nuclear".Nucleic acid you - phosphorus-containing biopolymers having a unisebaceous distribution in the animal environment (DNA, RNA),found in the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts and cyto plasma.

"DOUBLE SPIRAL" DNA - polymer, consists of monomers - nucleotides (adenine, guanine, thymine, cyto zina). The linkage of nucleotides into a chain occurs through phosphoric acid anddeoxyribose. Among RNAs, there are different types: transfer RNA (t-RNA), which is trans portates amino acids to the site of protein synthesis,inform cationic RNA (i-RNA) - carries information about the structureture of the protein to be synthesized,ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)- contained in ribosomes.

METABOLISM (metabolism) - regular according toa series of transformations of matter and energy in living systems,underlying life. Set of reactionsbiosynthesis (synthesis of substances in the cell) is calledplastic exchange, orassimilation. The set of cleavage reactions oncallenergy exchange cells, ordissimilation.

OVULATION (ovum - egg, lat.) - the release of the egginto the body cavity. One of the formssexual (or menstrual) cycle in animals.

ONTOGENESIS (he, ontos - being, genesis - aboutorigin, birth(ontogeny) - individual;development of an individual, the totality of its transformations from behindbirth until the end of life.

ORGANOID (organon - organ, tool, instrument,eidos - view, gr.) - cellular structures, cellular organny, providing the performance of specific functions c.cell life process. Specific structurestours of unicellular animals that perform a certainfunction is calledorganelles. Often organoid and organellela in modern literature are used as synonyms. TO.the same part of the word includes the termsorganism, organ.

NATURAL SELECTION - the process of survivalmore adapted individuals, which leads to a predominant increase or decrease in the number of some individualsbey in populations compared to others. Home movepowerevolution. In the processartificial selection human selection of plant varieties or animal breeds. The main methods of plant breeding arehybridization andselection. The selection may bemass, at coa group of individuals with desired traits is singled out as a torus, and ~individual, in which individual individuals are selectedwith the required properties. The offspring of one self-pollinatethe current individual is calledclean line. Driving selection - is called the selection of some deviations from the establishednorms of signs leading to its change through the development of newsigns. Selection in favor of the established norm of the traitwhen all noticeable deviations from it are eliminated, they are calledstabilizing.

PALEO... (palaios - ancient, gr.) - part of complexwords, indicating a connection with antiquity.

PALEONTOLOGY - the science of ancient organismsconditions of their life and burial.

PARTHENOGENESIS (parthenos - virgin, genesis -origin, birth, gr.) - virgin reproduction,a form of sexual reproduction in which the femalesex cells develop without fertilization.

PEPTIDE BOND - type of amide bond (HN-CO),that occurs betweenamino acids in proteins. It's soydynamism is calledpeptide.

pinocytosis (pinot - drink, absorb, cytos - cellka, gr.) - active absorption by the cell from the surroundingliquid environment, as a result of which in the cytoplasm of the cell aboutblisters containing fluid.

PLASMA (plasma - fashioned, decorated, gr.) -in biology, the liquid or gel-like part of biologicalstructures - blood, lymph, cells(cytoplasm) etc. Zhidwhat part of the bloodblood plasma.

PLASTIDS (created, gr.) - plant organellesnoah cells. Distinguish by colorchloroplasts (green) chromoplasts (red), leucoplasts (colorless)

PLEURA (pleura - rib, side, side, gr.) - serosaa membrane that lines part of the common body cavity onterrestrial vertebrates, with which the lungs are enclosed, andgoing to the lungs. The pleura also refers to the lateralpart of the chest of a number of invertebrates.

PLACENTA (plaktus - flat cake, gr.) - a child's place, the organ through which, during the period of intrauterine development, waspsthere is communication and metabolism between organisms materi and child.

POLY... (shelf - numerous, extensive, gr.) -part of compound words indicating a multitude, varietycomposition of something. For example,polyhybrid cross nie.

POLYPLOIDY (poly - a lot, ploos - fold,eidos - view,gr.)- the presence in the cells of an increased numberchromosomes multiple of haploid (triploid - 3 timesny,tetraploid - 4 times).

POLYRIBOSOME (POLYSOMY) - ribo complexcatfish connected by an information moleculeRNA involved inprotein biosynthesis.

POLYSACCHARIDES - high molecular weight carbohydrates,whose molecules are built from monosaccharide residues,connected by glycosidic bonds and forming linear or branched chains. For example,cellulose.

PRODUCERS (producer - producing, creatingshchy) - autotrophic organisms that create with the helpphotosynthesis or chemosynthesis organic matter fromorganic.

PROTO... (protos - the first,gr.)- part of complex words,indicating primacy, origin or antecedenta stage in the development of something. For example,protozoans - prosthe coolest animals.

PROTOPLASM (proto and plasma - molded, sphorusmined, gr.) - the contents of a living cell - its cytoplasma and core.

PSEUDO... (pseidos - lie, gr.) - part of complexwords denoting false, imaginary, apparent, sometimes fake. For example,pseudopodia - false legs (pullsvayutsya for a while at the amoeba).

POPULATION (populus - population, lat.) - anycapable of self-reproduction of a set of individuals of onespecies, more or less isolated in space and timemeni from other similar aggregates of the same species.

POST-EMBRIONAL DEVELOPMENT - (post - after, later, lat., embryo - embryo, gr.) - period of developmentanimal organisms after release from shells orbirth to maturity.

PROGRESS (progressus - moving forward, lat.) - inliving nature, improvement and complication of the organizationmov in the process of evolution. stands outbiological pro gress - the result of the success of this group in the struggle for existence (increase in numbers, expansion of the range, racesfall into subordinate systematic categories} andmorphophysiological progress - evolution of organismsways of complication and improvement of their organization.

PULSE (pulus - blow, push, lat.) - periodicsome, jerky expansion of the walls of arteries, synchronouswith heartbeats.

RACE (races - genus, breed, fr.) - in biology - grouporganisms, isolated in ecological or geographicin terms of chess. Individuals of a race have similar features(morphological, physiological or ecological),covered by a distribution area that is part of the rangespecies or subspecies. Humanity forms three great races:equatorial (Negroid or Negroid-Australoidnew - black), Eurasian (Europoid - white) andAsian-American (Mongoloid - yellow).

IRRITABILITY - the ability of living cells, tissueher or the whole organism to respond to external or internalearly impacts(irritants).

RE... (lat.) - a prefix denoting ("repeated, inrenewable, reproducible action", "action againstpositive (reverse) to what is expressed by the main partwords" "resistance". For example,recombination (re... andcombinatio- compound, lat.) - in genetics - redistributiondegeneration of the genetic material of the parents in the offspring, whichswarm leads to hereditary combinative variabilityliving organisms.

REGENERATION (regeneratio - rebirth, lat.) -restoration by the body of the lost part of the body.

REGRESSION (regressus -. return, movement back,lat.) - in biology - the simplification of organisms in the process

evolution.

REDUCTION (reductio - abduction back, returnnie, restoration) - in biology - simplification of the structure,reduction in size or complete loss of a tissue or cell in.progress of phylogenesis. Reduction division - widely usedis the name of one of the two divisions of meiosis, in whichRum is the divergence of homologous chromosomes.

DNA REDUPLICATION (reduplication - movement,date) - doubling of DNA molecules by completing the matrixlongitudinal halves" of the DNA molecule due to the lack ofgenerating complementary free nucleotides. PossibleRNA reduplication, chromosome reduplication (doubling xromosom).

REDUCERS (reducer, reducer - returning,restoring, lat.) - organisms, mainly"bacteria and fungi, in the course of life transformingorganic residues into inorganic substances.

RESISTANCE (resisteo - resist,lat.) - the resistance of the body, immunity to anyor agents (for example, to poisons).

RECAPITULATION (recapitulation - repetition of skaknown or done, lat.) - repetition in the course of an individualdual development of the organism(ontogeny) characteristicsigns of adult stages of distant ancestors

RECOMBINATION (re and combination - connection,lat.) - in genetics - the redistribution of the genetic materialrial of parents in offspring that leads to inheritancevenouscombinative variability living organisms.

RELIC (relictum - remnant, lat.) - species (or othertaxa) of plants or animals preserved from thedisappeared, widespread in the past floras andfauna. Sometimes relics are understood to be preserved frompast biocenoses or ecosystems. Allocate tertiary(sequoia), glacial (dwarf birch) and other typesrelics.

REFLEX (reflexum - turning back, reflection,lat.) - the body's response to changes in the externalor internal environment occurring through the nervous systemin response to receptor stimulation. Distinguishunconditional reflexes (congenital, evolutionarily developed andinherited) andconditioned reflexes (purchaseshadowy in individual life).

RECENT (recenter - recently, just, lat.) - a term used to refer to modern floras andfauna, as opposed to extinct(fossil organisms we, i.e. fossils).

RECEPTOR (reciper - receive, receptor - acceptwaving, lat.) - special formations in animals aa person who perceives and transforms irritationfrom the external and internal environment into the specific activity of the nervous system. Allocatemechanoreceptors (for examplemeasures, in the organs of hearing),chemoreceptors (taste, smell)photoreceptors (vision),thermoreceptors (skin) etc.

RECESSIVE (recessus - retreat, removal "lat,) is one of the forms of phenotypic manifestation of a gene.G. Mendel when crossing individuals that differ in opto a certain trait, found that in hybrids of the firstgeneration one of the parental traits disappears(recess gray), and the other appears(dominant).

RIBOSOME (ribes - flow and soma - body, lat.) -cell organelles in the form of spherical granules, attachednye to intracellular biological membranes orlying in the cytoplasm, consist of RNA and proteins,perform protein biosynthesis.

RISO... (riza - root, gr.) - part of compound words associated with the root.rhizosphere - part of the soil adjacentshcha to the root.

RHIZOIDS - filamentous formations in mosses, overgrowthkov ferns, lichens, some algae and fungi, performing the function of roots.

RNA - ribonucleic acid, high molecular weightorganic compound, formednucleotides in kotory includes nitrogenous bases(adenine, guanine, cytosine, uracil) and carbohydrate componentribose (in DNA instead of cheerscila entersthymine, and instead of ribose -deoxyribose). RNAparticipates in the implementation of genetic information. DifferenceThere are three main types of RNA -matrix (information nye), transport and ribosomal.

RUDIMENTS (rudimentum - germ, fundamental principle,lat.)(rudimentary organs) - simplified, underdevelopedcompared with homologous structures of ancestral andclose forms that have lost their main meaning in the organizationme phylogenesis, structure. For example, a person has a tailvertebrae, appendix, ear muscles, etc.

SAPRO... (sapros - rotten, gr.) - part of compound words,denoting "rotten".

SAPROPHAG - animals that feed on decayingremains of other animals.Saprophyte - bacteria, fungi andplants that feed on dead organic matterorganisms and animal secretions.Saprobicity - displaythe degree of water pollution (estimated by the organizationmothers living in polluted water -saprobionts, orsaprobes).

SYNTHESIS MATRIX - the type of reaction in whichnew protein molecules are synthesized in strict accordance with the plan laid down in the structure of existing moleculesDNA. These reactions provide precise specificity.which sequence of monomers in the synthesized polymeasures.

SYMBIOSIS (symbiosis - cohabitation,gr.)- type ofrelationships between organisms of different systematic groups:coexistence, mutually beneficial (often obligatoryintimate cohabitation of individuals of two or more species (e.g.mer, hermit crab and sea anemone).

SOMA (soma - body, gr.) 1. Trunk, body; 2. Aggregateness of all cells of the body, with the exception of reproductivecells.Somatic - associated with the body (as opposed tofrom the psyche).

SPERM - seed (gr.).

SPERMAGENESIS - the formation of male germ cells (spermatozoa).

WALL... (stenos - narrow, limited, gr.) - partcompound words denoting narrow intervals of something, limitedness. For example,stenotherm - organism, inhabitoperating in narrow temperature ranges,stenophage - organism,feeding on a close (small in diversity) composition of the feed.

STERILIZATION (sterilis - barren, lat.)

Killing Microorganisms with High Themesperaturation, filtration or treatment with poisonous gases, chichemical substances or ionizing radiation;

Depriving organisms of the ability to reproduce.

STRESS (stress - tension, English) - nonspecificcal reaction of the body's tension to any strongaction. The most severe formshock.

SUCCESSION (succession - continuity, inheritedvaniya, lat.) - a consistent change of ecosystems, successionvenously arising in a certain place (for example, onbacteria and algae appear on the stones, then lichensand mosses and some animals, during the formation of the soil appearedhigher plants emerge, etc.).

TAXIS (taxis - location, system, gr.) - rightslow movement of organisms or their organelles under the influenceunilaterally acting stimulus(phototaxis, ter motaxis, chemotaxis, etc.).

TAXON - a group of objects related by common properties and characteristics (species, genus, order, etc.).d.).

TELOPHASE (telos - end and phase, gr.) - concludethe body phase of cell division and its nucleus.

THERIOLOGY (therion - beast and logos - doctrine,gr.)the branch of zoology that studies mammals.

THERMO... (thermo - heat, gr.) - part of compound words,heat related.

THERMOFIL organisms that prefer high temperatures.

TOX... (toxon - poison, gr.) - part of compound words, convoybeginning "poisonous", "toxic".

TOXICOSIS - the state of the body, due to the lengthpoisoning or toxemia (the presence of toxins in the blood).

TRANSCRIPTION (transcriptio - rewriting,lat.) - the first stage of the implementation of genetic informationin the cell, resulting in the biosynthesis of RNA on corelevant regions of the DNA template. Atreverse transcriptions DNA is synthesized into RNA.

BROADCAST (translatio - transfer, translation,lat.) - in genetics - the translation of genetic information intothe structure of specific proteins as a result of the interaction of DNA molecules and messenger RNA with the participation of transfer RNA and ribosomes.

TRANSPIRATION (trans - through and spiro - I breathe, I inhale, lat.) - the evaporation of water by plants, mainlyleaves.

TROPE... (tropos - turn, direction) - part of thewords denoting "orientation of action", "spesob or mode of action.

TROPISM - direction of growth or movement of the abdomenleg, plant or individual cell relative to the stimulusinhabitant (light, chemical, etc.).

TROP... (tropho - nutrition, food, gr.) - part of complexwords related to nutrition, growth, feeding.Tro physical connections - forms of communication between populations in biocenosis, manifested in the nutrition of individuals of the same species forcounting living individuals of another species, their metabolic products or their dead remains.

TROPHIC CHAINS (FOOD CHAINS) - mutualrelationships between organisms during the transfer of food energyfrom its source - a green plant through a number of organisms, occurring by eating some organismsgimi from higher trophic levels.

FOOD NETWORK - Interlacing of food goals in a complex natural community.

TURGOR (turgere - to be swollen, full,lat.) - the elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elasticwalls.

FAGO... (phagos - devouring, gr.) - part of complexwords denoting: 1) “related to eating”, 2) “relative toattached to a bacteriophage.

PHAGOCYTE (fago and kitos - vessel, cell) - cellmulticellular animals, capable of capturing and transferringboil foreign bodies, in particular microbes.Fago cytosis - active capture and absorption of living cells and notliving particles by unicellular organisms or specialcells - phagocytes. One of the defensive reactionsnisms, mainly in inflammatory processes.The phenomenon of phagocytosis was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov (1883G.)

FAUNA (according to Greek mythology Fauna - mythicalthe wife of the Faun - the god of forests, fields, the patron of herds) - an evolutionarily established set of all types of animals,living in this space.

PHENOTYPE (fen and topos - image, imprint) - owlthe totality of all the properties and characteristics of an individual on a certainpart of the stage of development, formed as a result of mutualinteractions of the genotype with the environment.

ENZYME (fermentum - leaven)(enzyme) - biolochemical catalyst by chemical nature - protein, obyanaturally present in all cells of a living organismma. Accelerates the transformation of substances (biochemical reactions).

PHYSIOLOGY (nature, natural properties and logos - doctrine) - medical and biological science of lifewhole organism, individual systems, organs, tissues,cells and regulation of physiological reactions.

PHYLOGENESIS (fino - I reveal and tipos - imprint,gr.) - the historical development of the world of living organisms. Thisprocess studies sciencephylogenetics.

PHYTO... (phyton - plant, gr.) - part of compound words,denoting "pertaining to plants" or "to the science of plants".

PHYTOPLANKTON - collection of plants , I dwellin the water column, together withzooplankton (setwater column animals).

FLORA (in Roman mythology, Flora is the goddess of flowersand spring) - a historically established set of speciesplants living or living in the past.

A PHOTO... (photos - light, gr.) - an integral part of the complexwords, indicating the attitude to light, to influenceview of the world.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS - transformation by green plants and photosynthetic microorganisms of the radiant energy of the Sun into the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances.Occurs with the participation of absorbing lightpigments, formerde allchlorophyll. photoperiodism (photo and periodos -bypass, circulation, gr.) - the body's reactions to the changeday and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of phibiological processes.Photolysis - decomposition processsubstances under the influence of light.

CHEMO... ((al) chemia - the art of fusion of metals) - an integral part of compound words, indicating relativesolution to chemistry, chemical elements and compounds.

CHEMORECEPTOR - sensitive nerve endingsniya, perceiving chemical irritations.Chemosin mez - the process of formation by certain microorganisms,organic substances from carbon dioxide due to the energy obtained from the oxidation of inorganic compounds (withoutparticipation of solar energy).

CHLOROPLAST (chloros - green and plastos - moldedlazy, created) - plant cell organelles,intracellularlyraceslaid plastids, in whichphotosynthesis takes place. They are green in color due todue to the presence in them of the main pigment of photosynthesis -chlorophyll.

CHROMIUM... (chroma, chromatos - color, skin color, colorka) - an integral part of compound words, denoting "relativelyradiant to color."

CHROMATIDS (chromium and eidos - similar) - longitudinalnew halves of chromosomes (one of two nucleotide strands),consisting ofchromoneme. Chromonemes havechromophyb rilla, containing DNA.

CHROMATIN - nucleoprotein cell nucleus, compositionlaying the basis of chromosomes. Good staining on histoloprocessing.

CHROMOPLAST - plastid with weakly expressed internalearly structure, is formed as a derivative of chloroplastcom, less often leukoplasts. Contains predominantlypigments - carotenoids (for example, during maturationrose hips, peppers, tomatoes, flower petals). intensivelysynthesized during the destruction of chloroplasts.

CHROMOSOME (chroma and soma - body, gr.) - self-propelledproduced structural element of the cell nucleus, containssqueezing DNA, which contains the genetic (hereditary)venous) information.

CENTER... (centrum - the center of the circle, lat.) - compositepart of words indicating: relation to the center, “locatedfemale in the center.

CENTRIOLS - chromosome bodies of a cylindrical shape, forming a cell center, diverging towards the fieldthe cell itself and those reproducing during its division, determineddetermine the orientation of the spindle. contain DNA and are capable ofself-reproduction.

CENTROMERES (centro and meros - part, gr.) - partchromosome current that holds two strands together - chromatidy. During cell division, centromeres direct the movement of chromosomes towards the poles of the cell.

POWER CHAINS (see trophic chains).

CYTO... (citus - vessel, mitos - emptiness, gr.) - sosthe taval part of compound words denoting "pertaining tocell", "cellular".

CYTOPLASM (cyto and plasma are something formed,fashioned) - the extranuclear part of the protoplasm of living cellsout organisms.Cytology - cell science that studiesstructure, development and functions of animal and plant cellscurrent.

PURE LINES - a group of individuals obtained in rethe result of long-term inbreeding with the most homogeneoussequence.

EVOLUTION (evolution - deployment, lat.) - inbiology complex, theoretical provisions on mechanisms,driving factors and patterns of development of livingchildbirth, irreversible and directed development of wildlife.

EURO... (euros - wide, gr.) - part of compound words denoting "wide", "extensive", "multifaceted","various".eurybiont - an organism that livespersonal, dramatically different environmental conditions. depending onty from factors distinguisheuryterm (temperature),euryphage (food),eurygad (salinity of the environment), etc.

ECOLOGY (oikos - house, dwelling, homeland and logos -teaching,gr.)the science of the relationship of organisms with their environmentliving environment. In recent years, the boundaries of ecology havesignificantly expanded, and in addition tobioecology include questionsnature conservation, nature management, toxicology, geochemistry, hydrochemistry and other sciences.

ECOLOGICAL NICHE - place occupied by the assspecies evolution in the biocenosis.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID (Elton pyramid) - graphic models (usually in the form of triangles) reflecting the number of individuals(pyramid of numbers), the amount of their biomass(biomass pyramid) or energy contained in themgyi(pyramid of energies) at each trophic (food) level and indicating a regular decrease in allindicators with an increase in the trophic level (produceryou, consumers of the 1st order, consumers of the 2nd order, etc.d.).Developed by C. Elton (1927).

ECT... (ectos - outside, outside, gr.) - the first compoundpart of compound words corresponding in meaning to words"external", "external".

ECTODERM (ecto and dermis - skin, gr.) - 1. Outsidegerm layer of a multicellular animal embryonyh. Animal integuments develop from it, the outer skinyears of invertebrates, etc. 2. The outer layer of two-layeranimals - sponges, coelenterates.

EMBRYOLOGY (embryo - embryo and logos - studynie, gr.) - a scientific discipline that studies the germinal(embryonic) development of the organism.

EMOTION (emotion, fr., from lat, emovere - to excite,worry) - subjective reaction: mental experienceanxiety, emotional excitement (anger, fear, timidity, etc.), arisingin humans or animals due to exposure tothem external and internal stimuli.

END... (endo ..., endo - inside, gr.) - componentcompound words denoting "inside", "internal".Endo dermis (endo and dermis - skin) - 1) internal embryoembryonic leaf of multicellular animals(in gastrula); 2) the inner layer of the wall of two-layer animals - intestinesnocavitary and sponges.

ENDOSPERM (endon - inside and sperm - seed) - forgrazing triploid tissue of plant seeds, in which fromprovide the nutrients necessary fordevelopment of the embryo (well developed in cereals, umbelliferous, pastelnew and other plants).

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - channel network, truebarrels, vesicles located inside the cytoplasm.

ENDEMIC (endemos - local, gr.) - local species(and another systematic category - genus, family andetc.), living only in this area.

EPI... (epi - on, over, with, after, gr.) - part of the complexwords, which determines being on top of something, in front of or near something (epigraph), following something, massowl distribution(epidemic - epi and demos - people,gr.).

EPIDERMIS (epi and dermis - skin, gr.) - superficiallythick layer of the skin of vertebrates, including humans,or outer integumentary tissue of higherpacshadows.

erythrocytes (erythros - red and citus - cell,gr.) - red blood cells of vertebrates and someinvertebrate animals.

EPHEMEROID (ephemeros - one-day and eidos - species, gr.) - a perennial plant characterized by short durationliving period of flowering and. annual vegetation. Naimore typical for arid regions (steppes, emptyneither).

EUKARYOTES (eu - good, karyon - core and tere -shell, gr.) - unicellular and multicellular growbody and animal organisms whose cells, unlikedifferentiated from prokaryotic cells into cytoplasm andlimitedkaryolemma nucleus. Opposedabout karyotes.

Toolkit

BRIEF GLOSSARY OF BIOLOGICAL TERMS

for students and college teachers

Compiled by:

teacher of biology and ecology

O.Yu.Nesvetaeva

Voronezh State Industrial and Technological College

Notes

Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Abbreviation- Loss by a species in the course of evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogenesis of signs or phases of development that the ancestors had.

Abiogenesis- The emergence of the living from the inanimate in the process of evolution.

Aboriginal- A native inhabitant of a locality, living in it from time immemorial.

Avitaminosis- A disease caused by a long-term lack of vital vitamins in the diet.

Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.

Autoduplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.

Autolysis- Self-dissolution, disintegration of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in these same tissues.

Automixis- The fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widely distributed among protozoa, fungi, diatoms.

Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.

Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or the energy released during chemical reactions.

Agglutination- 1) Bonding and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, erythrocytes and other cells. 2) Protein coagulation in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.

Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which the coagulation of proteins occurs, the adhesion of microbes, blood cells.

Agony- The final moment of life, preceding clinical death.

Agranulocyte- A leukocyte that does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates, these are lymphocytes and monocytes.

Agrocenosis- A biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms, created for the production of agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.

Adaptation- A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, which ensures success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the effects of abiotic environmental factors.

Adynamia- Muscle weakness, impotence.

Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.

Acclimatization- A set of measures to introduce a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.

Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - the adaptation of muscle and nervous tissue to the action of a stimulus slowly increasing in strength.

Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms of chemicals found in the environment in lower concentrations.

Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and bones of the face due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.

Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.

allele- Different forms of the same gene located in the same loci of homologous chromosomes.

allogenesis

Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation normal for this type of organisms.

Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.

Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without the opposite negative impact from the side of the suppressed.

Amitosis- Direct cell division.

Anabiosis- A temporary state of the body in which the vital processes are so slow that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.

Anabolism- Plastic exchange.

Analyzing cross- Crossing the test organism with another, which is a recessive homozygous for this trait, which allows you to establish the genotype of the test.

Similar bodies- Organs that perform the same functions, but have a different structure and origin, the result convergence.

Anatomy- A group of scientific branches that study the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the whole organism as a whole.

Anaerobe An organism that can live in an oxygen-free environment.

Angiology- A branch of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells, the content of hemoglobin in them or the total mass of blood.

Aneuploidy- Non-multiple change in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes, in which one or more chromosomes from the usual set are either absent or represented by additional copies.

Antheridium- The male reproductive organ.

Antigen- A complex organic substance that, when it enters the body of animals and humans, can cause an immune response - the formation antibodies.

Anticodon- A section of the tRNA molecule, consisting of 3 nucleotides, specifically binding to the codon of the mRNA.

Antibody- Immunoglobulin of blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by cells of lymphoid tissue under the influence of various antigens.

Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.

Anthropology- An intersectoral discipline that studies the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.

Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female germ cell or from cells of a germ or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.

Arachnology- Branch of zoology that studies arachnids.

area- The area of ​​distribution of the species.

Arogenesis

Aromorphosis- Evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; complication of the organization, raising to a higher level, morphophysiological progress.

Arrenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen bee.

Archegonium- Female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, club mosses, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an egg.

Assimilation- One of the sides of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which energy is accumulated.

astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Astrobiology- A branch of science dedicated to discovering and studying signs of life in the universe, in space and on planets.

Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, suffocation, oxygen starvation. Occurs with a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.

Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of this species of features that existed in distant ancestors, but then lost in the process of evolution.

Atony- Lifetime reduction in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Accompanied by a violation or even termination of their functions.

outbreeding- Crossing individuals of the same species that are not directly related leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.

Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes.

Acidosis- Accumulation in the blood and other tissues of the body of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids.

Aerobe An organism that can only live in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.

Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in humid air by periodically spraying the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, greenhouses, spaceships, etc.

Aerotaxis- The movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to a source of oxygen or, conversely, from it.

Aerotropism- Growth of stems or roots of plants in the direction from which oxygen-enriched air enters, for example, the growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.

Bacteriology- Branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.

Bacteriocarrier

bacteriophage- A bacterial virus capable of infecting a bacterial cell, multiplying in it and causing its dissolution.

bacteriocide- An antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of other types of bacteria.

Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that perceive changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.

Bacillus Any bacterium shaped like a rod.

Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during the division of the cell nucleus.

Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.

biogeography- A scientific branch that studies the general geographical patterns of the organic world of the Earth: the distribution of vegetation and animal populations of various parts of the globe, their combinations, the floristic and faunal division of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their constituent species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms .

Biogeochemistry- A scientific discipline that investigates the role of living organisms in the destruction of rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere.

Biogeocenosis- An evolutionarily formed, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system in which living organisms and their abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by a relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use of the energy flow coming from the Sun.

Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study wildlife.

Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data using mathematical statistics methods.

Biomechanics- A section of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.

Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the identified patterns in solving engineering problems and building technical systems similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.

Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclic fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the opportunity to adapt to environmental changes.

Biosphere- The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms.

Biotechnology- A section of hunting science that explores ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting grounds.

Biotechnology- A scientific discipline and field of practice that borders between biology and technology, studying the ways and methods of changing the natural environment around a person in accordance with his needs.

Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies the physical and physico-chemical processes in living organisms, as well as the physical structure of biological systems at all levels of their organization - from the molecular and subcellular to the cell, organ and organism as a whole.

Biochemistry- A scientific discipline that studies the chemical composition of living beings, chemical reactions in them and the regular order of these reactions, which ensures metabolism.

Biocenosis- An interconnected set of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals that inhabit a more or less homogeneous area of ​​land or water.

Bifurcation- Dividing something into two branches.

Blastula- Single-layer embryo.

Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines that explore the plant kingdom.

Bryology- The scientific branch investigating mosses.

Vaccine- A preparation of living or dead microorganisms used for immunization of humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.

Virology- The scientific discipline that studies viruses.

Virus carrying- Stay and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or parasitic diseases in the body of humans and animals in the absence of signs of the disease.

Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of germ cells - gametes.

gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage of the plant life cycle from spore to zygote.

Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, resulting from reduction division.

gastrula- The phase of the embryonic development of multicellular animals, a two-layer embryo.

gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.

heliobiology- A branch of biophysics that studies the influence of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.

hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms that have a heterogametic male sex (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of the genes responsible for any trait.

Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.

Hemophilia- A hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, due to a lack of blood clotting factors.

Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrates, which provides oxygen transport in their body, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.

Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrates, it is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink tint.

Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of managing these processes.

Genome- The set of genes contained in the haploid (single) set of chromosomes.

Genotype- The totality of all genes received from parents.

gene pool- The totality of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.

Geobotany- A scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and the impact on it, features of the finocenotic environment.

Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.

Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs, caused by the unilateral action of the force of gravity.

Geophilia- The ability of the shoots or roots of some perennials to retract or grow into the soil to overwinter.

Hermaphroditism- The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.

herpetology- A branch of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.

heterozygote- An individual that gives different types of gametes.

heterosis- "hybrid strength", acceleration of growth, increase in size, increase in viability and fertility of first-generation hybrids in comparison with parental forms of plants or animals.

heteroploidy- Repeated change in the number of chromosomes.

Gibberellin- A substance that stimulates plant growth.

Hybrid- An organism resulting from crossbreeding.

Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.

Hygiene- A science that studies the impact on human health of living and working conditions and develops measures to prevent diseases.

hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in conditions of high humidity.

Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excessive moisture.

Hygrophobes- Terrestrial animals avoiding excessive moisture in specific habitats.

Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.

Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil on aqueous solutions of mineral substances.

hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of humidity.

Hypertension- A disease caused by high blood pressure.

Hypodynamia- Lack of physical activity.

hypoxia- Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, some diseases and poisonings.

Hypotension- A disease caused by low blood pressure.

Histology- Section of morphology that studies the tissues of multicellular organisms.

glycolysis- Oxygen-free process of splitting carbohydrates.

Hollandic trait- A trait found only in males (XY).

Homozygote- An individual that produces one variety of gametes.

Homeyotherm- An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).

Homologous Organs- Organs that are similar in structure, origin, but perform different functions, the result divergences.

Hormone- A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and has a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.

Granulocyte- A leukocyte containing grains (granules) in the cytoplasm protects the body from bacteria.

color blindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish between certain colors, usually red and green.

Degeneration

deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is a loss of a section of the chromosome in its middle part; a gene mutation that results in the loss of a portion of a DNA molecule.

Demecology- A branch of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.

Dendrology- Branch of botany that studies trees and shrubs.

Depression- Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic causes associated with human activities; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decline in viability.

Defiance- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the end sections of chromosomes (lack).

Divergence- Divergence of signs.

Dihybrid cross- Crossing individuals for two pairs of traits.

Dissimilation

dominant trait- Predominant sign.

Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplant.

Gene drift- Change in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random causes; genetic-automatic process in a population.

Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.

duplication- A chromosomal mutation in which a part of a chromosome is repeated.

Eugenics- The doctrine of hereditary human health and ways to preserve and improve it. The basic principles of the doctrine were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed to study the factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, giftedness). But some ideas of eugenics have been perverted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. In modern science, the problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.

Reserve- A section of the territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.

Reserve- A specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve intact natural complexes, protect species and monitor natural processes.

Zygote- A fertilized egg.

Zoogeography- A scientific branch that studies the patterns of the geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.

Zoology- A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.

Idioadaptation- The path of evolution without increasing the overall level of organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.

Insulation- A process that prevents interbreeding between individuals of different species and leads to divergence of traits within the same species.

Immunity- Immunity, body resistance to infectious agents and foreign substances. There are natural (innate) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.

Imprinting- Strong and fast fixation in the animal's memory of signs of an object.

Inbreeding- Inbreeding.

Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is a turn of its section by 180 °.

Insertion- A gene mutation, as a result of which a segment of the DNA molecule is inserted into the structure of the gene.

Interferon- A protective protein produced by mammalian and avian cells in response to virus infection.

Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.

Ichthyology- The branch of zoology that studies fish.

Carcinogen- A substance or physical agent capable of causing or contributing to the development of malignant neoplasms.

Karyotype- A diploid set of chromosomes in the somatic (non-sex) cells of an organism, a set of their characteristics typical for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.

Carotenoids- Red, yellow and orange pigments found in plant and some animal tissues.

Catabolism- Energy metabolism, breakdown of substances, ATP synthesis.

Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler habitat and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of active life organs.

lodging- Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms of different species, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an “apartment”) without harming the other.

Kyphosis- Curvature of the spine, convexly turned back.

Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.

Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives one-sided benefits from the other, without harming the owner.

complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.

Convergence- Convergence of signs.

Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship, determined by the desire to achieve a goal better and sooner than other members of the community.

consumer- Organism-consumer of ready-made organic substances.

Conjugation- Rapprochement of chromosomes during meiosis; the sexual process, which consists in the partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.

Copulation- The process of fusion of germ cells (gametes) into a zygote; connection of individuals of the opposite sex during sexual intercourse.

crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.

Crossing over- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.

xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.

xerophilus- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficiency.

xerophyte- A plant of arid habitats, common in the steppes, semi-deserts, deserts.

Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, the instability of the organism to environmental conditions.

Latent- Hidden, invisible.

Leucoplasts- Colorless plastids.

Lysis- Destruction of cells by their complete or partial dissolution both under normal conditions and when pathogens penetrate.

Lichenology- A branch of botany that studies lichens.

Locus The region of the chromosome in which the gene is located.

Lordosis- Curvature of the spine, convex forward.

macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations occurring at the supraspecific level and causing the formation of ever larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).

Mediator- A substance whose molecules are able to react with specific receptors of the cell membrane and change its permeability for certain ions, causing the occurrence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.

mesoderm- Middle germ layer.

Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.

Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.

Mycology- A branch of science researching mushrooms.

Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.

Microbiology- A biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.

microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.

Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species by poisonous and well-protected animals from attack by predators.

Modeling- A method of research and demonstration of various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.

Modification- A non-hereditary change in the characteristics of an organism that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.

Monitoring- Tracking of any objects or phenomena, including those of a biological nature; multi-purpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. d.

Monogamy- Monogamy, the mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.

monohybrid cross- Crossing individuals for one pair of traits.

monospermia- Penetration into the egg of only one sperm (sperm).

Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in the same linkage group, characterized by the frequency of crossing over in%.

morula- An early stage of embryo development, which is an accumulation of a large number of blastomere cells without a separate cavity; in most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.

Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections, investigating the form and structure of animals and plants.

Mutagenesis- The process of mutation.

Mutation- Spasmodic change in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.

Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.

Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar features and properties in a number of generations.

Freeloading- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without harming it.

Neirula- The stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the neural tube plate (from the ectoderm) and axial organs are laid.

Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.

Noosphere- Part of the biosphere, in which human activity is manifested, both positive and negative, the sphere of "mind".

Nucleoprotein- Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.

Obligate- Required.

Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms in the process of life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and reproduce themselves in the environment, as well as adapt to it.

Ovulation- The release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.

Ontogenesis- Individual development of the organism.

Fertilization- Fusion of sex cells.

Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.

Ornithology- The branch of zoology that studies birds.

Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, the conditions of their life and burial.

natural monument- A separate rare or noteworthy object of animate or inanimate nature, deserving of protection in terms of scientific, cultural, educational and historical-memorial significance.

Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms in the course of evolution of similar structural features based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.

Parthenogenesis- The development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.

Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover.

pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.

Pleiotropy- Dependence of several traits on one gene.

Poikilotherm- An organism that is not able to maintain the internal temperature of the body, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.

Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of a male during the breeding season with many females.

Polymerism- Dependence of the development of the same trait or property of an organism on several independent genes.

polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.

Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and exterior.

Protistology- A section of biology that studies protozoa.

Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermins and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.

Radiobiology- A section of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and ways to protect them from radiation.

Regeneration- Recovery by the body of lost or damaged organs and tissues, as well as the restoration of the whole organism from its parts.

decomposer- An organism that converts organic substances into inorganic in the course of its life.

Rheotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of fluid or the location of the body parallel to it.

Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants, when they grow in a stream of water, to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.

Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, the process of reverse transcription occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized based on viral RNA, which is then integrated into the host's DNA.

Reflex- The response of the body to external irritation through the nervous system.

Receptor- A sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.

Recipient- An organism that receives a blood transfusion or an organ transplant.

Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and features that the evolutionary ancestors of the species had in a developed form, but lost their meaning in the process phylogenesis.

Selection- Breeding of new and improvement of existing plant varieties, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cell engineering.

Symbiosis- The type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.

Synapse- The place where nerve cells meet each other.

synecology- A branch of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationship with the environment.

Systematics- A branch of biology dedicated to the description, designation and classification into groups of all existing and extinct organisms, the establishment of family ties between individual species and groups of species.

Scoliosis- Bends of the spine to the right or left.

Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural features.

spermatogenesis- The formation of male sex cells.

Splicing- i-RNA editing process, in which some marked sections of i-RNA are cut out, and the rest are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleolus during transcription.

Succulent- A plant with succulent fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.

succession- Consistent change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in the species composition and structure of the community.

Serum- The liquid part of the blood without formed elements and fibrin, formed in the process of their separation during blood coagulation outside the body.

Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.

Teratogen- Biological effects, chemicals and physical factors that cause deformities in organisms during ontogenesis.

thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.

Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.

Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.

Textile- A set of cells and intercellular substance that performs a certain role in the body.

Tolerance- The ability of organisms to endure deviations of environmental factors from optimal ones.

Transcription- Biosynthesis of i-RNA on the DNA matrix, is carried out in the cell nucleus.

Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is an exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or a transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.

Broadcast- Synthesis of the polypeptide chain of the protein is carried out in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.

transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.

tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of some stimulus.

Turgor- The elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elastic walls.

Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (human), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.

Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov.

Phenology- The totality of knowledge about seasonal natural phenomena, the timing of their onset and the reasons that determine these timings.

Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external features and properties of an individual.

Enzyme- A biological catalyst, by chemical nature - a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.

Physiology- A biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.

Phylogenesis- Historical development of the species.

photoperiodism- The reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.

Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.

Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of light.

Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by certain microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic ones due to the energy of chemical bonds.

Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.

Predation- Feeding animals that were alive up to the moment of their transformation into a food object (with their capture and killing).

chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein filaments formed when chromosomes are duplicated during cell division.

Chromatin- Nucleoprotein, which forms the basis of the chromosome.

Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.

Centromere The part of a chromosome that holds two of its strands (chromatids) together.

Cyst- The form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense shell, which allows these organisms to survive adverse environmental conditions.

Cytology- The science of the cell.

schizogony- Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; characteristic of spores.

Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms isolated from a specific source and possessing specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.

Exocytosis- The release of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of bubbles surrounded by the membrane.

Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationship of organisms and their communities with the environment.

ectoderm- Outer germ layer.

Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of an organism.

Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of bubbles surrounded by the membrane.

Endoderm- Inner germ layer.

Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.

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1. What does anatomy study?

Human anatomy is the science of the form, structure and development of the human body in accordance with gender, age and individual characteristics.

Anatomy studies the external forms and proportions of the human body and its parts, individual organs, their design, microscopic structure. The tasks of anatomy include the study of the main stages of human development in the process of evolution, the structural features of the body and individual organs at different age periods, as well as in environmental conditions.

2. What does physiology study?

Physiology - (from the Greek physis - nature and logos - word, doctrine), the science of life processes and the mechanisms of their regulation in the human body. Physiology studies the mechanisms of various functions of a living organism (growth, reproduction, respiration, etc.), their relationship with each other, regulation and adaptation to the external environment, origin and formation in the process of evolution and individual development of an individual. Solving fundamentally common problems, the physiology of animals and humans and the physiology of plants have differences due to the structure and functions of their objects. So, for the physiology of animals and humans, one of the main tasks is the study of the regulatory and integrating role of the nervous system in the body. The greatest physiologists participated in solving this problem (I.M. Sechenov, N.E. Vvedensky, I.P. Pavlov, A.A. Ukhtomsky, G. Helmholtz, K. Bernard, C. Sherrington, etc.). Plant physiology, which emerged from botany in the 19th century, is traditionally the study of mineral (root) and air (photosynthesis) nutrition, flowering, fruiting, etc. It serves as the theoretical basis for plant growing and agronomy. The founders of Russian plant physiology - A.S. Famintsyn and K.A. Timiryazev. Physiology is associated with anatomy, cytology, embryology, biochemistry, and other biological sciences.

3. What does hygiene study?

Hygiene - (from other Greek ? geinyu "healthy", from? gyaeb "health") - the science of the influence of the environment on human health.

As a result, hygiene has two objects of study - environmental factors and the reaction of the body, and uses the knowledge and methods of physics, chemistry, biology, geography, hydrogeology and other sciences that study the environment, as well as physiology, anatomy and pathophysiology.

Environmental factors are diverse and are divided into:

Physical - noise, vibration, electromagnetic and radioactive radiation, climate, etc.

Chemical - chemical elements and their compounds.

· Factors of human activity - the regime of the day, the severity and intensity of labor, etc.

· Social.

Within the framework of hygiene, the following main sections are distinguished:

Environmental hygiene - studying the impact of natural factors - atmospheric air, solar radiation, etc.

· Occupational health - studying the impact of the working environment and factors of the production process on a person.

Communal hygiene - within the framework of which requirements are developed for urban planning, housing, water supply, etc.

· Nutritional hygiene - studying the meaning and impact of food, developing measures to optimize and ensure nutritional safety (often this section is confused with dietetics).

· Hygiene of children and adolescents - studying the complex impact of factors on a growing organism.

· Military hygiene -- aimed at maintaining and improving the combat capability of personnel.

Personal hygiene - a set of hygiene rules, the implementation of which contributes to the preservation and promotion of health.

Also some narrow sections: radiation hygiene, industrial toxicology, etc.

The main tasks of hygiene:

study of the influence of the external environment on the state of health and performance of people. At the same time, the external environment should be understood as the whole complex complex of natural, social, domestic, industrial and other factors.

· scientific justification and development of hygienic standards, rules and measures to improve the environment and eliminate harmful factors;

· scientific justification and development of hygienic standards, rules and measures to increase the body's resistance to possible harmful environmental influences in order to improve health and physical development, increase efficiency. This is facilitated by rational nutrition, physical exercises, hardening, a properly organized work and rest regimen, and observance of personal hygiene rules.

4. What factors disturbing the balance between the environment and the organism are toxins?

In the body of each person there is a certain amount of harmful substances, which are called toxins (from the Greek. toxikon - poison). They are divided into two large groups.

Exotoxins are harmful substances of chemical and natural origin that enter the body from the external environment with food, air or water. Most often, these are nitrates, nitrites, heavy metals and many other chemical compounds that are present in almost everything that surrounds us. Living in large industrial cities, working in hazardous industries, and even taking medications containing toxic substances are all, to one degree or another, factors of poisoning the body.

Endotoxins are harmful substances that are formed during the life of the body. Especially a lot of them appear in various diseases and metabolic disorders, in particular, with poor bowel function, abnormal liver function, with tonsillitis, pharyngitis, influenza, acute respiratory infections, kidney diseases, allergic conditions, even stress.

Toxins poison the body and disrupt its coordinated work - most often they undermine the immune, hormonal, cardiovascular and metabolic systems. This leads to a complication of the course of various diseases and prevents recovery. Toxins lead to a decrease in the body's resistance, deterioration of the general condition and loss of strength.

One theory of aging suggests that it is caused by the accumulation of toxins in the body. They inhibit the work of organs, tissues, cells, disrupt the course of biochemical processes in them. This ultimately leads to a deterioration in their functions and, as a result, to aging of the whole organism.

Almost any disease is much easier and easier to treat if toxins do not accumulate and are quickly eliminated from the body.

Nature has endowed man with various systems and organs capable of destroying, neutralizing and removing harmful substances from the body. These are, in particular, the systems of the liver, kidneys, lungs, skin, gastrointestinal tract, etc. In modern conditions, it is becoming increasingly difficult to cope with aggressive toxins, and a person needs additional reliable and effective help.

5. What factors does radiation refer to?

Radioactivity is called the instability of the nuclei of some atoms, which manifests itself in their ability to spontaneous transformation (according to scientific - decay), which is accompanied by the release of ionizing radiation (radiation). The energy of such radiation is large enough, so it is able to act on the substance, creating new ions of different signs. It is impossible to cause radiation with the help of chemical reactions, this is a completely physical process.

There are several types of radiation:

· Alpha particles are relatively heavy particles, positively charged, are helium nuclei.

Beta particles are ordinary electrons.

· Gamma radiation - has the same nature as visible light, but much greater penetrating power.

· Neutrons are electrically neutral particles that occur mainly near a working nuclear reactor, access there should be limited.

· X-rays are similar to gamma rays, but have less energy. By the way, the Sun is one of the natural sources of such rays, but the Earth's atmosphere provides protection from solar radiation.

Sources of radiation -- nuclear installations (particle accelerators, reactors, x-ray equipment) and radioactive substances. They can exist for a considerable time without manifesting themselves in any way, and you may not even suspect that you are near an object of strong radioactivity.

The body reacts to the radiation itself, and not to its source. Radioactive substances can enter the body through the intestines (with food and water), through the lungs (during breathing) and even through the skin in medical diagnostics with radioisotopes. In this case, internal radiation occurs. In addition, a significant effect of radiation on the human body is exerted by external exposure, i.e. The radiation source is outside the body. The most dangerous, of course, is internal exposure.

The effect of radiation on the human body is called irradiation. During this process, the energy of the radiation is transferred to the cells, destroying them. Irradiation can cause all sorts of diseases: infectious complications, metabolic disorders, malignant tumors and leukemia, infertility, cataracts and much more. Radiation is especially acute on dividing cells, so it is especially dangerous for children.

Radiation refers to those factors of physiological effects on the human body, for the perception of which it has no receptors. He is simply not able to see, hear, or feel it by touch or taste.

The absence of direct cause-and-effect relationships between radiation and the body's response to its effects allows us to constantly and quite successfully exploit the idea of ​​the danger of the impact of small doses on human health.

6. What factors are viruses?

Viruses (derived from the Latin virus - “poison”) are the smallest microorganisms that do not have a cellular structure, a protein-synthesizing system and are capable of reproducing only in the cells of highly organized life forms. To designate an agent capable of causing an infectious disease, it was first used in 1728.

The origin of viruses in the evolutionary tree of life is unclear: some of them may have originated from plasmids, small DNA molecules that can be transferred from one cell to another, while others may have originated from bacteria. In evolution, viruses are an important means of horizontal gene transfer, which determines genetic diversity.

Viruses spread in many ways: plant viruses are often transmitted from plant to plant by insects that feed on plant sap, such as aphids; Animal viruses can be spread by blood-sucking insects, such organisms are known as vectors. The influenza virus is spread through the air through coughs and sneezes. Norovirus and rotavirus, which commonly cause viral gastroenteritis, are transmitted by the fecal-oral route through contact with contaminated food or water. HIV is one of several viruses transmitted through sexual contact and through transfusion of infected blood. Each virus has a specific host specificity, determined by the types of cells it can infect. The host range may be narrow or, if the virus infects many species, wide.

Viruses, although very small, they cannot be seen, are the object of study of the sciences:

For physicians, viruses are the most common causative agents of infectious diseases: influenza, measles, smallpox, tropical fevers.

For a pathologist, viruses are the etiological agents (cause) of cancer and leukemia, the most frequent and dangerous pathological processes.

For a veterinarian, viruses are the culprits of epizootics (mass diseases) of foot-and-mouth disease, bird plague, infectious anemia and other diseases that affect farm animals.

For an agronomist, viruses are the causative agents of spotted banding of wheat, tobacco mosaic, yellow potato dwarfism and other diseases of agricultural plants.

For the grower, viruses are the factors that cause the amazing colors of tulips to appear.

For the medical microbiologist, viruses are agents that cause the appearance of toxic (poisonous) varieties of diphtheria or other bacteria, or factors that contribute to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

For an industrial microbiologist, viruses are pests of bacteria, producers, antibiotics, and enzymes.

For a geneticist, viruses are carriers of genetic information.

For a Darwinist, viruses are important factors in the evolution of the organic world.

For an ecologist, viruses are factors involved in the formation of conjugated systems of the organic world.

For a biologist, viruses are the simplest forms of life, possessing all of its main manifestations.

For a philosopher, viruses are the clearest illustration of the dialectics of nature, a touchstone for polishing such concepts as living and nonliving, part and whole, form and function.

Viruses are the causative agents of the most important diseases of humans, farm animals and plants, and their importance is constantly increasing as the incidence of bacterial, protozoal and fungal diseases decreases.

7. What is homeostasis?

Life is possible only with a relatively small range of deviations of various characteristics of the internal environment - physicochemical (acidity, osmotic pressure, temperature, etc.) and physiological (blood pressure, blood sugar, etc.) - from a certain average value. The constancy of the internal environment of a living organism is called homeostasis (from the Greek words homoios - similar, identical and stasis - state).

Under the influence of environmental factors, the vital characteristics of the internal environment may change. Then reactions occur in the body aimed at restoring them or preventing such changes. These reactions are called homeostatic. When blood is lost, for example, vasoconstriction occurs, preventing a drop in blood pressure. With an increase in sugar consumption during physical work, its release into the blood from the liver increases, which prevents a drop in blood sugar levels. With an increase in heat production in the body, the skin vessels expand, and therefore heat transfer increases, which prevents the body from overheating.

Homeostatic reactions are organized by the central nervous system, which regulates the activity of the autonomic and endocrine systems. The latter already directly affect the tone of blood vessels, the intensity of metabolism, the work of the heart and other organs. The mechanisms of the same homeostatic reaction and their effectiveness can be different and depend on many factors, including hereditary ones.

Homeostasis is also called the preservation of the constancy of the species composition and the number of individuals in biocenoses, the ability of a population to maintain a dynamic balance of the genetic composition, which ensures its maximum viability (genetic homeostasis).

8. What is a cytolemma?

The cytolemma is the universal skin of the cell, it performs barrier, protective, receptor, excretory functions, transfers nutrients, transmits nerve impulses and hormones, connects cells into tissues.

This is the thickest (10 nm) and complexly organized cell membrane. It is based on a universal biological membrane, covered on the outside with a glycocalyx, and on the inside, from the side of the cytoplasm, with a submembrane layer. The glycocalyx (3-4 nm thick) is represented by the outer, carbohydrate sections of complex proteins - glycoproteins and glycolipids that make up the membrane. These carbohydrate chains play the role of receptors that ensure that the cell recognizes neighboring cells and intercellular substance and interacts with them. This layer also includes surface and semi-integral proteins, the functional sites of which are located in the supramembrane zone (for example, immunoglobulins). The glycocalyx contains histocompatibility receptors, receptors for many hormones and neurotransmitters.

The submembrane, cortical layer is formed by microtubules, microfibrils and contractile microfilaments, which are part of the cell cytoskeleton. The submembrane layer maintains the shape of the cell, creates its elasticity, and provides changes in the cell surface. Due to this, the cell participates in endo- and exocytosis, secretion, and movement.

The cytolemma performs many functions:

1) delimiting (the cytolemma separates, delimits the cell from the environment and ensures its connection with the external environment);

2) recognition by this cell of other cells and attachment to them;

3) recognition by the cell of the intercellular substance and attachment to its elements (fibers, basement membrane);

4) transport of substances and particles into and out of the cytoplasm;

5) interaction with signaling molecules (hormones, mediators, cytokines) due to the presence of specific receptors for them on its surface;

6) provides cell movement (formation of pseudopodia) due to the connection of the cytolemma with the contractile elements of the cytoskeleton.

Numerous receptors are located in the cytolemma, through which biologically active substances (ligands, signal molecules, first mediators: hormones, mediators, growth factors) act on the cell. Receptors are genetically determined macromolecular sensors (proteins, glyco- and lipoproteins) built into the cytolemma or located inside the cell and specialized in the perception of specific signals of a chemical or physical nature. Biologically active substances, when interacting with the receptor, cause a cascade of biochemical changes in the cell, while transforming into a specific physiological response (change in cell function).

All receptors have a common structural plan and consist of three parts: 1) supramembrane, which interacts with a substance (ligand); 2) intramembrane, carrying out signal transfer; and 3) intracellular, immersed in the cytoplasm.

9. What is the importance of the core?

The nucleus is an obligatory component of the cell (exception: mature erythrocytes), where the bulk of DNA is concentrated.

Two important processes take place in the nucleus. The first of these is the synthesis of the genetic material itself, during which the amount of DNA in the nucleus doubles (for DNA and RNA, see Nucleic acids). This process is necessary so that during subsequent cell division (mitosis) the same amount of genetic material appears in two daughter cells. The second process - transcription - is the production of all types of RNA molecules, which, migrating into the cytoplasm, provide the synthesis of proteins necessary for the life of the cell.

The nucleus differs from the cytoplasm surrounding it in terms of the refractive index of light. That is why it can be seen in a living cell, but usually special dyes are used to identify and study the nucleus. The Russian name "nucleus" reflects the spherical shape most characteristic of this organoid. Such nuclei can be seen in liver cells, nerve cells, but in smooth muscle and epithelial cells, the nuclei are oval. There are nuclei and more bizarre shapes.

The most dissimilar nuclei are composed of the same components, i.e. have a common building plan. In the nucleus, there are: nuclear membrane, chromatin (chromosome material), nucleolus and nuclear juice. Each nuclear component has its own structure, composition and functions.

The nuclear membrane includes two membranes located at some distance from each other. The space between the membranes of the nuclear envelope is called the perinuclear space. There are holes in the nuclear membrane - pores. But they are not end-to-end, but are filled with special protein structures, which are called the nuclear pore complex. Through the pores, RNA molecules exit the nucleus into the cytoplasm, and proteins move towards them into the nucleus. The membranes of the nuclear envelope themselves ensure the diffusion of low molecular weight compounds in both directions.

Chromatin (from the Greek word chroma - color, paint) is the substance of chromosomes, which are much less compact in the interphase nucleus than during mitosis. When cells are stained, they are stained brighter than other structures.

The nucleolus is clearly visible in the nuclei of living cells. It has the appearance of a calf of a rounded or irregular shape and stands out clearly against the background of a rather homogeneous nucleus. The nucleolus is a formation that occurs in the nucleus on those chromosomes that are involved in the synthesis of RNA ribosomes. The region of the chromosome that forms the nucleolus is called the nucleolar organizer. In the nucleolus, not only RNA synthesis takes place, but also the assembly of ribosome subparticles. The number of nucleoli and their sizes can be different. The products of the activity of chromatin and the nucleolus initially enter the nuclear juice (karyoplasm).

The nucleus is essential for cell growth and reproduction. If the main part of the cytoplasm is separated experimentally from the nucleus, then this cytoplasmic lump (cytoplast) can exist without a nucleus for only a few days. The nucleus, surrounded by the narrowest rim of the cytoplasm (karyoplast), completely retains its viability, gradually ensuring the restoration of organelles and the normal volume of the cytoplasm. However, some specialized cells, such as mammalian erythrocytes, function for a long time without a nucleus. It is also deprived of platelets - platelets, which are formed as fragments of the cytoplasm of large cells - megakaryocytes. Spermatozoa have a nucleus, but it is completely inactive.

10. What is fertilization?

Fertilization is the fusion of a male reproductive cell (sperm) with a female (ovum), leading to the formation of a zygote, which gives rise to a new organism. Fertilization is preceded by complex processes of egg maturation (oogenesis) and spermatozoon (spermatogenesis). Unlike spermatozoa, the egg does not have independent mobility. A mature egg leaves the follicle in the abdominal cavity in the middle of the menstrual cycle at the time of ovulation and enters the fallopian tube due to its suction peristaltic movements and the flickering of cilia. The period of ovulation and the first 12-24 hours. after it are the most favorable for fertilization. If it does not happen, then in the following days regression and death of the egg occur.

During sexual intercourse, semen (semen) enters the woman's vagina. Under the influence of the acidic environment of the vagina, part of the spermatozoa dies. The most viable of them penetrate through the cervical canal into the alkaline environment of its cavity and 1.5-2 hours after sexual intercourse reach the fallopian tubes, in the ampullary section of which fertilization occurs. Many spermatozoa rush to the mature egg, however, as a rule, only one of them penetrates through the shiny membrane covering it, the nucleus of which merges with the nucleus of the egg. From the moment of the fusion of germ cells, pregnancy begins. A unicellular embryo is formed, a qualitatively new cell - a zygote, from which, as a result of a complex process of development during pregnancy, a human body is formed. The sex of the unborn child depends on the type of sperm that fertilized the egg, which is always the carrier of the X chromosome. In the event that the egg was fertilized by a sperm with the X (female) sex chromosome, a female embryo (XX) occurs. When an egg is fertilized by a sperm with a Y (male) sex chromosome, a male embryo (XY) develops. There is evidence that spermatozoa containing the Y chromosome are less durable and die faster compared to spermatozoa containing the X chromosome. Obviously, in this regard, the likelihood of conceiving a boy increases if the fertilizing sexual intercourse occurred during ovulation. In the event that sexual intercourse was a few days before ovulation, there is a greater chance that fertilization will occur. Eggs are spermatozoa containing the X chromosome, i.e., a higher probability of having a girl.

The fertilized egg, moving along the fallopian tube, undergoes crushing, passes through the stages of blastula, morula, blastocyst, and on the 5-6th day from the moment of fertilization reaches the uterine cavity. At this point, the embryo (embryoblast) is covered on the outside with a layer of special cells - the trophoblast, which provides nutrition and implantation (introduction) into the uterine mucosa, which is called decidual during pregnancy. The trophoblast secretes enzymes that dissolve the uterine ileus, which facilitates the immersion of the fertilized egg into its thickness.

11. What characterizes the crushing stage?

Cleavage is a series of rapid divisions of the zygote without intermediate growth.

After combining the genomes of the egg and sperm, the zygote immediately proceeds to mitotic division - the development of a multicellular diploid organism begins. The first stage of this development is called fragmentation. It has a number of features. First of all, in most cases cell division does not alternate with cell growth. The number of cells of the embryo increases, and its total volume remains approximately equal to the volume of the zygote. During cleavage, the volume of the cytoplasm remains roughly constant, while the number of nuclei, their total volume, and especially their surface area, increase. This means that during the period of crushing, normal (ie, characteristic of somatic cells) nuclear-plasma relations are restored. Mitoses in the course of crushing especially quickly follow one after another. This occurs due to the shortening of the interphase: the Gx period falls out completely, and the G2 period also shortens. Interphase is practically reduced to the S-period: as soon as the entire DNA doubles, the cell enters mitosis.

Cells formed during crushing are called blastomeres. In many animals, they divide synchronously for quite a long time. True, sometimes this synchrony is disturbed early: for example, in roundworms at the stage of four blastomeres, and in mammals the first two blastomeres already divide asynchronously. In this case, the first two divisions usually occur in the meridian planes (pass through the animal-vegetative axis), and the third division - in the equatorial (perpendicular to this axis).

Another characteristic feature of crushing is the absence of signs of tissue differentiation in blastomeres. Cells can already "know" their future fate, but they do not yet have signs of nerve, muscle or epithelial.

12. What is implantation?

physiology cytolemma zygote

Implantation (from Latin in (im) - in, inside and plantatio - planting, transplantation), attachment of the embryo to the wall of the uterus in mammals with intrauterine development and in humans.

There are three types of implantation:

Central implantation - when the embryo remains in the lumen of the uterus, attaching to its wall or the entire surface of the trophoblast, or only part of it (in bats, ruminants).

Eccentric implantation - the embryo penetrates deep into the fold of the uterine mucosa (the so-called uterine crypt), the walls of which then fuse over the embryo and form an implantation chamber isolated from the uterine cavity (in rodents).

Interstitial implantation - characteristic of higher mammals (primates and humans) - the embryo actively destroys the cells of the uterine mucosa and is introduced into the resulting cavity; the defect of the uterus heals, and the embryo is completely immersed in the wall of the uterus, where its further development takes place.

13. What is gastrulation?

Gastrulation is a complex process of morphogenetic changes, accompanied by reproduction, growth, directed movement and differentiation of cells, resulting in the formation of germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm) - sources of rudiments of tissues and organs. The second stage of ontogenesis after crushing. During gastrulation, the movement of cell masses occurs with the formation of a two-layer or three-layer embryo from the blastula - the gastrula.

The type of blastula determines the mode of gastrulation.

The embryo at this stage consists of clearly separated layers of cells - germ layers: outer (ectoderm) and inner (endoderm).

In multicellular animals, except for intestinal cavities, in parallel with gastrulation or, like in the lancelet, after it, a third germinal layer appears - the mesoderm, which is a collection of cellular elements located between the ectoderm and endoderm. Due to the appearance of the mesoderm, the embryo becomes three-layered.

In many groups of animals, it is at the stage of gastrulation that the first signs of differentiation appear. Differentiation (differentiation) is the process of the emergence and growth of structural and functional differences between individual cells and parts of the embryo.

From the ectoderm, the nervous system, sensory organs, skin epithelium, tooth enamel are formed; from the endoderm - the epithelium of the middle intestine, digestive glands, the epithelium of the gills and lungs; from the mesoderm - muscle tissue, connective tissue, circulatory system, kidneys, sex glands, etc.

In different groups of animals, the same germ layers give rise to the same organs and tissues.

Gastrulation methods:

Invagination - occurs by invagination of the blastula wall into the blastocoel; characteristic of most groups of animals.

· Delamination (characteristic of coelenterates) - the cells located outside are transformed into the epithelial layer of the ectoderm, and the endoderm is formed from the remaining cells. Usually, delamination is accompanied by divisions of blastula cells, the plane of which passes "at a tangent" to the surface.

Immigration - migration of individual cells of the blastula wall into the blastocoel.

Unipolar - on one section of the blastula wall, usually on the vegetative pole;

· Multipolar - on several parts of the blastula wall.

Epiboly - fouling of some cells by rapidly dividing other cells or fouling of cells of the internal mass of the yolk (with incomplete crushing).

· Involution - screwing inside the embryo of the outer layer of cells increasing in size, which spreads along the inner surface of the cells remaining outside.

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