Ecosystem (from the Greek word oikos - dwelling, residence) - any natural complex (biokosnaya system). It consists of living organisms (biocenosis) and their habitat: inert (for example, the atmosphere) or bioinert (soil, reservoir, etc.), interconnected by flows of matter, energy and information. A rotting stump with all its numerous inhabitants (mushrooms, microorganisms, invertebrates) is a small-scale ecosystem. A lake with aquatic and semi-aquatic organisms (including birds that feed on aquatic animals, coastal vegetation) is also an ecosystem, but on a larger scale. The largest ecosystem is the entire biosphere as a whole. There is always an energy input and output in an ecosystem. Most of the energy for the existence of ecosystems comes from the energy of the Sun, primarily captured by autotrophs, the bulk of which are green plants. Along food chains, this energy and matter are included in the cycle characteristic of each ecosystem. Primary and secondary heterotrophs (herbivores and carnivores) use the accumulated energy and the substance created by autotrophs, which then re-enters the cycle after its decomposition and mineralization by heterotrophs-saprophytes (fungi, microorganisms). The way out of this cycle is in sedimentary rocks (see. Cycle of substances in nature). The term "ecosystem" was proposed in 1935 by the English botanist A. Tensley. In 1944, the Soviet biologist V.N. Sukachev introduced the concept of "biogeocenosis" close to him. Biogeocenosis, in the understanding of V. N. Sukachev, differs from the ecosystem in the certainty of its volume. An ecosystem can cover a space of any length - from a drop of pond water to the biosphere. Biogeocenosis - a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe territory through which not a single significant biocenotic (see Biocenosis), hydrological, climatic, soil or geochemical boundary passes. Biogeocenoses are the bricks from which the entire biosphere is composed. On land, the boundaries of biogeocenosis are usually distinguished by the nature of the vegetation cover: vegetation changes mark soil, geochemical, and other boundaries. The sizes of biogeocenoses are different - from several hundred square meters to several square kilometers, and vertically - from several centimeters (on rocks) to several hundred meters (in forests). The set of populations of organisms that make up an ecosystem (usually within a biogeocenosis), whose life is closely connected with one, central species, is called a consortium (from the Latin word consortium - community). Usually, a plant acts as the central type of consortium, which determines the entire nature of the biogeocenosis: in spruce forests - spruce, in pine forests - pine, in the feather grass steppe - feather grass, etc. The relationship between the central species and the rest in the consortium can be very different: through food chains as a habitat (lichen on a pine trunk), creation of comfortable microclimatic conditions (humidity, shade under a tree canopy).

17. Ecosystems and biogeocenoses

An ecosystem is any unity that includes all organisms and the whole complex of physico-chemical factors and interacts with the external environment. Ecosystems are the basic natural units on the Earth's surface.

The doctrine of ecosystems was created by the English botanist Arthur Tansley (1935).

Ecosystems are characterized by various kinds of metabolism not only between organisms, but also between their living and non-living components. When studying ecosystems, special attention is paid to functional connections between organisms energy flows and cycling .

The spatial and temporal boundaries of ecosystems can be distinguished quite arbitrarily. The ecosystem can be durable(for example, the biosphere of the Earth), and short-term(e.g. ecosystems of temporary reservoirs). Ecosystems can be natural and artificial. From the point of view of thermodynamics, natural ecosystems are always open systems (they exchange matter and energy with the environment); artificial ecosystems can be isolated (exchange only energy with the environment).

Biogeocenoses. In parallel with the doctrine of ecosystems, the doctrine of biogeocenoses, created by Vladimir Nikolaevich Sukachev (1942), also developed.

Biogeocenosis - this is a set of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, vegetation, wildlife and microorganisms, soil, rocks and hydrological conditions) over a known extent of the earth's surface, which has its own specific interactions of constituent components and a certain type of exchange of matter and energy between themselves and other natural phenomena and representing an internally contradictory unity, which is in constant motion, development.

Biogeocenoses are characterized by the following features:

- biogeocenosis is associated with a certain area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe earth's surface; unlike an ecosystem, the spatial boundaries of biogeocenoses cannot be drawn arbitrarily;

- biogeocenoses exist for a long time;

- biogeocenosis is a bio-inert system, which is a unity of animate and inanimate nature;

- biogeocenosis is an elementary biochorological cell of the biosphere (that is, a biological-spatial unit of the biosphere);

- biogeocenosis is an arena of primary evolutionary transformations (that is, the evolution of populations takes place in specific natural-historical conditions, in specific biogeocenoses).

Thus, like an ecosystem, a biogeocenosis is a unity of a biocenosis and its inanimate habitat; while the basis of biogeocenosis is biocenosis. The concepts of ecosystem and biogeocenosis are outwardly similar, but, in reality, they are different. In other words, any biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not any ecosystem is a biogeocenosis.

Ecosystem structure

Maintaining the vital activity of organisms and the circulation of substances in the ecosystem is possible only due to the constant influx of highly organized energy. The main primary source of energy on Earth is solar energy.

Ecosystems are constantly energy flow that changes from one form to another.

Photosynthetic organisms convert the energy of sunlight into the energy of chemical bonds of organic substances. These organisms are producers, or producers organic matter. In most cases, the functions of producers in ecosystems are performed by plants.

Dead organisms and waste products in any form are consumed by organisms that break down dead organic matter into inorganic substances - decomposers , or destructors. Reducers include various animals (usually invertebrates), fungi, prokaryotes:

– necrophages- corpse eaters;

– coprophages(coprophiles, coprotrophs) - feed on excrement;

– saprophages(saprophytes, saprophiles, saprotrophs) - feed on dead organic matter (fallen leaves, molting skins); saprophages include:

– xylophages(xylophils, xylotrophs) - feed on wood;

– keratinophages(keratinophiles, keratinotrophs) - feed on the horny substance;

– detritivores- feed on semi-decomposed organic matter;

– final mineralizers- completely decompose organic matter.

Producers and decomposers provide matter cycle in an ecosystem: oxidized forms of carbon and minerals are converted into reduced ones and vice versa; the transformation of inorganic substances into organic substances, and organic substances into inorganic substances.

food chains

With the successive transfer of energy from one organism to another, food (trophic) chains .

Trophic chains that begin with producers are called pasture chains , or eating chains . The individual links in a food chain are called trophic levels . In pasture chains, the following levels are distinguished:

1st level - producers(plants);

2nd level - first-order consumers(phytophages);

3rd level - second-order consumers(zoophages);

4th level - consumers of the third order(predators);

Dead organisms and waste products of each level are destroyed by decomposers. Trophic chains that begin with decomposers are called detrital chains . Detrital chains are the basis for the existence of dependent ecosystems in which organic matter produced by producers is not enough to provide energy to consumers (for example, deep-sea ecosystems, cave ecosystems, soil ecosystems). In this case, the existence of the ecosystem is possible due to the energy contained in the dead organic matter.

Organic matter found at each trophic level can be consumed by different organisms and in different ways. The same organism can belong to different trophic levels. Thus, in real ecosystems, food chains turn into food webs .

Below is a fragment of a mixed forest food web.

Productivity of trophic levels

The amount of energy passing through the trophic level per unit area per unit time is called the productivity of the trophic level.. Productivity is measured in kcal/ha·year or other units (in tons of dry matter per 1 ha per year; in milligrams of carbon per 1 sq. meter or 1 cubic meter per day, etc.).

Energy delivered to the trophic level is called gross primary productivity(for producers) or diet(for consumers). Part of this energy is spent on maintaining life processes (metabolic costs, or breathing costs), part - on waste generation(plant litter, excrement, molting skins and other waste from animals), part - on biomass growth. Part of the energy spent on biomass growth can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level.

The energy balance of the trophic level can be written as the following equations:

(1) gross primary productivity = respiration + litter + biomass growth

(2) diet = respiration + waste products + biomass growth

The first equation is applied to producers, the second - to consumers and decomposers.

The difference between the gross primary productivity (ration) and the cost of breathing is called net primary productivity trophic level. The energy that can be consumed by consumers of the next trophic level is called secondary productivity considered trophic level.

During the transition of energy from one level to another, part of it is irretrievably lost: in the form of thermal radiation (respiration costs), in the form of waste products. Therefore, the amount of highly organized energy is constantly decreasing during the transition from one trophic level to the next. On average, this trophic level receives ≈ 10% of the energy received by the previous trophic level; this pattern is called the ten percent rule, or ecological pyramid rule . Therefore, the number of trophic levels is always limited (4-5 links), for example, already only 1/1000 of the energy received at the first level enters the fourth level.

Ecosystem dynamics

In developing ecosystems, only a part of the biomass growth is spent on the formation of secondary products; in the ecosystem there is an accumulation of organic matter. Such ecosystems naturally give way to other types of ecosystems. The regular change of ecosystems in a certain area is called succession . Succession example: lake → overgrown lake → swamp → peat bog → forest.

There are the following forms of successions:

– primary - arise in previously uninhabited areas (for example, on unsodden sands, rocks); biocenoses that initially form under such conditions are called pioneer communities;

– secondary - occur in disturbed habitats (for example, after fires, in clearings);

– reversible - a return to a pre-existing ecosystem is possible (for example, birch forest → burnt forest → birch forest → spruce forest);

– irreversible - a return to a previously existing ecosystem is impossible (for example, the destruction of relict ecosystems; relict ecosystem- this is an ecosystem that has been preserved from past geological periods);

– anthropogenic - arising under the influence of human activity.

The accumulation of organic matter and energy at trophic levels leads to an increase in the stability of the ecosystem. In the course of succession in certain soil and climatic conditions, the final climax communities . In climax communities, the entire increase in trophic level biomass is spent on the formation of secondary products. Such ecosystems can exist indefinitely.

AT degrading (dependent)ecosystems the energy balance is negative - the energy received by the lower trophic levels is not enough for the functioning of the higher trophic levels. Such ecosystems are unstable and can exist only with additional energy costs (for example, ecosystems of settlements and anthropogenic landscapes). As a rule, in degrading ecosystems, the number of trophic levels is reduced to a minimum, which further increases their instability.

Anthropogenic ecosystems

The main types of anthropogenic ecosystems include agrobiocenoses and industrial ecosystems.

Agrobiocenoses are ecosystems created by man to obtain agricultural products.

As a result of crop rotations in agrobiocenoses, a change in the species composition of plants usually occurs. Therefore, when describing agrobiocenosis, its characteristics are given for several years.

Features of agrobiocenoses:

– depleted species composition of producers (monoculture);

- systematic removal of mineral nutrition elements with the harvest and the need to apply fertilizers;

– favorable conditions for the reproduction of pests due to monoculture and the need to use plant protection products;

- the need to destroy weeds - competitors of cultivated plants;

– reduction in the number of trophic levels due to the depletion of species diversity; simplification of supply chains (networks);

- the impossibility of self-reproduction and self-regulation.

To maintain the stability of agrobiocenoses, additional energy costs are required. For example, in economically developed countries, it takes 5-7 calories of fossil fuel energy to produce one calorie of food.

Industrial ecosystems are ecosystems that are formed on the territory of industrial enterprises . Industrial ecosystems are characterized by the following features:

– high level of pollution (physical, chemical and biological pollution);

– high dependence on external energy sources;

– exceptional depletion of species diversity;

– adverse impact on adjacent ecosystems.

Ecological knowledge is used to control the state of anthropogenic ecosystems.

At the first stage of work, a comprehensive inventory (certification) of anthropogenic ecosystems is necessary. The data obtained must be analyzed, to identify the state of the ecosystem, the degree of its stability. In a number of cases, it is necessary to conduct experiments designed to reveal the action of a complex of factors.

At the next stage, complex models are being built that explain the current state of the ecosystem and serve to predict changes. Recommendations are being developed and implemented to improve the sustainability of ecosystems. The management of human activity is constantly being adjusted.

At the final stage of the work, a monitoring system for the state of the ecosystem is planned and implemented - environmental monitoring(from English. monitor- intimidating). When carrying out environmental monitoring, physical and chemical measuring methods are used, as well as methods of biotesting and bioindication.

Biotesting is the control over the state of the environment with the help of specially created test-objects. Cell cultures, tissues, whole organisms can serve as test objects. For example, a special variety of tobacco has been bred, on the leaves of which, with an increased ozone content, necrotic spots form.

Bioindication is the control of the state of the environment with the help of the organisms living in it. In this case, the species composition of phytoplankton and the spectrum of morphological types of lichens are used as test objects. For example, the species composition of herbaceous plants can serve as an indication of soil erosion. On soils not affected by erosion, or slightly washed away soils grow: awnless brome, red clover. On washed away soils grow: hairy hawk, coltsfoot.

To detect heavy metals, a physicochemical analysis of the tissues of organisms that selectively accumulate various metals is used. For example, plantain selectively accumulates lead and cadmium, while cabbage selectively accumulates mercury.

20. ecology as a scientific basis for rational nature management and nature protection ECOLOGY(from the Greek "oikos" - house, dwelling, residence and ... ology), - the science of the relationship of living organisms and the communities they form with each other and with the environment. The term "ecology" was proposed in 1866 by E. Haeckel. The objects of ecology can be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. Since the middle of the XX century. due to the increased negative human impact on nature ecology has acquired a special meaning as a scientific basis for the rational use of natural resources and the protection of living organisms, and the term "ecology" itself has a broader meaning. The subject of ecology research is biological macrosystems (populations, biocenoses, ecosystems) and their dynamics in time and space. From the content and subject of ecology research, its main tasks also follow, which can be reduced to the study of population dynamics, to the study of biogeocenoses and their systems. The structure of biocenoses, at the level of formation of which the development of the environment takes place, contributes to the most economical and complete use of vital resources. Therefore, the main theoretical and practical task of ecology is to reveal the laws of these processes and learn how to manage them in the conditions of the inevitable industrialization and urbanization of the planet. But, according to L. K. Yakhontova and V.P. Zvereva, "... the indicated aspect of ecology cannot be limited, since the concept of habitat implies a complex natural and technical system, not only biological, but no less also geological-mineral and technological-mineral, associated with the results of technological activities of society.Protection of the environment from the consequences of human activity is of paramount importance, and the study of technogenic mineral formation is of particular importance in solving problems of environmental protection in the territories of mining and industrial complexes.Technogenic mineralization is an indisputable indicator of many processes that damage not only the environment environment (increased concentration of toxic substances in waters, salinity of soils, the presence of mineralized solutions in buildings and structures, intense corrosion of metals, etc.), but also the health of people living in ore areas "(Yakhontova L.K., Zvereva V.P. , 2000). From the 70s. 20th century human ecology, or social ecology, is being formed, which studies the patterns of interaction between society and the environment, as well as the practical problems of its protection; includes various philosophical, sociological, economic, geographical, geological and other aspects (for example, urban ecology, technical ecology, environmental ethics, ecology of geological exploration and mining, etc.). In this sense, one speaks of the "greening" of modern science. The ecological direction began to develop in depth in geology (environmental geology).

The main theoretical and practical task of ecology is to reveal the general laws governing the organization of life and, on this basis, to develop principles for the rational use of natural resources in the face of ever-increasing human influence on the biosphere. The ecological situation in the modern world is becoming more and more far from prosperous, which is associated with the exorbitant thirst for consumption of a "civilized" person. The interaction of human society and Nature has become one of the most important problems of our time, since the situation that develops in the relationship between man and nature often becomes critical: fresh water and minerals (oil, gas, non-ferrous metals, etc.) are depleted, the condition of soils is deteriorating, water and air basins, desertification of vast territories is taking place, the fight against diseases and pests of agricultural crops is becoming more complicated. Anthropogenic changes have affected almost all the ecosystems of the planet, the gas composition of the atmosphere, and the energy balance of the Earth. This means that human activity has come into conflict with Nature, as a result of which its dynamic balance has been disturbed in many parts of the world. To solve these global problems and, above all, the problem of intensification and rational use, conservation and reproduction of the resources of the biosphere, ecology combines the efforts of biologists and microbiologists, geologists and geographers in a scientific search, gives evolutionary doctrine, genetics, biochemistry and geochemistry their true universality. The range of environmental problems also includes issues of environmental education and enlightenment, moral, ethical, philosophical and even legal issues. Consequently, ecology becomes from an originally biological science - a complex and social science. The ecological situation in the modern world is becoming more and more far from prosperous, which is associated with the exorbitant thirst for consumption of a "civilized" person. Environmental problems generated by modern social development have given rise to a number of socio-political movements ("Greens", "Greenpeace", "Pan-European Ecological Network" and many others), opposing environmental pollution and for the preservation or restoration of viable natural ecosystems . For the fight against the negative consequences of scientific and technological "progress", which in their totality have become one of the main global threats to humanity and life on Earth.

Populations in nature do not live in isolation. They interact with populations of other species, forming together with them integral systems of an even higher level. supraspecific organization level - biotic communities, ecosystems.

Community (biocenosis) called a set of plant and animal species that coexist for a long time in a certain space and represent a certain ecological unity.

These formations develop according to their own laws. One of the main tasks of ecology is to reveal these laws; find out how the sustainable existence and development of communities is maintained, what effect changes in various environmental factors have on them.

The fact that communities are not random formations is evidenced by the fact that similar communities arise in areas similar in geographical location and natural conditions.

Example:

The lakes of the middle belt are characterized by a great similarity of fauna and flora. As part of the fish population, one can easily find such well-known species as roach, perch, pike, ruff, etc.

A careful study reveals not only the similarity of species in biocenoses, but also the similarity of the relationships between them. These connections are extremely diverse. The species included in the community provide each other with everything necessary for life - food, shelter, conditions for reproduction. The interaction of species ensures the efficient use of community resources, prevents the uncontrolled growth of the number of certain organisms, i.e. performs the role of regulators supporting the stable functioning of complex natural systems.

Biogeocenosis - a historically established set of living organisms (biocenosis) and the abiotic environment, together with the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe earth's surface they occupy (biotope).

The boundary of the biogeocenosis is established, as a rule, along the border of the plant community ( phytocenosis) - the most important component of the biogeocenosis.

Plant communities usually do not have sharp boundaries and gradually pass into each other when natural conditions change.

The transition zones between communities are called ecotones.

Example:

On the border of forests and tundra in the north of our country there is a transitional zone - forest tundra. Light forests, shrubs, sphagnum swamps, and meadows alternate here. On the border of the forest and the steppe, the forest-steppe zone extends. The more humid areas of this zone are occupied by forests, while the dry areas are steppe.

From site to site, not only the composition of vegetation changes, but also the animal world, the features of the material-energy exchange between organisms and the physical environment of their habitat.

An ecosystem (from the Greek oikos - dwelling and systema - association) is any community of living organisms together with their physical habitat, united by metabolism and energy into a single complex.

Consideration of an ecosystem is important in those cases when it comes to the flows of matter and energy circulating between the living and non-living components of nature, the dynamics of the elements that support the existence of life, and the evolution of communities. Neither an individual organism, nor a population, nor a community as a whole can be studied in isolation from the environment. An ecosystem is essentially what we call nature.

Example:

An example of an ecosystem is a pond, including the community of its inhabitants, the physical properties and chemical composition of the water, the features of the bottom topography, the composition and structure of the soil, the atmospheric air interacting with the water surface, and solar radiation.

Ecosystem and biogeocenosis are close concepts, but if the term "ecosystem" is suitable for referring to systems of any rank, then "biogeocenosis" is a territorial concept, referring to such land areas that are occupied by certain units of vegetation cover - phytocenoses.

Pay attention!

Not every ecosystem is a biogeocenosis, but any biogeocenosis is an ecosystem.

Ecosystem is a very broad concept and applicable to both natural (for example, tundra, ocean) and artificial complexes (for example, an aquarium).

Throughout our lives we are surrounded by animals, various plants, soil, air, water… We are all used to calling it the environment. In principle, this is correct, but the environment is also different. It may differ from whether this particular environment is made by man or exists by itself, what factors of living or non-living nature influence it. There are also ground-air, water, organism, soil environments. We can safely call all this ecosystems, but what then is biogeocenosis? Let's find out!

Characteristics of biogeocenosis and its features

Biogeocenosis is an ecosystem in which natural phenomena (fauna, air, rocks, flora, etc.) have similar nature mutual influence between each other, and are also united by the exchange of energy, the circulation of substances. It consists of ecotope (atmosphere and soil-soil) and biocenosis (animals, plants, various microorganisms). It turns out that biogeocenosis is a kind of ecosystem? Yes, biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not every ecosystem is a biogeocenosis. How can you understand this? For example, not all artificial ecosystems will be biogeocenosis, since, firstly, biogeocenosis can exist on land and nowhere else, and secondly, it has specifically marked boundaries that are determined by phytocenosis (a plant community that is limited by the boundaries of one biotope).

If not phytocenosis, then biogeocenosis cannot exist. But when it is impossible to distinguish a phytocenosis, then the name "ecosystem" is already used. Based on the information received, we can conclude that phytocenosis and abiotic factors (factors of inanimate nature) are very important in the formation and existence of biogeocenosis. The most striking examples of biocenosis will be a forest, a swamp, a meadow, a field, etc.

Varieties of biogeocenosis

Biogeocenosis also has its own subspecies. There are natural and artificial biogeocenoses. With natural, everything is clear, it was formed without human intervention and over time, and quite a long time starting from 1000 years. But in artificial they distinguish:

1. - created by people. It is a person who determines the species composition, cares, processes plants and animals located in a given biogeocenosis. A vivid example of this ecosystem can serve as a park.
2. Agrobiocenosis. This ecosystem is also created by man, but for agricultural activities. The most famous example for us is a field or plantation.

Biocenosis properties

Like any ecosystem, biogeocenosis has its own properties:

• To begin with, it is a system that has developed in the course of historical changes.
• Biogeocenosis can be both natural and artificial.
• It is characterized by the circulation of substances.
• It is capable of self-regulation, which is very important for maintaining the constancy of the composition, at the right level.
• The main source of energy is the Sun, as well as biogeocenosis is open to the exit and entry of energy.

Most of these properties are also characteristic of an ecosystem, which helps us to make sure that biogeocenosis is an ecosystem.

Ecosystem characteristic

To define the concept of "ecosystem" it is enough to re-read the term "biogeocenosis". An ecosystem is a biological environment in which energy exchange and cycling and all the phenomena of animate and inanimate nature in it are interconnected. In fact, "biogeocenosis" is a synonym for the concept of "ecosystem".

What does an ecosystem consist of?

The ecosystem consists of the same components as the biogeocenosis:

• Biocenosis.
• Ecotop.

Ecosystem types

An ecosystem can be natural as well as artificial:

1. Natural formed under the influence of natural factors for a long time. Humans can influence this ecosystem. For example, forest. In the forest, people take wood, pick mushrooms and berries, hunt animals, etc. But in such biological areas, the influence of natural factors suppresses the influence of people.
2. Anthropogenic Ecosystems are created and used by people for agricultural purposes. For example, pasture. In anthropogenic ecosystems, it is possible to preserve natural ecosystems in their original form, such as rivers or swamps.

The natural system is distinguished from the anthropogenic system by what source of energy provides them.

Among ecosystems, there is another classification of ecosystems:

1. autotrophic- these are systems that are on energy supply, either due to the solar energy consumed by the producers - photoautotrophic ecosystems, or due to the chemical energy of the producers - chemoautotrophic ecosystems.
2. Heterotrophic is a system that uses chemical energy, either created by man through energy devices, or together with carbon from organic substances.

Differences between ecosystem and biogeocenosis.

• Firstly, biogeocenosis is a special case of an ecosystem. Indeed, biogeocenosis is limited to phytocenosis, and when it cannot be identified, then this piece of land is called an ecosystem. It's just that the biocenosis has many similarities with the ecosystem, so they are often used as synonyms.
• Secondly, the concept of "ecosystem" is much broader and more common than "biogeocenosis".
• Thirdly, in the ecosystem there is a diversity of ranks, which is not in the biogeocenosis.
• Fourthly, the biocenosis stands out only on land, and the ecosystem can stand out everywhere.

The line between the ecosystem and biogeocenosis is very thin, but it is there!

Think of your home and all the objects and inhabitants in it. You probably have furniture, books, food in your fridge, a family, and maybe even pets. Your home is made up of many living organisms and inanimate objects. Like a house, any ecosystem is a community of living individuals and non-living things that coexist in the same space. These communities have boundaries that are not always clear and it is often difficult to know where one ecosystem ends and another begins. This is its main difference from biogeocenosis. We will consider examples of both systems in more detail below.

Ecosystem: Definition

Like a car engine with multiple parts working together, an ecosystem has interacting elements that keep it running.

According to the definition of V. N. Sukachev, an ecosystem is a set of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, rocks, vegetation, wildlife and the world of microorganisms, soil and hydrological conditions) in a certain area, which has a special specificity of interactions of these components and a certain type of metabolism and energy (between themselves and with other natural phenomena) and representing an internal contradictory unity, which is in constant motion and development.

Living things are biotic traits, while non-living things are abiotic. Each ecosystem is unique, but they all have three main components:

• Autotrophs (energy producers).
• Heterotrophs (energy consumers).
• Inanimate nature.

Plants make up the majority of autotrophs in an ecosystem, while most heterotrophs are animals. Inanimate nature is soil, sediment, leaf litter and other organic matter on the ground or at the bottom of water bodies. There are two types of ecosystems - closed and open. The first are those that do not have any resources (exchange of energy from the environment) or results (exchange of energy from within the ecosystem). Open ones are those that have both energy exchange and the results of internal exchange.

Ecosystem classification

Ecosystems come in all shapes and sizes, but classifying them helps scientists better understand and manage the processes that take place within them. They can be classified in a variety of ways, but are most commonly defined as terrestrial and aquatic. There are many types of ecosystems, but three of them, also called biomes, are the main ones. It:

1. Freshwater.
2. Marine.
3. Ground.

Freshwater ecosystems

If we talk about freshwater ecosystems, we can name the following examples of natural biogeocenoses:

• A pond is a relatively small body of water that includes various types of plants, amphibians, and insects. Sometimes fish are found in ponds, which are often artificially introduced into these environments by people.
• river ecosystem. Because rivers are always connected to the seas, they tend to contain plants, fish, amphibians, and even insects. This is an example of a biogeocenosis that may also include birds, because birds often hunt small fish or insects in and around the water. An example of the biogeocenosis of a freshwater reservoir is any freshwater environment. The smallest living part of the food chain here is plankton, which is often eaten by fish and other small creatures.

marine ecosystems

Oceanic ecosystems are relatively low-key, although they, like freshwater ecosystems, also include some birds that prey on fish and insects on the surface of the ocean. Examples of natural biogeocenosis of these ecosystems:

• Shallow water. Some small fish and corals live only close to the land.
• Deep water. Large and even gigantic creatures can live deep in the waters of the oceans. Some of the strangest creatures in the world live right at the bottom.
• Warm water. Warmer waters, such as those in the Pacific Ocean, contain some of the most impressive and complex ecosystems in the world.
• Cold water. Less diverse cold waters also support relatively complex ecosystems. Plankton usually form the backbone of the food chain, following small fish that are eaten by larger fish or other wildlife such as seals or penguins.

Plankton and other plants that have chosen ocean waters near the surface are responsible for 40% of all photosynthesis that occurs on Earth. There are also herbivorous creatures (for example, shrimps) that also feed on plankton. They themselves are then usually eaten by larger individuals - fish. Interestingly, in the deep ocean, plankton cannot exist because photosynthesis is not possible there, since light cannot penetrate that far into the water column. It is here that the creatures have adapted to the conditions of eternal darkness in a very interesting way and are among the most fascinating, scary and intriguing living creatures on Earth.

Terrestrial ecosystems

Here are examples of biogeocenoses found on earth:

• Tundra is an ecosystem found in northern latitudes such as Northern Canada, Greenland and Siberia. This community marks a point called the treeline, because that's where the cold and limited sunlight make it difficult for trees to grow properly. The tundra usually has relatively simple ecosystems due to the harsh living conditions.
• The taiga is slightly more favorable for tree growth because it lies lower in latitude. And yet she is still quite cold. The taiga is found in northern latitudes and is the largest terrestrial ecosystem on Earth. The types of trees that have taken root here are conifers (fir trees, cedars and pines).
• Temperate deciduous forest. It is based on trees whose leaves turn beautiful colors of red, yellow and orange before falling off. This type of ecosystem is found in latitudes below the taiga, and it is there that we begin to see alternating seasonal changes such as warm summers and cold winters. There are many different types of forests around the world, including deciduous and coniferous. They are inhabited by many species of animals and plants, so the ecosystem here is very rich. It is difficult to list all examples of natural biogeocenoses within such a community.
• Rainforests - usually have extremely rich ecosystems, because in a fairly small area there are so many different types of animals and plants.
• Deserts. This is an example of biogeocenosis, which is the opposite of the tundra in many ways. Although this is also a harsh ecosystem in terms of conditions.
• Savannahs differ from deserts in the amount of rainfall that falls there each year. Hence, the biodiversity is wider here.
• Grasslands (pastures) support a wide range of life and can have very complex and involved ecosystems.

Because there are so many different types of terrestrial ecosystems, it is difficult to make generalizations that cover them all. Examples of biogeocenosis in nature are so diverse that it is difficult to generalize. However, there are similarities. For example, most ecosystems contain herbivores that eat plants (which in turn get their food from the sun and the soil), and all have carnivores that eat herbivores and other carnivores. Some regions, such as the North Pole, are mostly inhabited by predators. There is no vegetation in the world of snowy silence. Many animals and plants in terrestrial ecosystems also interact with freshwater and sometimes oceanic communities.

Complex systems

Ecosystems are vast and complex. They include animal chains - from the largest mammals to the smallest insects - along with plants, fungi and various microorganisms. All these forms of life interact and influence each other. Bears and birds eat fish, shrews eat insects, and caterpillars eat leaves. Everything in nature is in a delicate balance. But scientists like technical terms, which is why this balance of organisms in an ecosystem is often referred to as homeostasis (self-regulation) of the ecosystem.

In the real world of communities, nothing can be perfectly balanced. Thus, when an ecosystem is in balance, it means that it is in a relatively stable state: the populations of various animals remain in the same range, their numbers can increase and decrease at a certain stage, but there is no general trend "up" or "down".

Conditions for Gradual Change

Over time, conditions in nature change, including the size of a particular population. This happens all the time as some species compete with others, often due to changes in climate and landscapes. Animals must adapt to the environment. It is important to understand that in nature these processes proceed slowly. During a certain geological period, even rocks and landscapes change, and systems that seem to be in stable equilibrium, in fact, are not.

When we talk about ecosystem homeostasis, we focus on relative time frames. Let's give a relatively simple example of biogeocenosis: lions eat gazelles, and gazelles eat wild grasses. If in one particular year the population of lions increases, then the number of gazelles will decrease. Consequently, the grass cover of wild plants will increase. Next year, there may no longer be enough gazelles to feed the lions. This will cause the number of predators to decrease, and with the appearance of more grass, the population of gazelles will increase. This will continue for several continuous cycles that cause populations to move up and down in a certain range.

You can give examples of biogeocenoses that will not be so balanced. This is due to the impact of the anthropogenic factor - cutting down trees, releasing greenhouse gases that warm the planet, hunting animals, and so on. We are currently witnessing the fastest disappearance of certain forms in history. Whenever an animal disappears, or its population rapidly decreases, one can speak of a disequilibrium. For example, since the beginning of 2016, there are only 60 Amur leopards left in the world, as well as only 60 Javan rhinos.

What is necessary for survival?

What are the essential things you need to survive? There are five elements that all living beings need:

• sunlight;
• water;
• air;
• food;
• habitat with the right temperature.

What is an ecosystem? This is a specific area either in water or on land. Ecosystems can be small (under a rock or inside a tree trunk, pond, lake, or forest) or large, such as the ocean or our entire planet. Living organisms in an ecosystem, plants, animals, trees, and insects interact with and depend on non-living components such as weather, soil, sun, and climate.

food chains

In an ecosystem, all living things need food for energy. Green plants are called producers in the food chain. With the help of the sun, they can produce their own food. This is the very first level of the food chain. Primary consumers such as insects, caterpillars, cows and sheep consume (eat) plants. Animals (lions, snakes, wild cats) are secondary consumers.

Ecosystem is a term very often used in biology. It, as already mentioned, is a community of plants and animals interacting with each other in a given area, as well as with an inanimate environment. Non-living components include climatic and weather conditions, sun, soil, atmosphere. And all these different organisms live in close proximity to each other and interact with each other. An example of a forest biogeocenosis, where there are both rabbits and foxes, clearly shows the relationship between these representatives of the fauna. The fox eats the rabbit to survive. This connection affects other creatures and even plants that live in the same or similar conditions.

Examples of ecosystems and biogeocenoses

Ecosystems can be huge, with many hundreds of different animals and plants living in a delicate balance, or they can be relatively small. In harsh places, especially at the poles, ecosystems are relatively simple because there are only a few species that can withstand difficult living conditions. Some beings may live in several different communities around the world and have different relationships with other or similar beings.

The earth as an ecosystem stands out in the entire universe. Is it possible to manage ecological systems? Using the example of biogeocenoses, one can see how any intervention can provoke a lot of changes, both positive and negative.

An entire ecosystem can be destroyed if the temperature rises or the sea level rises, or the climate changes. It can affect the natural balance and harm living organisms. This can happen due to human activities such as deforestation, urbanization, as well as natural events such as floods, storms, fires or volcanic eruptions.

Food chains of biogeocenosis: examples

At a basic functional level, biogeocenosis usually includes primary producers (plants) that are able to harvest energy from the sun through a process called photosynthesis. This energy then flows through the food chain. Next come consumers: primary (herbivores) and secondary (carnivores). These consumers feed on captured energy. Decomposers work at the bottom of the food chain.

Dead tissue and waste products occur at all levels. Scavengers, detrivores and decomposing substances not only consume this energy, but also destroy organic matter, splitting it into components. It is the microbes that finish the job of decomposing and producing organic components that can be reused by manufacturers.

Biogeocenosis in the forest

Before giving examples of forest biogeocenosis, let us return once again to the concept of an ecosystem. There is an abundance of flora in the forest, so it is inhabited by a large number of organisms that exist within a relatively small space. The density of living organisms here is quite high. To verify this, you should consider at least a few examples of forest biogeocenoses:

• Tropical evergreen forest. It receives an impressive amount of rainfall per year. The main characteristic is the presence of dense vegetation, which includes tall trees at different levels, each of which is a refuge for different types of animals.
• The tropical deciduous forest is made up of shrubs and dense shrubs along with a wide variety of trees. This type is characterized by a great variety of fauna and flora.
• Temperate evergreen forest - there are quite a lot of trees, as well as mosses and ferns.
• The temperate deciduous forest is located in humid temperate latitudes with adequate rainfall. Summer and winter are well defined, and trees shed their leaves during the autumn and winter months.
• The taiga, located just before the Arctic regions, is characterized by evergreen coniferous trees. The temperature is low (below zero) for half a year, and life seems to freeze here at this time. In other periods, the taiga is full of migratory birds and insects.

The mountains

Another vivid example of natural biogeocenosis. Mountain ecosystems are very diverse, here you can find a large number of animals and plants. The main feature of mountains is the dependence of climate and soils on height, that is, altitudinal zonation. At imposing heights, harsh environmental conditions usually prevail and only treeless alpine vegetation survives. The animals that are found there have a thick coat of wool. The lower slopes are usually covered with coniferous forests.

Human influence

Together with the term "ecosystem" in ecology, a similar concept is used - "biogeocenosis". Examples with descriptions were first given in 1944 by the Soviet ecologist Sukachev. He proposed the following definition: biogeocenosis is the interaction between a set of organisms and a habitat. He gave the first examples of biogeocenosis and biocenosis (the living component of the ecological system).

Today, biogeocenosis is considered as a relatively homogeneous piece of land, which is inhabited by a certain composition of living beings that are in close relationship with the elements of inanimate nature and the metabolism and energy associated with it. Examples of biogeocenosis in nature are diverse, but all these communities interact within a clear framework determined by a homogeneous phytocenosis: a meadow, a pine forest, a pond, and so on. Is it possible to somehow influence the course of events in ecosystems?

Consider, using the example of biogeocenoses, the possibilities of managing ecological systems. Man is always the main threat to the environment, and while there are many conservation organizations out there, conservationists will be one step behind in their efforts when faced with large corporate enterprises. The development of cities, the construction of dams, the drainage of land - all this contributes to the ever-increasing destruction of various natural ecosystems. While many business corporations have been warned of their disruptive impact, not everyone is taking these problems seriously.

Any biogeocenosis is an ecosystem, but not every ecosystem is a biogeocenosis

A striking example of biogeocenosis is a pine forest. But the puddle on its territory is an ecosystem. It is not a biogeocenosis. But the whole forest can also be called an ecosystem. Thus, both of these concepts are similar, but not identical. An example of a biogeocenosis is any ecosystem limited by a certain phytocenosis - a plant community that includes a set of plant species diversity determined by environmental environmental conditions. An interesting example is the biosphere, which is a huge ecosystem, but not a biogeocenosis, since it itself consists of numerous bricks - biogeocenoses that are diverse in form and content.

Biogeocenosis is a concept that combines three bases: "bios" (life), "geo" (earth) and "koinos" (general). Proceeding from this, the word "biogeocenosis" means a specific developing system in which living organisms and objects of inanimate nature constantly interact. They are links in the same food chain and are united by the same energy flows. This concerns, first of all, the place of contact between animate and inanimate nature. For the first time, V.N. Sukachev, famous Soviet scientist and thinker. In 1940, he deciphered this concept in one of his articles, and this term began to be widely used in Russian science.

Biogeocenosis and ecosystem

The concept of "biogeocenosis" is a term that is used only by Russian scientists and their colleagues from the CIS countries. In the West, there is an analogue of the term, the author of which is the English botanist A. Tensley. He introduced the word "ecosystem" into scientific circulation in 1935, and by the early 1940s it had already become generally accepted and discussed. At the same time, the concept of "ecosystem" has a broader meaning than "biogeocenosis". To some extent, we can say that biogeocenosis is a class of an ecosystem. So what is an ecosystem? This is a combination of all types of organisms and their habitat into one single system that is in balance and harmony, lives and develops according to its own laws and principles. At the same time, the ecosystem, unlike biogeocenosis, is not limited to a piece of land. Therefore, biogeocenosis is part of the ecosystem, but not vice versa. An ecosystem can contain several types of biogeocenosis at once. Let's say that the ecosystem of the belt includes the biogeocenosis of the mainland and the biogeocenosis of the ocean.

The structure of biogeocenosis

The structure of biogeocenosis is a very broad concept, which is devoid of certain indicators. This is due to the fact that it is based on a variety of organisms, populations, objects of the surrounding world, which can be divided into biotic (living organisms) and abiotic (environment) components.

The abiotic part also consists of several groups:

• inorganic compounds and substances (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, water, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide);
• organic compounds that serve as food for organisms of the biotic group;
• climate and microclimate, which determines the living conditions for all systems that are in it.