under communication in psychologist AI refers to any process of social interaction between people. The need for communication is one of the basic human needs. Communication includes the exchange of information, the development of a common basis for joint actions, the perception and understanding of another person. The purpose of communication is also to achieve the desired change in the states and behavior of the partner.

Means of communication- behavioral manifestations that are addressed to the partner in the course of communication. Three main categories of means of communication are distinguished, with the help of which it is carried out: expressive-mimic, subject-effective and speech means of communication.

The first to arise expressive-mimic means of communication: smile, laughter, expressive vocalizations, facial movements, etc. These means of communication arise at the end of the 1st, at the beginning of the 2nd month of a child's life,

Subject-effective S. about. appear later in ontogeny. These are no longer expressive, but pictorial S. o. These include locomotion (approaching, postures, turns, etc.), pointing gestures, stretching and passing objects, actions with objects, touching, etc.

The most effective are speech means of communication. All means of communication are formed in vivo in the process of real interaction between people. Types of communication

Contact masks - formal communication, when there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality of the interlocutor. The usual masks are used (politeness, courtesy, indifference, modesty, sympathy, etc.) - a set of facial expressions, gestures, standard phrases that allow you to hide true emotions, attitude towards the interlocutor.

Secular communication - its essence is non-objectivity, that is, people do not say what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because the points of view of people on a particular issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of communication. For example: formal politeness, ritual communication.

Formal-role communication - when both the content and the means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, knowledge of his social role is dispensed with.

Business communication is a process of interaction in communication, in which information is exchanged to achieve a certain result. That is, this communication is purposeful. It arises on the basis of and about a certain type of activity. In business communication, the personality, character, and mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences.

Spiritual interpersonal communication (intimate-personal) - the deep structures of the personality are revealed.

Manipulative communication - aimed at obtaining benefits from the interlocutor.

sides of communication.

Communication is a complex multifaceted process that includes three components:

The communicative side of communication (the exchange of information between people); interactive side (organization of interaction between individuals); perceptual side (the process of perception of each other by communication partners and the establishment of mutual understanding). The transfer of information is possible with the help of signs, sign systems.

In the communicative process, verbal and non-verbal means of communication are usually distinguished. Verbal communication Communication is carried out through speech. Speech is understood as a natural sound language, i.e. a system of phonetic signs, including two principles - lexical and syntactic. Speech is a universal means of communication, since when transmitting information, it conveys the meaning of the message. Speech is used to encode and decode information. Non-verbal communication: Visual types of communication are gestures (kinesics), facial expressions, postures (pantomime), skin reactions (redness, blanching, sweating), spatio-temporal organization of communication (proxemics), eye contact. An acoustic system that includes the following aspects: a paralinguistic system (voice timbre, range, tonality) and an extralinguistic system (this is the inclusion of pauses and other means in speech, such as coughing, laughter, crying, etc.). Tactile system (takesika) ( touching, shaking hands, hugging, kissing).

Olfactory system (pleasant and unpleasant odors of the environment; artificial and natural human odors). The goals of communication reflect the needs of joint activities of people. Business communication almost always involves some result - a change in the behavior and activities of other people.

Interactive side communication involves a psychological impact, there is a change in personality under the influence of other people (change in views, attitudes, motives, attitudes, states). Personality changes under the influence of other people can be temporary, transient or permanent. The interactive side (interaction) is characterized by:

the appropriateness of the adopted management decisions;

clear distribution of responsibilities among employees;

skillful conflict resolution.

Perceptual side communication. Interaction is impossible without mutual understanding . Perception- the process of perception, contributing to the mutual understanding of the participants in communication. A person realizes himself through another person through certain mechanisms of interpersonal perception. These include: knowledge and understanding of each other by people (identification, empathy, attraction); knowledge of oneself in the process of communication (reflection); prediction of the behavior of a communication partner (causal attribution). Identification - a way of knowing another person, in which an assumption about his internal state is based on attempts to put himself in the place of a communication partner. Empathy- emotional empathy for others. attraction(attraction) - a form of cognition of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling for him. Reflection- a mechanism of self-knowledge in the process of communication, which is based on the ability of a person to imagine how he is perceived by a communication partner. Causal attribution - a mechanism for interpreting the actions and feelings of another person (finding out the causes of the object's behavior).

Question 34Personality problems in the social. psychology: socialization, social. Installation, problems of personality and group. There are three main approaches to the interpretation of the concept of personality: 1) Anthropological. It is based on ideas about the individual as a carrier of universal human properties; personality is considered as a generic concept denoting a representative of the human race, and has become likened to the concept of an individual. 2) Sociological. Considers personality as an object and product of social relations. Personality is a person, an actor wearing a certain mask and performing certain roles, that is, a person is a system of role-playing behavior. Due to the totality of social relations. 3) Personalistic. Considers the personality as an absolutely independent and individually unique integrity.

Personality is a person in the system of such psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifested in social relations and relationships are stable, determine the moral actions of a person who have significant relationships for himself and those around him. Man, taken in his social quality, is a person.

Personality, therefore, is formed in the process of ontogeny in society.

Socialization takes place in childhood and adolescence, but it continues in middle age and in old age. His research allows us to highlight a number of differences in socialization in children and adults:

1. The socialization of adults is manifested mainly in a change in their external behavior, and in children - in the correction of basic value orientations.

2. Adults can evaluate the norms; children - only to assimilate them.

3. The socialization of adults often implies an understanding that there are many "shades" of manifestation of various norms and rules of behavior. The socialization of children is based on obedience to adults and the implementation of certain rules. Adults have to adjust to the demands of different roles and in these situations prioritize using criteria such as "more good" or "less bad".

4. The socialization of adults is focused on mastering certain skills; socialization of children - mainly on the motivation of their behavior.

Targetsocializationpersonalities as education is to form a person's skills of self-regulation of personal processes, to develop to the maximum those abilities that create the dominant orientation of his personality, give meaning to his entire life.

social attitudepersonalities - one of the main categories of social psychology in general and social personality psychology in particular. social attitude defined (G. Allport 1924) This is a state of psychological readiness of a person to behave in a certain way in relation to an object, determined by her past experience. Main installation function- regulation of the social behavior of the individual.

social group is a socially organized community of people united by common interests, goals and joint activities. This is the subject of socially organized and socially significant activity, social groups distinguish between large, medium and small. The study of the interaction of an individual and a small group is connected, on the one hand, with the study group pressure, those. the totality of phenomena due to those influences, the influences that a small group has on the course of mental processes, attitudes and behavior of the individual, and on the other hand, with the study of the patterns of the individual's influence on group psychological phenomena and group behavior, i.e. with the study of the phenomenon of leadership.

Varieties of social installations are stereotypes and prejudice, representing stable and relatively closed forms of social existence from the influence of new experience. installation. They perform a protective function due to the tendency for the uniformity of installations in the nearest social network. environment. The social attitude protects the self-esteem of the subject in the group - he acquires the experience to think and act in accordance with group norms and values ​​and refrain from unauthorized forms of behavior.

Stereotype is a social attitude with a frozen, often unified content of the cognitive component. When talking about stereotypical thinking, we mean the limited, simplistic and superficial ideas of a person about certain objects of reality or about ways of interacting with them. Other reasons for the emergence of stereotypes are usually a lack of knowledge, dogmatic upbringing, underdevelopment of the personality or a stop for some reason of the processes of its development.

Prejudice- this is a social attitude with a distortion of the content of its cognitive component, as a result of which the individual perceives some social objects in an inadequate way. The main reason for the formation of prejudices lies in the underdevelopment of the cognitive sphere of the individual, due to which the individual uncritically perceives the influence of the corresponding environment. Therefore, most often prejudices arise in childhood, when the child does not yet have or almost does not have adequate knowledge about a particular social object, but under the influence of the parents of the immediate environment, a certain emotional and evaluative attitude towards it is already formed.

The measurement of social attitudes cannot be measured directly. Ideally, attitudes should be derived from observing an individual's behavioral responses in a variety of social situations. In practice, this is not possible. Therefore, a more or less standard procedure for measuring attitudes is the procedure for considering mainly the verbal (evaluative) reactions of the individual to the symbolic (intended) representations of the object of the attitude.

CONCEPT, TYPES, FUNCTIONS AND DIFFICULTIES OF COMMUNICATION

When people talk about communication, they usually mean the process of sending and receiving messages using verbal and non-verbal means, including feedback, resulting in the exchange of information, its perception and cognition by the participants in communication, as well as their influence on each other and interaction to achieve changes in activities. Schematically, communication can be represented as follows:

• transmitter, sender;
• recipient, receiver, addressee;
• link;
• noise, signal;
• code, decoder.

The structure of communication includes:

communicative the information component, which means receiving and transmitting messages and involving feedback, this component is based on psychological contact;

informative an aspect based on the process of perception and understanding by people of each other;

interactive(contact) side associated with the process of influence, behavior.

There are the following kinds communication:

• interpersonal, group and intergroup, mass;
• trust and conflict;
• intimate and criminogenic;
• business and personal;
• direct and indirect;
• therapeutic and non-violent.

Of particular importance in recent years is the approach to considering communication from the standpoint of humanistic psychology. In this regard, the concept of "non-violent communication" is of increasing interest, since it is based on the openness and sincerity of contacts.

Communication is only possible through iconic systems. Distinguish verbal means of communication(oral and written speech) and non-verbal(non-verbal) means of communication.

Two types of language are commonly used in interpersonal communication: oral and writing.

The advantages of a written language become decisive where accuracy and responsibility for every word are needed. To skillfully use the written language, you need to enrich your vocabulary, demanding style.

The oral language, which differs in a number of parameters from the written one, is independent. It has its own rules and even grammar. Its main advantage over the written language lies in economy, i.e. Fewer words are needed to convey a thought orally. Savings are achieved through a different word order, omission of ends and other parts of sentences. The disadvantages of the oral language are speech errors, ambiguity. The advantages of oral language are manifested where it is necessary to educate, influence, inspire, and also in conditions of lack of time to protect one's honor and dignity.

Communicative competence involves:

the first is an impeccable command of the written language, which is ensured by education;

the second is a good command of the oral language (in this, people who speak both figurative and at the same time complex folk turns of speech achieve greater success);

the third is the ability to correctly establish the optimal ratio of oral and written languages ​​separately for each situation.

In the case when communication is carried out using non-verbal means, hand gestures, gait features, voices, as well as facial expressions (mimicry), eyes (micromimics), posture, movement of the whole body as a whole (pantomime), distance, etc. P. Moreover, facial expressions sometimes speak better than words about the attitude towards the interlocutor. Grimaces are known to express devotion, benevolence, flattery, contempt, fear, envy, etc.

Non-verbal means of communication are needed, in particular, in order to regulate the course of the communication process, create psychological contact between partners, express emotions, reflect the interpretation of the situation.

Non-verbal means of communication, as a rule, cannot independently convey the direct meaning of words, with the exception of some gestures. They are precisely coordinated among themselves and verbal texts. The totality of these means can be compared with a symphony orchestra, and the word with its soloist. They convey a large amount of information.

The mismatch of individual non-verbal means significantly complicates interpersonal communication. Unlike speech, non-verbal means of communication are not fully understood by both speakers and listeners. No one can fully control all of their non-verbal means.

Non-verbal means of communication are divided into three groups:

visual- kinesics (movement of arms, legs, head, torso), direction of gaze and eye contact, eye expression, facial expression, posture (in particular, localization, change of postures relative to verbal text), skin reactions (redness, perspiration), distance (distance to the interlocutor, the angle of rotation towards him, personal space), auxiliary means of communication, including body features (gender, age) and means of their transformation (clothes, cosmetics, glasses, jewelry, tattoos, mustaches, beards, cigarettes, etc. .);

acoustic(audio) associated with speech (intonation, volume, timbre, tone, rhythm, pitch, speech pauses and their localization in the text), not associated with speech (laughter, crying, coughing, sighs, gnashing of teeth, "squishing" nose etc.);

tactile(associated with touch) - physical impact (leading the blind by the hand, contact dance, etc.), takevika (shaking hands, clapping on the shoulder).

As part of communicative aspect of communication psychological interaction of partners is concentrated around the problem contact. This problem should not be reduced only to the skills of communicative behavior and the use of communication tools. The main thing in the success of contacts is the perception of each other by partners.

Psychological contact begins with a concrete-sensory perception of the external appearance of partners through the senses.

At this moment, psychic relations dominate, permeated with emotional reactions to each other as to a psychophysical reality. Reactions of acceptance - rejection are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, posture, look, intonation, which indicate whether we like each other or not. Mutual or unilateral reactions of rejection can be expressed by a slip of the eye, withdrawal of the hand when shaking, turning away the body, fencing gestures, "sour face", fussiness, running away, etc. And vice versa, we willingly turn to those who smile, look straight and open, turn full face, respond with a cheerful and cheerful intonation, etc.

At the stage of contact, a significant role belongs to the external attractiveness of a person, thanks to which a person acquires a special, higher, communicative potential. Therefore, people, as a rule, are jealous of their appearance and pay a lot of attention to it.

Subjective assessment of partners in appearance occurs on a scale of "like - dislike". If we like a person, then it is easier for him to come into contact with us, if not, then he has to overcome the negative emotional and aesthetic attitude to his appearance. On this path, he needs to demonstrate other qualities that are equally valuable for the dignity of his personality. These can be both attractive psychological qualities (intelligence, kindness, responsiveness, and many others), as well as business qualities, social status, which are manifested in various forms of non-verbal and verbal behavior. They express all aspects of human attractiveness, which predetermine the charm of the individual.

Charm is something more than physical attractiveness, when a person can be beautiful, but cold. This is not just kindness, which can be obsessive, and not a fanatical dedication to one's work, and not an arrogant manifestation of a person's significant social status. Charm is, rather, a mysterious gift to achieve the psychological disposition of the surrounding people, to be attractive, charming, causing an unconscious positive attitude.

The charm comes from the person. It is in sparkling eyes, in a radiant smile, in soft gestures and affectionate intonation, in humor and at the same time in justified expectations of a partner. A charming person says exactly what we want to hear. This is the one who causes a reciprocal emotional-psychological attitude, which is a prerequisite for feedback.

Reverse communication as a process of mutually directed responses serves to maintain contact. However, its presence does not always indicate the strength and psychological depth of communication. So, in cases of actual communication, feedback is sometimes purely external, demonstrative. The partner agrees with his interlocutor, not delving into what he is being told. He only demonstrates the process of listening, remaining psychologically indifferent to the content and meaning of the conversation. This indicates a lack or decline of interest in the speaker, his problems, psychological disunity. Such contact is not strong.

The disappearance of psychological reciprocity leads to the fact that the speaker begins to lose normal intonation, raise his voice, speed up his speech, show aggressiveness and other violations of communicative behavior.

According to the purpose of the message, information can be divided into informative, regulatory and emotional. If only information about the object is transmitted, then the information has an informative purpose. If communication is designed to encourage the partner to act, then the information acquires a regulatory load. Emotional information is addressed to the feelings and experiences of the recipients.

Awareness impartiality of messages requires more rigid logic, conciseness, lexical accuracy in terms of semantic identity, the greatest unambiguity in understanding the message by partners. The incentive effect of regulatory information is to a greater extent associated with the motivational interest of recipients in a particular message. The emotionality of information is acquired mainly due to the expressive arrangement of the message. In this, expressive movements and intonation of the participants in communication play an important role.

It is known that a message transmitted by a correspondent with a more attractive appearance, professional and age status is perceived with great confidence than a person who is closer to the recipients in terms of socio-psychological identity.

Questions about who my interlocutor is, what kind of person he is, what can be expected from him, and many others related to the personality of a partner become the main psychological riddles for participants in communication. The cognitive aspect of communication covers not only the knowledge of another person, but also reflexively - self-knowledge. The generalizing effect of these processes is images-representations about oneself and partners. Such images are formed through a group assessment of the personality and a socio-psychological interpretation of the personality according to its external manifestations.

The content structure of these images corresponds to the diversity of human properties. It necessarily contains components of the external appearance. This is not accidental, since a person in the role of a practical psychologist paves the way to the inner world of a partner through behavioral signals about the states and properties of the perceived. The psychological characteristics of a person are strongly associated with the elements of appearance, for example: "intelligent eyes", "strong-willed chin", "kind smile", etc.

The constitutional signs of the external appearance and the peculiarities of its design with clothes and cosmetics play the role of standards and stereotypes of the socio-psychological interpretation of the personality.

Another feature of these images is that mutual knowledge is primarily aimed at understanding those qualities of a partner that are most significant for the participants in communication at the moment of their interaction. Therefore, in the image-representation of a partner, the dominant quality of his personality is not necessarily distinguished.

The standards and stereotypes of mutual knowledge are formed through communication with the immediate environment of a person in those communities with which he is associated with his life. First of all, it is a family and an ethnic group that use cultural and historical patterns of behavior. Along with the latter, a person assimilates national-ethnic, social-age, emotional-aesthetic, professional and other standards and stereotypes of human cognition by a person.

The practical purpose of mutual representations of partners is that the understanding of the psychological make-up of a person is the initial information for determining the tactics of one's behavior in relation to the participants in the interaction. This means that the standards and stereotypes of mutual knowledge perform the function of regulating people's communication. Positive and negative images of a partner reinforce relationships of the same direction, removing or erecting psychological barriers between them. In the discrepancies between mutual ideas and self-assessments of partners, psychological conflicts of a cognitive nature are hidden, which from time to time develop into conflict relations between interacting people.

Attraction as an aspect of communication associated with emotions, feelings and mood in personal contacts of partners. They are manifested in the expressive movements of the subjects of communication, their actions, deeds, behavior.

Coordination and coordination of the positions of partners occur through the exchange of views, thoughts, feelings. Attraction (French) attraction)- attraction, gravitation; the mechanism of formation of attractiveness, affection, sympathy, love. It is associated with empathy (from the Greek. empatheia- empathy).

Mutual aspiration implies a clash of partners in the process of coordinating positions, as a result of which they come to a relationship of "agreement - disagreement" with each other. In case of agreement, the partners are involved in joint activities. At the same time, there is a distribution of roles and functions between them.

Communication functions are diverse. They can be identified in a comparative analysis of a person's communication with different partners, in different conditions, depending on the means used and the impact on the behavior and psyche of the participants in the communication.

In the system of interrelations of a person with other people, such functions as information-communicative, regulatory-communicative and affective-communicative are distinguished.

Information and communication function of communication is, in fact, the transmission and reception of information as a kind of message. It has two constituent elements: the text (the content of the message) and the attitude of the person (the communicator) towards it. Changes in the share and nature of these components, i.e. text and the attitude of the speaker to it, can significantly affect the nature of the perception of the message, the degree of its understanding and acceptance, and therefore affect the process of interaction between people.

The information and communication function of communication is well represented in the well-known model of G. Lasswell, where the following links are distinguished as structural units: communicator (who transmits the message), message content (what is transmitted), channel (how it is transmitted), recipient (to whom it is transmitted). The effectiveness of information transfer can be expressed by the degree of understanding by a person of the transmitted message, its acceptance (rejection), including the novelty and relevance of information for the recipient.

Regulatory-communicative function communication is aimed at organizing interaction between people, as well as at correcting a person’s activity or state. This function is designed to correlate the motives, needs, intentions, goals, tasks, intended methods of activity of the participants in the interaction, adjust the progress of the implementation of the planned programs, and regulate activities. Communication here can be aimed at achieving coherence, solidarity, establishing a strong-willed unity of actions of people united both in small contact groups and large communities (for example, well-established brigades in production, close-knit military units, etc.).

An indicator of the effectiveness of the implementation of this function of communication is the degree of satisfaction with joint activities and communication, on the one hand, and their results, on the other.

Affective-communicative function communication is a process of making changes in the state of people, which is possible both with a special (purposeful) and involuntary impact.

In the first case, consciousness and emotions change under the influence of infection (the process of transmitting an emotional state by other people), suggestion or persuasion. A person's need to change his state under involuntary influence is manifested in him as a desire to “speak out”, “pour out his soul”, etc. Thanks to communication, a person’s general mood changes, which corresponds to information systems theory. Communication itself can both increase and decrease the degree of psychological stress.

Difficulties communication can be considered from the standpoint of various branches of psychology: general, age and pedagogical, social, labor psychology, legal, medical psychology and individual differences.

During communication, certain “barriers” arise, its participants experience various states, each of them manifests certain mental properties of the personality.

Since communication is the interaction of at least two people, difficulties in its course (meaning subjective) can be generated by one participant or both at once. And their consequence is usually a complete or partial failure to achieve goals, contact, dissatisfaction with the motivating motive, or failure to obtain the desired result in the activity that communication served.

STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

SECONDARY VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

NOVOSIBIRSK REGION

"KUPINSKY MEDICAL COLLEGE"

METHODOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

THEORETICAL LESSON

By discipline:"PSYCHOLOGY"

Chapter: Social Psychology

Topic:"Psychology of communication"

Speciality: 060501 Nursing

(Basic level of preparation of secondary vocational education)

Kupino

Considered at the meeting

CMK of general professional disciplines

Protocol No. "" 2014

CMC Chairman

Andreeva N.M

Kupino

Explanatory note

to the methodological development of the discipline "Psychology" on the topic "Psychology of communication".

The methodological manual was developed for the teacher in order to form knowledge on the topic of Communication Psychology, in the process of theoretical studies, students receive the basics of knowledge about the meaning of verbal and non-verbal communications, conflicts, regulation and resolution of conflict situations which are subsequently used in practical and professional activities.

The methodological development is compiled in accordance with the requirements for knowledge of the third generation of the Federal State Educational Standard, for use in a theoretical lesson within the specialty 060501 Nursing basic level of training.

In accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard, after studying this topic, the student must:

Communication psychology

Methodological development consists of an "Explanatory note", "Educational and methodological plan", "Description of the course of the lesson", " Presentation of new material"(Appendix No. 1)," Fizkultminutka implementation of OK 14 "(Appendix No. 2) « Independent work of students"(Appendix No. 3).

EDUCATIONAL - METHODOLOGICAL LESSON PLAN

Topic of the lesson Psychology of communication

Location psychology office

Duration of the lesson 90 minutes

Theme Motivation: This topic is the basis for further assimilation of the educational

material.

Lesson objectives:

1. Educational: After studying the topic, the student should know: the psychology of communication

2. Educational: Formation of a conscious attitude to the learning process.

3. Developing: Increasing motivation for learning. Development of a sustainable interest in the discipline, activation of cognitive activity to master the program educational material.

GEF requirements for the level of student preparation: the student must know the psychology of communication

Formed competencies: OK 1-OK 14

Interdisciplinary Integration:

Psychology

Human anatomy and physiology

Fundamentals of Medical Genetics

Intradisciplinary integration:

Psychological factors in preventing the onset and development of the disease

Psychology of communication

Psychology of small groups

Methodological support of the lesson: Questions to consolidate the material.

Homework: lecture summary. Textbook Polyantseva O.I. Psychology for secondary medical institutions: textbook / Rastov n / D: Phoenix p.

Tasks for extracurricular work of students:

Reading additional literature, compiling a dictionary or crossword puzzle on the topic of the lesson.

References:

Main: Polyantseva O.I Psychology for secondary medical institutions: textbook / Rastov n / D: Phoenix, 2012- 414 p.

Additional: Ostrovskaya I.V. Psychology: textbook.-M.: GEOTAR-Media, 2006.-400s

Description of the lesson

Main steps

lessons. Codes generated

competencies

approximate time

Organizing time

Purpose: the stage disciplines and sets up students for learning activities

2 minutes.

The teacher notes those who are absent from the lesson, checks the readiness of the audience and students for the lesson

Motivation of educational activity. Target setting. Formation

OK 1; OK 7.

Purpose: to activate the cognitive activity of students, to show the importance of the topic for the future profession of a specialist

3 min.

The teacher emphasizes the importance and relevance of the topic. Defines the goals and plan of the lesson.

Presentation of new material (Appendix No. 1)

The goal is to form knowledge on the basics of psychology

65 min

Problematic presentation method

Physical education minute

implementation of OK 14 (Appendix No. 2)

Purpose: relieving tension from the muscles of the neck, upper limbs

3 min

The teacher organizes the implementation of a complex of physical exercises.

Guidelines for conducting independent work on the implementation of OK 13

Purpose: to organize students for independent work

3 min

The teacher explains the stages of independent work: perform test tasks.

Independent work of students on the formation of OK 2; OK 6; OK 13; PC 1.1. PC 1.2 PC 1.3. (Appendix No. 3)

Purpose: to form knowledge on the basics of social psychology

10 min.

Performing tests and assignments by students.

Summarizing

2 minutes.

The results of independent work of students are discussed and marks are given with comments.

Homework

2 minutes.

Lecture summary. Textbook Polyantseva O.I Psychology for secondary medical institutions: textbook / Rostov n / D: Phoenix p.

Compiling a dictionary or crossword puzzle on the topic of the lesson

Total

90 min

Application No. 1

Verbal and non-verbal communication

Two main types of communication should be distinguished. In human society, communication can be carried out both verbally and non-verbally.
Verbal communication for a person is the main and universal way of communication. Any other way of interaction can be expressed by means of the language. However, as already mentioned, everything can be expressed by means of language. And the communicative function, as mentioned in previous chapters, is one of the most important functions of the language.

Verbal means include both oral and written varieties of language.
Naturally, in communication carried out by verbal means, a huge amount of information is transmitted. In other words, most people communicate in their natural language. No wonder - that's what it's designed for. It is verbal communications in the field of innovation management, as well as language as their main means, that this book is devoted to.
However, a modern manager needs to have basic knowledge about non-verbal means of communication.

Non-verbal communication is communication, the exchange of information without the help of words. These are gestures, facial expressions, various signal and sign systems. All of these ways of communicating by analogy are sometimes also called languages ​​- primary and secondary, or natural and artificial.

How are primary languages ​​different from secondary languages? In primary languages, signals directly designate meanings. In secondary languages, certain words are encoded by signals, and behind the words we understand the meanings. For example, facial expressions are the primary language, the facial signals of our face immediately indicate some kind of state, a message. But Morse code is a secondary language. Because the signs of Morse code convey letters and words, and through them - meanings.
Actually, verbal language, that is, human speech, is also a primary language. If we take non-verbal means of communication, then among them the primary languages ​​include: facial expressions, gestures, Indian dance language, etc. At the same time, the language of the deaf-mutes, denoting words, is already a secondary language.
Secondary non-verbal languages ​​include the already mentioned Morse code, the music notation system, the programming language, the naval flag signaling system, the smoke alarm systems, the civil defense warning system, and the like.
As we can see, natural languages ​​are primary, artificial languages ​​are secondary.
Of all the non-verbal means of communication, the primary, natural non-verbal languages, such as gestures and facial expressions, play the greatest role in our communication. Or, as they are also called, body language.
Language of the body can tell a lot about the feelings and intentions of the communicants. Of course, body language goes back to the communicative behavior of animals, which is studied by a special science - ethology (the science of the social behavior of animals).
Animals distinguish each other's postures and gestures of intimidation, reconciliation, love intentions, etc. Even we, communicating closely with some animals, can correctly interpret their postures, actions that perform precisely the signal role.
Similarly, a person can “speak” with his body. For example, when walking, women set aside their wrists, and men - their elbows. Because women need to balance a heavier hip girdle, and men need a heavier shoulder girdle. This is the anatomy of the male and female bodies. But sometimes you can observe how men, especially of medium build, unnecessarily, deliberately leave their elbows deliberately further from the body when walking. As if their shoulder girdle is so powerful that it needs enhanced balancing. Over-balancing by pushing the elbows back is not necessary for walking. This is a subconscious signal with which a man tries to further emphasize his masculinity, to give the figure a more impressive look. Well, everyone knows that fashion models are specially taught to properly balance with their outstretched wrists when walking. This is also body language, conveying additional signals of femininity.
Meanwhile, the language of human postures and movements can send signals not only of a biological, but also of a cultural nature. For example, the lotus position may be a sign of Indian culture. And squatting at the bus stop is a sign of belonging to the criminal world, since this pose left the prison cells and spread through the channels of criminal fashion in the teenage subculture.
In general, body language includes four ways of conveying information.
1. Gestures- a way of symbolic use of hands. You can, for example, invitingly wave your hand from the other end of the hall, attracting attention. You can show height and other sizes with your hand from the floor or with both hands - the size of the fish caught. You can twist your hand at your temple or make an irritable waving gesture. Applause is also a gesture of greeting or gratitude. One or two handclaps is a way to get attention. In many pagan religions, clapping attracted the attention of the gods before prayer or sacrifice. Actually, that's where the modern applause came from. From the ancient times of our, Russian paganism, the children's game "ladushki" has come down to us. In general, the arsenal of meanings that were transmitted and are now transmitted with the help of clapping is huge. This is understandable: clapping your hands is one of the few gestures that can produce a sound, and a loud one at that.
Some gestures, which are specifically assigned certain meanings, should be classified as a secondary language. This is not only the sign language of the deaf and dumb, but also professional sign language. For example, for riggers (handling specialists), shaking the fist with the thumb up means vira (raise), and with the thumb down - myna (lower). The cameraman (or director), when he sees that the reporting time is running out, gives his TV journalist a special sign - he rotates his brush in front of him with his index finger extended, as if drawing a circle. It means: turn around. Pilots or tankers, when it is necessary to give a command to turn off the engine or stop, cross their arms over their chests; it means stop or turn off the engine. When it is necessary to start the engine, the commander of the front tank rotates his arm above his head and makes the final wave forward. It means: backwater, forward. The commander of the scouts, when it is necessary to give the command to stop and calm down, throws a fist above him with pressed fingers forward.
It is noticeable that all these gestures are used in situations where people for some reason cannot convey a message in ordinary language. That is, the gestures of the secondary language replace the signs of the ordinary language. Whereas the gestures of the primary language do not replace anything, but directly express an emotion or some kind of meaning.
Signs given by the movement of the head are similar to gestures. The most common are nodding, nodding, shaking, which express agreement, understanding, denial. Similar in their semantics to gestures of shoulder movement. For example, a person can shrug their shoulders - to express bewilderment or say: I don’t know.
2. Mimicry- the way the facial expression is used. A person is able to distinguish and interpret the subtlest movements of the facial muscles. The position or movement of facial features has iconic functions: eyebrows can be raised in surprise, anger, fear, or greeting. Face reading - physiognomy - was studied by Aristotle.
Mimicry as a way of communication is also present in higher animals - great apes. However, although their grimaces are sometimes similar to human ones, they often express other meanings. For example, a grin, which we might consider a smile, in monkeys expresses a threat. The monkey simply raises his gums and shows his fangs. Many mammals do the same - dogs, tigers, wolves, and so on. By the way, the same sign of threat, apparently, was once characteristic of a person - for some primitive peoples, a grin is also not only a smile, but also a sign of threat or bitterness. Fangs for them subconsciously are still military weapons. Yes, and in our culture there is a memory of precisely this meaning of this grimace: the phraseological unit show teeth means “to demonstrate some kind of threat or resistance.”
Signaling with the eyes should also be attributed to facial expressions. It is known how women flirt, shooting with their eyes. By blinking your eyelashes, you can say yes. A direct, open eye-to-eye look is considered a sign of a strong and free person. This look into the eyes also has biological roots. In the animal kingdom and among primitive peoples, direct eye contact is often a challenge. It is known, for example, that gorillas tolerate people near them, but at the same time, a person should not look the leader in the eye, since the leader will perceive this as a claim to his status, to leadership in the herd. There were cases when a male gorilla attacked a cameraman, perceiving the flashing camera lens as a direct look into the eyes, as a challenge. To this day, a direct look into the eyes is considered bold, open; people have also been known to avert their eyes when they are shy or unsure of themselves.
3. Body position- a way to keep yourself. It is believed that a relaxed position indicates trust in the interlocutor. Much of the semiotics of the body also goes back to natural instincts. Tension in a stressful situation (for example, alone with a criminal) resembles the behavior of an animal that senses a predator.
The signs transmitted by the body are very important at the first meeting, when any aspects of the personality or character have not yet manifested themselves. So, during a job interview, it is recommended to sit straight, without lounging in a chair, to demonstrate interest, look into the eyes of the interlocutor, but not very persistently.
We can also distinguish an aggressive body position, when a person is tense and ready to move, and his body is slightly forward, as if preparing to throw. This position of the body seems to signal us about possible aggression.
The location of the body in space can also be informative. For example, the phenomenon of personal space is known, which in European culture ranges from 80 cm to 1 meter. Close people can literally "let" each other closer, closely. People who know little or are connected only by official relations prefer to be at a slightly greater distance from each other. In other words, social distance is directly and literally embodied in the spatial distance between individuals. So the distance to the interlocutor itself can also be a marker indicating the perception of the social status and relationship of the interlocutors.
It is also known that different ideas about personal space have taken root in different cultures. In the East, they prefer the distance between interlocutors to be greater. If the communication between an American and a Japanese is recorded on video and then scrolled in accelerated mode, then the impression will be that the American jumps on the Japanese, and he, on the contrary, jumps back. Because for an American, the acceptable distance between interlocutors is much less than for a Japanese, an American tries to reduce it. The Japanese, on the contrary, moves away, trying to keep his distance.
There are other differences in cultures related to body position. For example, Americans consider it normal to stand side by side during a conversation, while in our country this can be perceived as a sign of disrespect.
4. Tactile communication: touching, patting, etc. The use of tactile elements of communication also speaks of mutual relations, status, and the degree of friendship between the communicants. In close people, their relationship is expressed in hugs, strokes, kisses. Friendly relations can be expressed by shaking hands, patting on the shoulder. Teenagers, just like baby animals, sometimes imitate fights - they are fighting for leadership in a playful way. Their relationship is expressed in pokes, kicks and grabs.
Of course, each type of touch is appropriate in a certain situation and only in a certain situation can convey some meaning, that is, be perceived as a manifestation of a communicative intention. In Lermontov's "Princess Mary", Pechorin, helping Mary to cross a mountain stream on a horse, involuntarily touches the princess's hand. This touch pierces them like a current, it symbolizes a special relationship for both. The exact same touch between passengers on the bus is unlikely to be interpreted as a sign.
In the movie "Autumn Marathon" Basilashvili's hero, the intelligent and trouble-free translator Buzykin, suddenly aggressively and familiarly pats his colleague on the shoulder, who previously allowed himself just such familiarity in relation to Buzykin himself. Buzykin's rebellion is expressed in such reciprocal aggression, and not only a rebellion against a familiar colleague, but also - the second level of symbolism - against the fatal fuss that overcame Buzykin. With this deliberately familiar pat on the shoulder, he sends an unequivocal message to his impudent colleague, and at the same time to the whole world: "I'm tired of your shamelessness, and I won't let it! ..". A simple emotional gesture is full of direct and hidden meanings, wonderfully conveyed by the director and actor. However, decoding this message, understanding its specific meaning is possible only in this specific situation. In another situation, the same tactile contact may mean something else.
In other words, the signs transmitted by many non-verbal means of communication (facial expressions, posture, touch) are not as unambiguous as the words of a natural language. These signs are most often interpreted taking into account situational factors, that is, the conditions in which they are used.
In human communication, other means of non-verbal communication are also known. These include, for example, clothing and jewelry. If, say, an employee came to work in especially formal clothes, then any of us can assume by this sign that he has a birthday or an important meeting today; in other words, some important day. He signals his special day with his special clothes.
Clothing as a means of communication is very successfully used in politics. Minister of Emergency Situations S. Shoigu introduced a new style of clothing into politics - he constantly appeared in public in a rescue jacket, thereby making it clear that he embodies a special kind of minister - a minister who himself is involved in clearing debris. The cap of the Moscow mayor Luzhkov entered the legend. With this cap, the mayor announces that he is a hard-working mayor, a mayor of the people. President Putin put on the uniform of a pilot and a submariner - these were also special messages addressed to voters. President Yeltsin practiced special meetings with state leaders - meetings without a tie. These meetings were designed to demonstrate the informal and friendly nature of the relationship between the leaders. And this feature of such meetings was symbolically conveyed by the style of clothing - the absence of ties, an indispensable attribute of the official style.
The experience of politicians is a good example for the use of such a means of communication as dress code by any leader. The leader always looks more formal than ordinary workers - a tie, an expensive suit, expensive accessories emphasize his social status. And this is important for observing the rules of the hierarchy, that is, in fact, for maintaining order. The head of his appearance signals his status. If an outsider comes to the work collective, he can often determine by his clothes who the boss is.
At the same time, sometimes a leader, like politicians, should put on work clothes, thereby sending a signal of working and creative unity to his subordinates. In the same way, you can use informal clothes, putting on a jumper and jeans for participation in parties and collective leisure of the company. Thus, the manager can communicate his proximity to ordinary employees, subordinates, which is very important from the point of view of regulating the psychological climate in the team.

Conflict. Regulation and resolution of conflict situations

The word "conflict" in Latin means "collision". Conflict is “a situation in which the parties report an inconsistency between their potential positions that preclude the intention of the other party” (Boulding)

A conflict is a clash of opposing interests, goals, positions, opinions of two or more people.

In any conflict situation, the participants in the conflict and the object of the conflict are distinguished. The object of the conflict is what each of the conflicting parties claims, which causes their opposition, the subject of their dispute, the receipt by one of the participants, completely or partially depriving the other side of the opportunity to achieve their goals.

Among the participants in the conflict are:

Opponents are parties that are in opposition because of claims to the object of the conflict;

Involved groups;

Interested groups.

Involved and interested groups participate in the conflict for two reasons: either they are able to influence the outcome of the conflict, or the outcome of the conflict affects their interests.

Direct participants in the conflict (opponents) can be individuals and groups.

On this basis, the following types of conflict:

Interpersonal conflict is perhaps the most common

type of conflict. Interpersonal conflict can also manifest itself as a clash of personalities with different character traits, attitudes and values.

· The conflict between the individual and the group, which occurs if the expectations of the group are in conflict with the expectations of the individual or if the individual takes a position that differs from the position of the group.

· Intergroup conflict, which is also common because organizations are made up of many groups, both formal and informal. Even in the best organizations, conflicts can arise between such groups.

2. Causes of conflicts:

1. "Position deficit". The impossibility of simultaneous performance of one role or function by several subjects, which puts them in a competitive relationship.

2. "Deficiency of sources." Different ideas about values, as a result of which several people cannot fully satisfy their claims at the same time.

3. Formation of aggressive human reactions.

4. Limited resources; differences in the level of education, manners of behavior, life experience.

5. Low level of communication.

6. Low culture of behavior.

It is very important to determine the causes of the conflict, since knowing the causes of a particular conflict, it is easier to take concrete steps to prevent it.

3. Conflict situation- these are the conflicting positions of the parties on any occasion, the desire for opposite goals, the use of various means to achieve them, the lack of coincidence of interests, desires, etc. Quite often, objective contradictions lie at the heart of a conflict situation, but sometimes some trifle is enough: an unsuccessfully spoken word, opinion, that is, an incident - and a conflict can begin.

An incident is a reason when one of the parties begins to act (even if not intentionally), infringing on the interests of the other side.

The escalation of the conflict occurs according to the scheme:

Interpersonal intergroup general collective

conflict conflict conflict

The escalation of the conflict can be explained by the natural efforts of each participant to find support among the environment and "recruit" their supporters.

In order for a contradiction to develop into a conflict situation, it is necessary:

The significance of the situation for the participants in the conflict interaction;

The presence of an obstacle that one of the opponents erects on the way to achieving the goals of other participants (even if this is a subjective perception, and not reality);

Exceeding personal or group tolerance for the obstacle that has arisen, at least for one of the parties.

Different people tend to call conflict completely different situations. So, for some, this is a showdown, for others, a “sideways glance” of a partner, and for a third, a fight, etc. Therefore, the concept of "conflict situation" is not stable, depending on many factors.

4. To clarify the conflict situation in the group, it is possible to conduct a diagnosis among students “Are you a conflict personality?”

Tactful and peaceful. They do not like conflicts, even if they can smooth them out; easily avoid critical situations. When they have to enter into an argument, they take into account how this will affect their official position or friendly relations. "Plato is my friend but the truth is dearer!" was never their motto. They strive to be pleasant to others, but when they need help, they do not always dare to provide it. Do they think that by doing so they lose respect for themselves in the eyes of others. They need to muster up the courage if circumstances require to speak out in principle.

· Conflict-free. They say about them that this is a conflicting personality, but in fact they only conflict if there is no other way out and other means have been exhausted. They stand firm in their opinion, no matter how it affects their position or personal attitude. And for that they are respected.

· Conflict. Disputes and conflicts are the air without which they cannot live, they are looking for a reason for disputes, most of which are unnecessary, petty. They like to criticize others, but if they hear comments addressed to them, they can “eat alive”. They impose their opinion, even if they are wrong. It is very difficult for those who are close to them, their intemperance and rudeness repels people. They need to overcome their absurd nature!

5. Every conflict has its own development.several stages :

1) The emergence of a conflict;

2) Awareness of this situation of the parties;

3) Conflict behavior;

4) Outcome of the conflict (constructive, destructive, freezing of the conflict).

Mutual actions.

Kind of conflict

The purpose of mutual action

Destruction of the enemy

Belief

Degrees of interest of the parties

Forms of manifestation of the conflict

Clash of Preferences

Conflict of Interest

Clash of core values

Cooperation

Competition

Open conflict (dangerous)

6. Usually about negative consequences of conflicts they say a lot: deterioration in the health of subjects, decreased performance, high emotional costs, etc. However, the conflict can also perform positive functions: it serves to defuse tension, obtain new information, stimulates development and positive changes, overcomes the stagnation of life, reveals a contradiction, helps to clarify relationships etc.

Recognizing the conflict of the norms of social life, experts talk about the need to create a mechanism for psychological regulation and resolution of conflict situations.

Allocate five ways to resolve conflict:

Style

The essence of the strategy

Conditions for effective use

Flaws

Competition (competition)

The desire to achieve one's own at the expense of another; involves focusing only on one's own interests, completely ignoring the interests of a partner.

The outcome is very important. Possession of certain power. The need for an urgent solution.

In case of defeat - dissatisfaction; with victory - a sense of guilt; unpopularity; damaged relationships.

Evasion (avoidance)

Avoiding responsibility for decisions; characterized by a lack of attention, both to their own interests and to the interest of a partner.

The outcome is not very important. Lack of power. Maintaining peace. Desire to buy time.

The transition of the conflict into a latent form.

fixture

Smoothing out disagreements at the expense of their own interests; implies increased attention to the interests of another, while one's own interests recede into the background.

The point of contention is more important, for the other. Desire to keep the peace. True, on the other side. Lack of power

You have given in. Decision delayed

Compromise

Finding solutions through mutual concessions; represents the achievement of "half" benefits by each party.

The same power.

Mutually exclusive

interests.

There is no time reserve.

Getting only half of what you expected. The causes of the conflict are not completely eliminated

Other styles are ineffective

Cooperation

Finding a solution that satisfies all participants; is a strategy that takes into account the interests of both parties.

There is time. The decision is important to both parties.

Time and energy costs. Not warranty

Clear understanding of the point

the vision of another.

Stages of conflict resolution:

Create an atmosphere of cooperation;

Strive for clarity of relationships and communication;

Recognize the existence of a conflict;

Agree on a procedure (where, when and how work will begin to overcome it);

Outline the conflict, i.e. define it in terms of a mutual problem to be settled;

reach an agreement;

Set a deadline for a decision;

Bring the plan to life;

Evaluate your decision.

7. The main techniques needed to prevent conflict:

Don't respond to aggression with aggression;

Do not insult or humiliate your opponent by word, gesture, or look;

Give the opponent a chance to speak;

Try to express your understanding in connection with the opponent's difficulties;

Do not jump to conclusions, do not give hasty advice;

Invite the opponent to discuss the problems that have arisen in a calm atmosphere.

Application №2

Physical education minute

I.p. – o.s. 1 - hands through the sides up; 2-3 times to rise on toes; 4 - i.p.; 4 times, the pace is slow.

I.p. – o.s. 1 - bend over, take your hands back; hold 2-4 times; 5–6 - i.p.; 6 times, the pace is slow.

I.p. - stand legs apart, arms bent at the elbows, palms down. Imitation of breaststroke swimming. 1 - tilt forward, arms forward; both hands to the sides, 3-4 - ip; 4 times, average pace.

I.p. - stand legs apart, hands on the belt. 1 - torso tilt back: 2-4 - hold; 5–6 - i.p.; 4 times, the pace is slow.

I.p. - Sitting at a desk, facing the aisle, hands at an emphasis. Imitation of "bicycle" movements; arbitrarily, the pace is average.

Walking in place, arms through the sides up, squeezing and unclenching the fingers; 10 seconds, average pace.

Application №3

Questions to consolidate the material covered

1. Define conflict. Types of conflicts.

2. name stages of conflict resolution.

3. Name five ways to resolve the conflict.

Review questions

1. the concept of scientific research methodology

2. basic requirements for scientific research in social psychology

3. theory and empiricism in socio-psychological research. Research types

4. program of socio-psychological research

5. problems of measurement in social psychology (validity)

a) scales as ways to measure socio-psychological characteristics

b) data reliability and validity

c) types of sample

d) the condition for applying tests in social psychology

6. methods of socio-psychological research (survey, observation, analysis of documents)

7. active methods of socio-psychological influence (social-psychological training, group discussion, methodological games, socio-psychological counseling)

8. criteria for the effectiveness of applied research

In psychological science, all existing approaches to the study of communication come down to three aspects:

communicative side (communication as an exchange of information)

Perceptual side (communication as mutual understanding)

interactive side (communication as interaction)

Communication is the exchange of information. In the course of joint activities, people exchange various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings among themselves. But communication cannot be equated either with the transmission of messages, or even with the exchange of information.

Information in the course of communication is not only transmitted, but also formed, specified, developed, encoded and decoded. There is a process of developing new information common to communicating people and giving birth to their community.

The simplest model of interpersonal communication is a pair of individuals connected to each other and entering into a dialogue. To construct it, answer the following questions.

Who? (transmits a message) - communicator

What? (transmitted) – message (text)

How? (transmitting) – channel

To whom? (message sent) – audience (addressee)

With what effect? - efficiency

The transfer of any information is possible through sign systems. In psychology, they study verbal communication (speech is used as a sign system) and non-verbal communication (non-speech sign systems are used).

Speech- exactly this universal means of communication. Speech- the process of human communication with other people through natural language. Different social conditions, different ways of development give rise to different vocabulary, different structure of the language. Therefore, the effectiveness of communication requires a common language for communicating. Factors such as education, general culture and culture of speech are also important.

External speech expanded, focused on others.

inner speech meant for himself. It is characterized by generalization, conciseness, orientation to the meaning of the message.

Dialogic speech is the most important way of communication as an exchange of information.

Dialogue involves and includes:

the uniqueness and equality of partners,

difference and originality of their points of view,

orientation of each to the understanding and active interpretation of his point of view by the partner,

expectation of an answer and its anticipation in one's own statement;

Complementary positions of the participants in communication (their correlation is the goal of the dialogue).

The lack of internal contact between interlocutors, the difference in attitude to the subject of speech can create difficulties in understanding the true meaning of speech and requires a more complete and detailed construction of speech.

In the process of communication, the most common are phatic, informational, debatable and confessional types of dialogues.

phatic dialogue- the exchange of speech statements only to maintain a conversation.

Information dialogue- exchange of information of various properties.

Discussion Dialogue when different points of view collide. The discussion dialogue accompanies communication in all spheres of life, since interaction with each of them usually requires the coordination of the individual efforts of the partners, which occurs during the discussion.

Confessional Dialogue- the most trusting communication. Intimate communication based on mutual acceptance of individuals, on sharing or common meanings of values ​​and life.

Verbal speech is supplemented by the use of non-verbal (non-verbal) means of communication: kinessics, paralinguistics, proxemics, visual communication. Each of the forms of communication uses its sign system.

Kinessika (optical-kinetic system of signs) includes the perception of motor skills of various parts of the body (hands - gestures, faces - facial expressions, bodies - pantomime) - displays the emotional reactions of a person.

Paralinguistic sign system- vocalization of speech (voice quality, its range, tonality).

Extralinguistics- pauses in speech, coughing, laughter, crying, rate of speech.

Proxemics- norms of spatial (optimal communication distances: intimate, personal, social, public) and temporal organization of communication (optimal communication time is 30 minutes).

visual communication- eye contact, previously associated with intimate communication, now the range of such studies has become much wider: signs represented by eye movement (for example, face-to-face communication or a shout in the back) are included in a wider range of communication.

Communication as mutual understanding. In the process of communication, there must be understanding between the participants in this process. Mutual understanding can have two functions.

1) understanding motives, goals, attitudes of partners in interaction;

2) not only understanding but acceptance, the separation of these goals, attitudes, which allows not only to compose actions, but also to establish a special kind of relationship (intimacy, affection), expressed in feelings of friendship, sympathy, love.

Cognition of another person involves the simultaneous implementation of several processes: an emotional assessment of another, an attempt to understand the motives of his actions, a strategy based on this for changing his behavior, building a strategy for his own behavior. But at least two people are included in these processes, and each of them is an active subject. Comparison of oneself with another is carried out from two sides. Each of the partners likens himself to the other. This means that when building an interaction strategy, everyone has to take into account not only the needs, motives and attitudes of the other, but also how this other understands the needs, motives and attitudes of his interlocutor, i.e. the perception of a person by a person involves identification.

Identification is likening oneself to another. One of the easiest ways to understand another person in a real situation, when an assumption about the internal state of a communication partner is based on an attempt to put oneself in his place. Identification acts as one of the mechanisms of cognition and understanding of another person.

The second such mechanism of knowing the other is empathy (not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but rather the desire to emotionally respond to his problems).

Empathy is an emotional understanding of another (the situation of another person is not thought out, but felt).

The mechanism of reflection is also of particular importance for cognition in communication. In social psychology, reflection is an individual's awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner. It is no longer just knowing or understanding the other, but also knowing how he understands you, assessing the situation and its prospects.

In the process of perception and understanding of a person by a person, an important role is played by attitudes that lead to the emergence of socio-psychological effects: halo effect, novelty (or primacy) effect, stereotyping effect.

halo effect. Information about a person is "read" in a certain way. It is superimposed on the idea of ​​him, which was created in advance. The halo effect is clearly manifested in the formation of the first impression about a person: a general favorable impression of him leads to positive assessments of his unknown qualities, and a general unfavorable impression contributes to the predominance of negative assessments. The halo effect is most pronounced when the perceiver has minimal information about the object of perception, or when judgments concern moral qualities.

The effects of primacy and novelty are closely related to the halo effect. They relate to the significance of a certain order of presenting information about a person for compiling information about him.

Primacy effect- when perceiving a stranger, the information about him that was presented earlier prevails.

novelty effect- in situations of perception of a familiar person, new information is the most significant.

More broadly, all these effects can be considered as a manifestation of a special process that accompanies the perception of a person by a person - phenomenon of stereotyping.

Stereotype- this is some stable image of a phenomenon or person, which is used in communication as a means of "reducing" the process of recognition.

Social, professional, ethnic stereotypes in communication have a specific origin and meaning. They arise in conditions of limited past experience, when drawing conclusions on the basis of limited information.

This leads, firstly, to a certain simplification and reduction of the process of cognition, although it does not contribute to the accuracy of constructing the image of the other. Second, stereotyping leads to prejudice when, on the basis of negative experience, any new perception is colored with hostility. Prejudice can seriously harm human relationships.

Especially common are ethnic stereotypes, when, on the basis of limited information about individual representatives of ethnic groups, biased conclusions are drawn about the entire group.

Communication as interaction (interactive side of communication). The interactive side of communication is the organization of interaction between communicating individuals, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge, ideas, but also actions. Simultaneous participation of people in an activity means that everyone has to make their own special contribution to it.

In order to live, people are forced to interact (i.e. organize joint activities). In psychology, all interactions are divided into two opposite types: cooperation(collaboration) and competition(conflict).

Cooperation contributes to the organization of joint activities, achievements.

Conflict is a collision of oppositely directed goals, interests, positions, views of the subjects of interaction.

Traditionally, conflict has been viewed as a negative type of interaction. Currently, psychologists' research has established the positive aspects of the conflict. For example, 6 types of conflicts characteristic of pedagogical activity and ways of overcoming them are described. Similar to these intrapersonal conflicts arise in a number of specialists in the professional sphere "person-to-person", who intensively interact, contact with people.

1. conflicts due to the diversity of professional duties teacher. Awareness of the impossibility of doing all one's work equally well can lead a conscientious teacher to an intrapersonal conflict, to a loss of self-confidence, and disappointment in the profession. Such a conflict is a consequence of the poor organization of the teacher's work; it can be overcome by choosing the main, but real and feasible tasks (with rational means and methods of solution).

2. conflicts arising from different expectations those people who influence the performance of the professional duties of a teacher. Employees of public education authorities, school leaders, colleagues, students and parents can challenge the methods, forms of education and upbringing, the correctness of grading, etc. Pedagogical position, high professional culture will help the teacher psychologically competently overcome such conflicts.

3. conflicts arising from the low prestige of individual subjects of the school curriculum. Music, work, fine arts, physical education are classified as "secondary" subjects. At the same time, the prestige of any school subject ultimately depends on the personality and quality of the teacher's work.

4. conflicts associated with the excessive dependence of the teacher's behavior on various prescriptions and plans that leave no room for initiative. At the same time, the activity of the teacher is under the attention and control of the public and government bodies.

5. conflicts, which are based on the contradiction between multifaceted responsibilities and the desire for a professional career. Not many teachers hold the post of headmaster and his deputies, having unlimited opportunities for professional growth and personal self-realization.

6. conflicts caused by a mismatch of values promoted by the teacher in the school with the values ​​that students observe outside its walls. It is important for a teacher to be psychologically prepared for the manifestation of selfishness, rudeness, lack of spirituality in society and at school in order to defend his professional position.

The specific content of communication as interaction is the ratio of individual "contributions" to a single process of activity.

Joint-individual activity- when each participant does his part of the common work independently of each other.

Joint-sequential activity- the general task is performed sequentially by each participant.

Collaborative activities- when there is a simultaneous interaction of each participant with all the others. The psychological "picture" of interaction in all these models is different.

Methods of influence in communication . Communication includes three main ways of influence:

1. Infection is an unconscious, involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. (The mechanism of socio-psychological infection is reduced to the effect of multiple mutual reinforcement of influences through infection is panic, as the emotional state of a mass of people).

2. Suggestion - a purposeful unreasoned impact of one person on a group or on another person. (Based on an uncritical perception of a message or information. Unlike infection, which is usually non-verbal in nature (music, emotions, games, dances), suggestion is verbal in nature. Carried out through speech, it has a particularly strong effect on impressionable people who do not have life principles and beliefs, insecure people with undeveloped logical thinking.)

3. Imitation - manifests itself in following an example, a model (reproduction). It is of particular importance in the process of human mental development.

social communication- social interaction between people through sign systems for the purpose of broadcasting (transferring) social experience, cultural heritage and organizing joint activities. “Man is a communication node,” wrote Exupery. Communication spiritualizes the life of a person, ensures his entry into society. In social communication, the mental development and self-realization of the individual takes place. All mental qualities of a person are formed and manifested in his communication with other people. Effective communication is associated with appropriate skills and abilities, with a culture of communication.

The content, functions and means of communication differ.

Information and communication (reception and transmission of information);

Regulatory-communicative (organization of interaction between people in their joint activities);

Perceptual-affective (perception of people as social objects, impact on their emotional sphere);

Affective (emotional self-expression of a person).

Depending on the means used, communication can be direct and indirect, direct and indirect, verbal (verbal) and non-verbal (paraverbal). Differs also communication technique- the establishment of mental contacts, the use of various methods of mental influence on a communication partner, the choice of means depending on the form of communication. Forms of communication: business, professional, household, private and public.

Communication as a communicative activity. Communication is the semantic side of communication. Actions focused on their semantic perception by other people is called communicative.

In communicative acts, informative, phatic (contact) and managerial tasks of communication are realized. By exchanging information, people influence each other. In the process of communication, they seek to establish psychic contact, to clarify each other's positions, to form an attitude towards the analyzed situation.

Communicator(the person transmitting the message) can adhere to one of three positions: open, detached or closed, that is, hide their point of view. The perception of information depends on its "overlay" on recipient or the audience, on their motivational state and informational readiness.

To understand information (its inclusion in the system of existing connections, concepts and perceptions of the recipient), it is necessary that the communicating parties use a single system of meanings. Obstacles to communication are psychological, social and cultural barriers, inadequate reflection of the situation of communication.

Primary means of communication- speech (natural sound), having a lexical and syntactic organization. The speech of an individual testifies to his cultural level, inner world, features of mental self-regulation. Template speech, and even more so vulgar, sharply reduces the status of the individual. The greatest spiritual asset is the ability of a person to briefly, succinctly and elegantly express his thoughts and feelings. A person is judged by what and how he does, how he looks, what and how he says. The manner of speech, the manner of communication determine the attitude of a person, the subtlety of his feelings, his intellectual capabilities. Underdevelopment of speech is a sign of the mental underdevelopment of an individual.

In speech, the speaker's age characteristics, his social and professional characteristics, and mental anomalies are manifested (logorrhea - "verbal diarrhea", perseveration - continuous repetition, viscosity - drowning in details, etc.).

In speech, the content and relational (emotionally influencing) sides are distinguished, its fascination (“charm”) - the impact on the behavioral decisions of the recipients.

The meaningful methods of speech influence include statements on the history of the problem under discussion, an assessment of its significance, the level of elaboration, and the rationale for the proposed method for solving the problem. Relational methods of influence include appeals to the personality of the opponent (mentioning his negative qualities, business insolvency), appeals to the audience (requests, appeals, threats, fawning).

Studies show that various methods of mental influence are widely used in parliamentary speeches of deputies (about four methods in one speech). Moreover, relational techniques are twice as much as content-based ones.

Along with speech, communication uses paralinguistics- non-verbal (non-verbal) means of transmitting information. There are three types of paralinguistics:

Kinetic - gestures, postures, facial expressions;

Graphic (in writing).

facial expressions associated with the spread of an intense excitatory process to the motor zone of the cerebral cortex - hence its involuntary character. Mimic movements are divided into:

1) aggressive-offensive facial expressions - anger, anger, cruelty, etc .;

2) active-defensive - disgust, contempt, hatred, etc.;

3) passive-defensive - humility, humiliation, etc.;

4) facial expressions of an orienting-research orientation;

5) imitative facial expressions;

6) facial expressions of pleasure-displeasure;

7) camouflage expressions - facial expressions of hiding the truth, ambiguity, dishonesty, etc.

Informative and gestures person. It is almost impossible to fake sign language: they are regulated subconsciously. So, in the process of lying (especially if the person himself condemns this lie), a characteristic contraction of the muscles of the face occurs, the lumen of the pupils increases, the blood vessels of the face often expand - it reddens, the number of blinks increases, characteristic microgestures and macrogestures are performed - covering the mouth, touching the nose , rubbing the eye, ear, scratching the neck, pulling the collar, etc.

In police practice, it has long been noted that it is more difficult to give false testimony with a good view of the whole body and bright illumination of the face, and it is easiest to lie on the phone.

Openness and honesty are often accompanied by the opening of the palms. Pointing finger, as a rule, indicates dominance and aggressiveness. Rubbing the palms usually signifies pleasant anticipation. Clasped palms are a gesture of unjustified expectations. Stroking the chin is a signal of a decision being made. Crossing the arms across the chest indicates a defensive stance, while crossing the arms across the chest with clenched fists indicates a hostile attitude.

Close your eyes and hide your hands if you do not want your insincerity to be revealed, - this was the conclusion of one observant official of the English court. During his long judicial practice, he learned to accurately determine whether a witness is telling the truth.

Eyes and hands often say more than words and involuntarily testify to the true state of a person. The gaze of a living being and especially man's gaze- one of the most powerful stimuli, carrying a lot of information. The eyes and lips are the most expressive parts of the face. A person who looks away from the interlocutor seems secretive and insincere. And a person who “stares his eyes” seems limited and tactless. People accurately guess the expression of the eyes, the play of glances.

In the process of communication, the views of people perform a synchronizing function - the rhythm of the views forms a certain channel of communication. At the same time, the speaker looks at the partner less than the listener. But about a second before the end of a separate speech block, the speaker shifts his gaze to the listener's face, as if giving a signal about the onset of his turn to speak and evaluating the impression he made.

The partner who has taken the floor, in turn, looks away, delving into his thoughts. The listener, on the other hand, gives with his eyes signals of his attitude to the content of the speaker's statements - these can be approval and censure, agreement and disagreement, joy and sadness, delight and anger. Eyes express the whole gamut of human feelings. And not only the eyes themselves, but the entire eye area of ​​the face.

The impression made by the gaze depends on the lumen of the pupils, the position of the eyelids and eyebrows, the configuration of the mouth and nose, and the general outline of the face. The combination of these features is huge. Positive emotions increase the amount of exchange of glances, negative ones reduce it. A running or "sticky" look indicates mental accentuations and anomalies. Look closely at the looks, facial expressions and gestures of people in order to better understand them and better interact with them. Remember that your gestures are constantly interpreted by your interlocutor as signals of confidence and insecurity, timidity and excessive pretentiousness, aggressiveness and defensiveness, arrogance and delicacy, openness and secrecy, proximity and alienation, culture and lack of culture.

In communication, in interaction, people strive to preserve zone of your personal space. The entire space around the individual is divided into a number of zones: intimate (15 - 45 cm), personal (45 cm - 1.2 m), social (2 - 6 m) and public (over 6 m).

The most important and significant is the intimate zone, regarded by a person as his property. Only very close people can enter this zone. A zone with a radius of 15 cm is especially jealously guarded. Its violation even causes physiological changes in the body - the pulse quickens, adrenaline is released, muscles tighten, blood rushes to the head. Being in public places of increased crowding, people adhere to the unwritten rules of delicacy (avoiding “point-blank” looks, not talking, not showing emotions, limiting body movements). Prolonged violation of the intimate zone is difficult to bear, and for many people even unbearable.

During interrogations of persons opposing the investigation, the technique of a long intrusion into the intimate zone of the interrogated is used. Not being able to move away, some interrogators "push back" the interrogator himself, giving answers to difficult questions.

Personal zone - the distance for friendly conversations, communication with well-known people. In the social zone, unfamiliar people communicate, in the public zone - communication with a large group of people.

Entering into communication, people are more or less aware of its goals, strive to realize their interests, control the course of communication, use various means of influencing the mental state of a partner, and strive to create a certain impression of themselves.

On the initial stage of communication people, as a rule, recognize the actualized needs of each other and, on this basis, form the emergence of psychological (communicative) contact. At the same time, the personal qualities of the partner are assessed, a situationally justified form and appropriate communication technique, a system of communication techniques are selected, and the partner is pre-configured to achieve the goal of communication.

Verbal and paraverbal means should correspond to the purpose of communication, its form, and demonstrate an appropriate attitude towards the partner. Words, the construction of phrases, facial expressions, gestures, posture can be conducive to communication or make it difficult. Emotionally expressive manifestations can give out hidden goals of communication. Slips of the tongue, speech difficulties, slips also testify to the subconscious orientation of the subject of communication.

In the process of communication, feedback is widely used - the partner's reactions, his attitude to the content of communication. A special provocation of these reactions is also possible in order to clarify the positions of the partner and the information he conceals. The art of communication consists in the ability of partners to put themselves in the position of the other side, show reflection (think for the other), take into account the peculiarities of social perception (perception of social objects), adequately interpret the behavioral manifestations of the partner, his emotional reactions.

Many professions (teacher, doctor, lawyer, artist, manager) require highly developed communication skills, mastering the culture and techniques of effective communication. Each social role is successfully implemented only by adequate means of social communication.