Abstract: The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Christian world. Division into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires Ancient and Christian traditions in the life of the Byzantines

The Byzantine Empire and Eastern Christendom

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Introduction.

In my essay I would like to talk about Byzantium. Byzantine Empire (Roman Empire, 476-1453) -Eastern Roman Empire. The name “Byzantine Empire” (after the city of Byzantium, on the site of which the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great founded Constantinople at the beginning of the 4th century) was given to the state in the works of Western European historians after its fall. The Byzantines themselves called themselves Romans - in Greek “Romeans”, and their power - “Romean”. Western sources also call the Byzantine Empire "Romania". For much of its history, many of its Western contemporaries referred to it as the "Empire of the Greeks" due to the dominance of its Greek population and culture. In ancient Rus' it was also usually called the "Greek Kingdom". Byzantium made a great contribution to the development of culture in Europe in the Middle Ages. In the history of world culture, Byzantium has a special, outstanding place. In artistic creativity, Byzantium gave the medieval world lofty images of literature and art, which were distinguished by noble elegance of forms, imaginative vision of thought, sophistication of aesthetic thinking, and depth of philosophical thought. In terms of its power of expressiveness and deep spirituality, Byzantium stood ahead of all the countries of medieval Europe for many centuries. The direct heir of the Greco-Roman world and the Hellenistic East, Byzantium has always remained the center of a unique and truly brilliant culture.

History of Byzantium.

Division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires

Division into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. In 330, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great declared the city of Byzantium his capital, renaming it Constantinople. The need to move the capital was caused, first of all, by the distance of Rome from the tense eastern and northeastern borders of the empire; it was possible to organize defense from Constantinople much more quickly and efficiently than from Rome. The final division of the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western occurred after the death of Theodosius the Great in 395. The main difference between Byzantium and the Western Roman Empire was the predominance of Greek culture on its territory. The differences grew, and over the course of two centuries the state finally acquired its own individual appearance.

The formation of independent Byzantium

The formation of Byzantium as an independent state can be attributed to the period 330-518. During this period, numerous barbarian, mainly Germanic tribes penetrated into Roman territory across the borders on the Danube and Rhine. Some were small groups of settlers attracted by the security and prosperity of the empire, while others undertook military campaigns against Byzantium, and soon their pressure became unstoppable. Taking advantage of Rome's weakness, the Germans moved from raiding to seizing land, and in 476 the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire was overthrown. The situation in the east was no less difficult, and a similar ending could have been expected, after in 378 the Visigoths won the famous Battle of Adrianople, Emperor Valens was killed and King Alaric devastated all of Greece. But soon Alaric went west - to Spain and Gaul, where the Goths founded their state, and the danger from them to Byzantium had passed. In 441, the Goths were replaced by the Huns. Attila started war several times, and only by paying a large tribute was it possible to prevent his further attacks. In the Battle of the Nations in 451, Attila was defeated, and his state soon collapsed. In the second half of the 5th century, danger came from the Ostrogoths - Theodoric ravaged Macedonia, threatened Constantinople, but he also went west, conquering Italy and founding his state on the ruins of Rome. Numerous Christian heresies - Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism - also greatly destabilized the situation in the country. While in the West the popes, beginning with Leo the Great (440-461), established the papal monarchy, in the East the patriarchs of Alexandria, especially Cyril (422-444) and Dioscorus (444-451), tried to establish the papal throne in Alexandria. In addition, as a result of these unrest, old national feuds and still tenacious separatist tendencies surfaced; Thus, political interests and goals were closely intertwined with the religious conflict. From 502, the Persians resumed their onslaught in the east, the Slavs and Avars began raids south of the Danube. Internal unrest reached its extreme limits, and in the capital there was an intense struggle between the “green” and “blue” parties (according to the colors of the chariot teams). Finally, the strong memory of the Roman tradition, which supported the idea of the need for the unity of the Roman world, constantly turned minds to the West. To get out of this state of instability, a powerful hand was needed, a clear policy with precise and definite plans. By 550, Justinian I was pursuing this policy.

Plan: 1. The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Christian world 2. Western European countries in the early Middle Ages 3. The Islamic world

The Byzantine Empire and Eastern Christendom Byzantium, as the direct successor of the Roman Empire, existed for 1000 years. The name appeared only in the 15th century (comes from the Greek colony of Byzantium, on the site of which in 330 Emperor Constantine I founded the new capital - Constantinople) Constantine I brings the city as a gift to the Mother of God

Culture Byzantium was located at the crossroads of the most important trade routes (“The Great Silk Road” (China), “The Incense Route” (India), Ceylon, SE Asia, Arabia, ports of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf). The culture of Byzantium combined the heritage of ancient civilization (theater , hippodrome, literature) and Western Asia. The influence of antiquity was traced here much longer than in the West. Europe The growing dominance of Christianity led to a decline in interest in ancient culture. Byzantine icon of the Mother of God of Blacherm, defender of the empire (Tretyakov Gallery)

With the growing influence of Christianity, new literary genres began to develop: the lives of saints and the writings of the Church Fathers. Numerous churches were erected, and the cross-domed type of church appeared. In the 6th century, the main temple of the Orthodox world, St. Sophia Cathedral, was built.

State power and the church God entrusted the emperor with supreme power over Christian subjects and is responsible before the Lord for the fate of these people. The emperor has almost absolute power (appointed officials, controlled the collection of taxes, commanded the army) The clan nobility did not have the influence that it had in Z. Europe. Secular power completely subjugated the church. The Eastern Christian Church did not have a single church center (independent patriarchates: Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria). The growing differences between the East and West Christian churches led to its split in 1054 into Catholic and Orthodox.

Byzantium between the West and Junistinian I East Junistinian I (527 -565) was responsible for an attempt to strengthen the state and return lost lands Reforms: ● limiting the arbitrariness of nobles ● strengthening the army ● strengthening the borders Annexation of Italy, North Africa, part of the Iberian Peninsula, from the 7th century Syria, Palestine

In the 7th century, Byzantium suffered from wars with the Arabs, lost almost all its Asian and African provinces, and Constantinople was besieged. Only in the middle of the 9th century did Byzantium manage to stop the onslaught of the Arabs and recapture some of its territories

Byzantium and the Slavs Slavic tribes raided the Eastern Roman Empire during the Eastern Roman Empire. In the V-VI centuries the first mention of the Slavs. In the 7th century, Slavic tribes began to settle within the Eastern Roman Empire (they took possession of three-quarters of the Balkan Peninsula). In 681, the Bulgarian kingdom was formed on the Danube territory, founded by Turkic nomads, the Bulgarians from the northern Black Sea region, who merged with the Slavs living in this territory into one people . In 865, the Bulgarian Tsar Boris converted to Christianity according to the Orthodox rite, but this did not stop the war between states. In the second half of the 10th century, Byzantium began the struggle for the subjugation of Bulgaria → the inclusion of Bulgaria in the empire.

2. Countries of Western Europe in the early Middle Ages Barbarian states: SE part of Gaul and Spain - Visigoths NW Gaul - Franks N. Africa - Vandals Italy - Ostrogoths British Isles - Angles and Saxons

Frankish Kingdom The most powerful barbarian state. It was founded by the leader of the Salic (coastal) Franks from the Merovingian clan - Clovis (486 -511). In 486 He conquered the lands of NE Gaul. Clovis compiled a set of laws, the Salic Truth. Christianity was adopted from the Roman Church. After the death of Clovis, internecine wars began between his descendants. In the second half of the 7th century, the mayor of one of the parts of the Frankish state, Pepin of Geristal, managed to defeat his rivals and subjugate all Frankish lands. In the Battle of Poitiers in 732, the son of Pepin of Geristal, Car Maltellus (Hammer), defeated the Muslim Arabs and stopped their advance into Christian Europe. . He distributed the Land to soldiers for lifelong possession on the terms of permanent service.

Feudal property and vassal relations In the era of political fragmentation that followed the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne in Western Europe, a feudal society was formed. A fief is a hereditary land tenure granted by a lord (master) to a vassal (servant) on the condition that he performs military service or pays prescribed fees. The land on a feudal estate is divided into lordly plowing and peasant plots. For the use of the allotment, the peasants performed corvee labor and paid quitrent.

Estates of feudal society: The highest - the clergy: no private property, no family, renunciation of worldly pleasures, exempt from paying taxes, subject only to the church court. Three times - Feudal lords: warriors and farmers, knights had the free right to bear arms. Peasants: → personally free: conscription only for the benefit of the state; → dependent: subordinate to feudal lords.

The principle of “my vassal’s vassal is not my vassal” → kings could only really rule their own domain. Germany: Relative unity. King Otto I attempted to revive Charlemagne's empire. He made several campaigns in Italy, occupied Rome in 962 - became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. → “pressure to the east” under the banner of the spread of Christianity, the Pomeranian and Polabian Slavs are captured. In the 10th century, the strongest Western Slavic state, the Czech Republic, became a vassal of the empire.

England: Relatively strong royal authority. After its subjugation to the Norman Duke William the Conqueror in XI, all barons and knights became direct vassals of the crown. France: X-XI centuries – king – “first among equals”. The king could not collect taxes from the population of the country, did not have the right to judge subjects who did not live in his domain, and could not issue laws common to the entire country.

3. Islamic world The emergence of Islam The emergence of the Islamic world dates back to the end of the 7th century (Arabian Peninsula). Most Arabs are pagans. Arabs are well acquainted with the holy books of Christianity and Judaism. The majority of the population are nomadic Bedouins. Large cities of Mecca and Yathrib. The main sanctuary of all Arab tribes is the Kaaba (Mecca). The Cave of Hira tribe, who lived in Mecca, owned the keys to the Kaaba.

Muhammad is the founder of a new religion (610). The Koran (“Reading”) is the main source of Islamic doctrine. “The Uncreated Eternal Word of God,” a revelation that Allah dictated to Muhammad, who acted as a mediator between God and people. Muslim means “surrendering oneself to God,” Islam means “submission to God.” Muhammad spoke of himself as the last prophet, “the seal of the prophets.” Depiction of Muhammad receiving his first revelation from the angel Jibril

The victory of Islam in Arabia and the beginning of the Arab conquests 622 - “Hijara” - Muhammad and his followers flee from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina - “city of the prophet”) - the beginning of the Muslim chronology. Residents of Yathrib convert to Islam → fight against Mecca 630 Muhammad defeated Mecca and entered the city. Mecca and Medina become holy cities. Over time, all Arab tribes accepted Islam→ a single state arose in Arabia

The Arab state was theocratic, that is, secular and spiritual were not separated to their fullest. Muhammad died in 632. After his death, elected caliphs became the head of Muslims. The main rivals of the Arabs are Byzantium and Iran. The Arabs captured Iran, Syria, Plastina, and Egypt that belonged to Byzantium. Jerusalem voluntarily surrendered. The accumulation of captured wealth in the hands of military leaders led to the formation of the nobility. Caliph Osman's attempts to preserve social equality leads to the beginning of a conspiracy, the caliph is killed, and caliph Ali (Muhammad's cousin) takes his place. Ali is accused of killing Osman, which leads to chaos that results in Ali's death. There is a split in the community. Ali's followers are Shiites (Iran). The followers of the new caliph - Mu'awiya - are Sunnis (the majority). Sunnah - St. legend, a story about the formation of Islam and the first caliphs.

The Arab Caliphate in the second half of the 7th - 10th centuries Caliph Mu'awiya I - founder of the Umayyad dynasty (661 -750). The capital of the Syrian city is Damascus. After the turmoil, the conquests continued - the campaign in India, Wed. Asia, W. North. Africa, captured most of Spain, and besieged Constantinople more than once. VIII century - the highest point of power. - Conquered peoples paid land taxes; - They were allowed to live according to the laws of their religion; - Non-Muslims paid a poll tax.

The middle of the 7th century, opponents of the Umayyadins united around the Abbasids, descendants of Abbas, uncle Muhammad and Ali → seized power in the caliphate. Representatives of the Umayyad dynasty managed to maintain power only in Spain. They founded a new capital - Baghdad - one of the largest cities in the world - population approx. 500 thousand people. , the largest number of scientists. There are 4 million books in the “House of Wisdom”. IX century - the power of the caliphs is weakened, and governors - Emirs - seize power in the regions. The Caliph loses temporal power - only the spiritual head of the Sunni Arabs. The caliphate broke up into independent states.

Muslim culture Rich libraries were created at the courts of the caliphs and emirs. The works of ancient philosophers were translated into Arabic. Arab scientists achieved success in medicine, astronomy, and mathematics. They borrowed mathematical knowledge and the decimal counting system, al-jabr, from the Indians. Works on geography provide a description of the entire Arab world. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 980 -1037

Abstract on the topic:

Byzantine Empire and

Eastern Christian world.

Completed by: Kushtukov A.A.

Checked by: Tsybzhitova A.B.

Introduction 3

History of Byzantium 4

Division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires 4

Becoming an independent Byzantium 4

Justinian Dynasty 5

The beginning of a new dynasty and the strengthening of the empire 7

Isaurian Dynasty 7

9th – 11th centuries 8

XII – XIII centuries 10

Invasion of the Turks. Fall of Byzantium 11

Byzantine culture 14

Formation of Christianity

as a philosophical and religious system 14

The time of greatest power and

the highest point of cultural development. 18

Conclusion 24

Literature 25

Introduction.

History of Byzantium.

Division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires

The formation of independent Byzantium

Dynasty of Justinian.

In 518, after the death of Anastasius, a rather dark intrigue brought the chief of the guard, Justin, to the throne. He was a peasant from Macedonia, who about fifty years ago came to Constantinople in search of his fortune, brave, but completely illiterate and a soldier who had no experience in state affairs. That is why this upstart, who became the founder of a dynasty at the age of about 70, would have been very difficult with the power entrusted to him if he had not had an adviser in the person of his nephew Justinian. From the very beginning of Justin's reign, Justinian was actually in power - also a native of Macedonia, but who received an excellent education and had excellent abilities. In 527, having received full power, Justinian began to implement his plans to restore the Empire and strengthen the power of a single emperor. He achieved an alliance with the dominant church. Under Justinian, heretics were forced to convert to the official profession under threat of deprivation of civil rights and even the death penalty. Until 532, he was busy suppressing protests in the capital and repelling the onslaught of the Persians, but soon the main direction of policy moved to the west. The barbarian kingdoms had weakened over the past half century, the inhabitants called for the restoration of the empire, and finally, even the kings of the Germans themselves recognized the legitimacy of the Byzantine claims. In 533, an army led by Belisarius attacked the Vandal states in North Africa. The next target was Italy - a difficult war with the Ostrogothic kingdom lasted 20 years and ended in victory. Having invaded the Visigothic kingdom in 554, Justinian conquered the southern part of Spain. As a result, the territory of the empire almost doubled. But these successes required too much expenditure of forces, which the Persians, Slavs, Avars and Huns were quick to take advantage of, who, although they did not conquer significant territories, devastated many lands in the east of the empire. Byzantine diplomacy also sought to ensure the prestige and influence of the empire throughout the outside world. Thanks to her clever distribution of favors and money and her skillful ability to sow discord among the enemies of the empire, she brought the barbarian peoples who wandered on the borders of the monarchy under Byzantine rule and made them safe. She included them in the sphere of influence of Byzantium by preaching Christianity. The activities of missionaries who spread Christianity from the shores of the Black Sea to the plateaus of Abyssinia and the oases of the Sahara were one of the main features of Byzantine politics in the Middle Ages. Besides military expansion, Justinian's other major task was administrative and financial reform. The economy of the empire was in a state of severe crisis, and the administration was plagued by corruption. In order to reorganize the administration of Justinian, a codification of legislation and a number of reforms were carried out, which, although they did not radically solve the problem, undoubtedly had positive consequences. Construction was launched throughout the empire - the largest in scale since the “golden age” of the Antonines. However, greatness was bought at a high price - the economy was undermined by wars, the population became impoverished, and Justinian’s successors (Justin II (565-578), Tiberius II (578-582), Mauritius (582-602)) were forced to focus on defense and shift the direction of policy to the east. Justinian's conquests turned out to be fragile - at the end of the 6th-7th centuries. Byzantium lost all conquered areas in the West (with the exception of Southern Italy). While the Lombard invasion took half of Italy from Byzantium, Armenia was conquered in 591 during the war with Persia, and the confrontation with the Slavs continued in the north. But already at the beginning of the next, 7th century, the Persians resumed hostilities and achieved significant successes as a result of numerous unrest in the empire.

The beginning of a new dynasty and the strengthening of the empire.

In 610, the son of the Carthaginian exarch Heraclius overthrew Emperor Phocas and founded a new dynasty that proved capable of withstanding the dangers threatening the state. This was one of the most difficult periods in the history of Byzantium - the Persians conquered Egypt and threatened Constantinople, Avars, Slavs and Lombards attacked the borders from all sides. Heraclius won a series of victories over the Persians, transferred the war to their territory, after which the death of Shah Khosrow II and a series of uprisings forced them to abandon all conquests and make peace. But the severe exhaustion of both sides in this war prepared favorable conditions for Arab conquests. In 634, Caliph Omar invaded Syria, over the next 40 years Egypt, North Africa, Syria, Palestine, Upper Mesopotamia were lost, and often the population of these areas, exhausted by wars, considered the Arabs, who at first significantly reduced taxes, to be their liberators . The Arabs created a fleet and even besieged Constantinople. But the new emperor, Constantine IV Pogonatus (668-685), repelled their onslaught. Despite a five-year siege of Constantinople (673-678) by land and sea, the Arabs were unable to capture it. The Greek fleet, which was given superiority by the recent invention of "Greek fire", forced the Muslim squadrons to retreat and defeated them in the waters of Syllaeum. On land, the caliphate's troops were defeated in Asia. The empire emerged from this crisis more united and monolithic, its national composition became more homogeneous, religious differences were mostly a thing of the past, since Monophysitism and Arianism became widespread in the now lost Egypt and North Africa. By the end of the 7th century, the territory of Byzantium no longer accounted for more than a third of Justinian's power. Its core consisted of lands inhabited by Greeks or Hellenized tribes who spoke Greek. In the 7th century, significant reforms were carried out in governance - instead of eparchies and exarchates, the empire was divided into themes subordinate to strategists. The new national composition of the state led to the fact that Greek became the official language. In the administration, ancient Latin titles either disappear or are Hellenized, and their place is taken by new names - logothetes, strategoi, eparchs, drungaria. In an army dominated by Asian and Armenian elements, Greek becomes the language in which orders are given. And although the Byzantine Empire continued to be called the Roman Empire until its last day, nevertheless, the Latin language fell out of use.

Isaurian dynasty

At the beginning of the 8th century, temporary stabilization was again replaced by a series of crises - wars with the Bulgarians, Arabs, continuous uprisings... Finally, Leo the Isaurian, who ascended the throne under the name of Emperor Leo III, managed to stop the collapse of the state and inflicted a decisive defeat on the Arabs. After half a century of rule, the two first Isaurians made the empire rich and prosperous, despite the plague that devastated it in 747 and despite the unrest caused by iconoclasm. The support of iconoclasm by the emperors of the Isaurian dynasty was due to both religious and political factors. Many Byzantines at the beginning of the 8th century were dissatisfied with the excess of superstition and especially the worship of icons, belief in their miraculous properties, and the connection of human actions and interests with them. At the same time, the emperors sought to limit the growing power of the church. In addition, by refusing to venerate icons, the Isaurian emperors hoped to get closer to the Arabs, who did not recognize images. The policy of iconoclasm led to discord and unrest, while at the same time increasing the schism in relations with the Roman Church. The restoration of icon veneration occurred only at the end of the 8th century thanks to Empress Irene, the first female empress, but already at the beginning of the 9th century the policy of iconoclasm was continued.

In 800, Charlemagne announced the restoration of the Western Roman Empire, which was a painful humiliation for Byzantium. At the same time, the Baghdad Caliphate intensified its onslaught in the east. Emperor Leo V the Armenian (813-820) and two emperors of the Phrygian dynasty - Michael II (820-829) and Theophilus (829-842) - renewed the policy of iconoclasm. Once again, for thirty years, the empire was in the grip of unrest. The treaty of 812, which recognized Charlemagne as emperor, meant serious territorial losses in Italy, where Byzantium retained only Venice and lands in the south of the peninsula. The war with the Arabs, renewed in 804, led to two serious defeats: the capture of the island of Crete by Muslim pirates (826), who began to devastate the eastern Mediterranean from here with almost impunity, and the conquest of Sicily by North African Arabs (827), who took possession of the city of Palermo. The danger from the Bulgarians was especially formidable since Khan Krum expanded the borders of his empire from Gem to the Carpathians. Nikephoros tried to defeat him by invading Bulgaria, but on the way back he was defeated and died (811), and the Bulgarians, having recaptured Adrianople, appeared at the walls of Constantinople (813). Only the victory of Leo V at Mesemvria (813) saved the empire. The period of unrest ended in 867 with the rise to power of the Macedonian dynasty. Basil I the Macedonian (867-886), Roman Lecapinus (919-944), Nikephoros Phocas (963-969), John Tzimiskes (969-976), Basil II (976-1025) - emperors and usurpers - provided Byzantium with 150 years of prosperity and power. Bulgaria, Crete, and Southern Italy were conquered, and successful military campaigns were carried out against the Arabs deep into Syria. The borders of the empire expanded to the Euphrates and Tigris, Armenia and Iberia entered the sphere of Byzantine influence, John Tzimiskes reached Jerusalem. In the IX-XI centuries. Relations with Kievan Rus became of great importance for Byzantium. After the siege of Constantinople by the Kyiv prince Oleg (907), Byzantium was forced to conclude a trade agreement with Russia, which contributed to the development of trade along the great route from the “Varangians to the Greeks.” At the end of the 10th century, Byzantium fought with Russia (Kiev prince Svyatoslav Igorevich) for Bulgaria and won. Under the Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich, an alliance was concluded between Byzantium and Kievan Rus. Vasily II gave his sister Anna in marriage to the Kyiv prince Vladimir. At the end of the 10th century, Christianity according to the Eastern rite was adopted in Rus' from Byzantium. In 1019, having conquered Bulgaria, Armenia and Iberia, Basil II celebrated with a great triumph the greatest strengthening of the empire since the times preceding the Arab conquests. The brilliant state of finances and the flourishing of culture completed the picture. However, at the same time, the first signs of weakness began to appear, which was expressed in increased feudal fragmentation. The nobility, which controlled vast territories and resources, often successfully opposed themselves to the central government. The decline began after the death of Vasily II, under his brother Constantine VIII (1025-1028) and under the latter’s daughters - first under Zoya and her three successive husbands - Roman III (1028-1034), Michael IV (1034-1041), Constantine Monomakh (1042-1054), with whom she shared the throne (Zoe died in 1050), and then under Theodore (1054-1056). The weakening manifested itself even more sharply after the end of the Macedonian dynasty. By the middle of the 11th century, the main danger was approaching from the east - the Seljuk Turks. As a result of a military coup, Isaac Komnenos (1057-1059) ascended the throne; after his abdication, Constantine X Ducas (1059-1067) became emperor. Then Romanos IV Diogenes (1067-1071) came to power, who was overthrown by Michael VII Ducas (1071-1078); as a result of a new uprising, the crown went to Nicephorus Botaniatus (1078-1081). During these short reigns, anarchy grew and the internal and external crisis from which the empire suffered became more and more severe. Italy was lost by the middle of the 11th century under the onslaught of the Normans, but the main danger loomed from the east - in 1071 Romanos IV Diogenes was defeated by the Seljuk Turks near Manazkert (Armenia), and Byzantium was never able to recover from this defeat. Over the next two decades, the Turks occupied all of Anatolia; The Empire could not create an army large enough to stop them. In desperation, Emperor Alexius I Komnenos (1081-1118) asked the Pope in 1095 to help him obtain an army from Western Christendom. Relations with the West were predetermined by the events of 1204 (the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders and the collapse of the country), and the uprisings of the feudal lords undermined the last strength of the country. In 1081, the Komnenos dynasty (1081-1204) - representatives of the feudal aristocracy - came to the throne. The Turks remained in Iconium (Konya Sultanate); in the Balkans, with the help of the expanding Hungary, the Slavic peoples created almost independent states; Finally, the West also posed a serious danger in light of the aggressive aspirations of Byzantium, the ambitious political plans generated by the First Crusade, and the economic claims of Venice.

XII-XIII centuries.

Under the Comnenians, the main role in the Byzantine army began to be played by heavily armed cavalry (cataphracts) and mercenary troops from foreigners. The strengthening of the state and army allowed the Komnenos to repel the Norman offensive in the Balkans, conquer a significant part of Asia Minor from the Seljuks, and establish sovereignty over Antioch. Manuel I forced Hungary to recognize the sovereignty of Byzantium (1164) and established his power in Serbia. But overall the situation continued to be difficult. The behavior of Venice was especially dangerous - the former purely Greek city became a rival and enemy of the empire, creating strong competition for its trade. In 1176, the Byzantine army was defeated by the Turks at Myriokephalon. On all borders, Byzantium was forced to go on the defensive. Byzantium's policy towards the crusaders was to bind their leaders with vassal bonds and, with their help, return territories in the east, but this did not bring much success. Relations with the crusaders constantly deteriorated. The Second Crusade, led by the French king Louis VII and the German king Conrad III, was organized after the conquest of Edessa by the Seljuks in 1144. The Comneni dreamed of restoring their power over Rome, either through force or through an alliance with the papacy, and destroying the Western Empire, the fact of which always seemed to them a usurpation of their rights. Manuel I especially tried to fulfill these dreams. It seemed that Manuel had gained the empire incomparable glory throughout the world and made Constantinople the center of European politics; but when he died in 1180, Byzantium found itself ruined and hated by the Latins, ready to attack it at any moment. At the same time, a serious internal crisis was brewing in the country. After the death of Manuel I, a popular uprising broke out in Constantinople (1181), caused by dissatisfaction with the policies of the government, which patronized Italian merchants, as well as Western European knights who entered the service of the emperors. The country was experiencing a deep economic crisis: feudal fragmentation and the virtual independence of provincial rulers from the central government intensified, cities fell into decay, and the army and navy weakened. The collapse of the empire began. In 1187 Bulgaria fell away; in 1190 Byzantium was forced to recognize the independence of Serbia.

When Enrico Dandolo became the Doge of Venice in 1192, the idea arose that the best way to both resolve the crisis and satisfy the accumulated hatred of the Latins, and to ensure the interests of Venice in the East would be the conquest of the Byzantine Empire. The hostility of the pope, the harassment of Venice, the embitterment of the entire Latin world - all this taken together predetermined the fact that the fourth crusade (1202-1204) turned against Constantinople instead of Palestine. Exhausted, weakened by the onslaught of the Slavic states, Byzantium was unable to resist the crusaders. In 1204, the Crusader army captured Constantinople. Byzantium broke up into a number of states - the Latin Empire and the Achaean Principality, created in the territories captured by the crusaders, and the Nicaea, Trebizond and Epirus empires - which remained under the control of the Greeks. The Latins suppressed Greek culture in Byzantium, and the dominance of Italian traders prevented the revival of Byzantine cities. The position of the Latin Empire was very precarious - the hatred of the Greeks and the attacks of the Bulgarians greatly weakened it, so that in 1261, the emperor of the Nicaean Empire, Michael Palaiologos, with the support of the Greek population of the Latin Empire, having recaptured Constantinople and defeated the Latin Empire, announced the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. In 1337 Epirus joined it. But the Achaean Principality - the only viable Crusader entity in Greece - survived until the conquest of the Ottoman Turks, as did the Empire of Trebizond. It was no longer possible to restore the Byzantine Empire intact. Michael VIII Palaiologos (1261-1282) tried to achieve this, and although he was not able to fully realize his aspirations, nevertheless, his efforts, practical talents and flexible mind make him the last significant emperor of Byzantium.

Invasion of the Turks. Fall of Byzantium.

The conquests of the Ottoman Turks began to threaten the very existence of the country. Murad I (1359-1389) conquered Thrace (1361), which John V Palaiologos was forced to recognize for him (1363); then he captured Philippopolis, and soon Adrianople, where he moved his capital (1365). Constantinople, isolated, surrounded, cut off from other regions, awaited behind its walls a mortal blow that seemed inevitable. Meanwhile, the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Balkan Peninsula. At Maritsa they defeated the southern Serbs and Bulgarians (1371); they founded their colonies in Macedonia and began to threaten Thessalonica (1374); they invaded Albania (1386), defeated the Serbian Empire and, after the Battle of Kosovo, turned Bulgaria into a Turkish pashalyk (1393). John V Palaiologos was forced to recognize himself as a vassal of the Sultan, pay him tribute and supply him with contingents of troops to capture Philadelphia (1391) - the last stronghold that Byzantium still owned in Asia Minor.

Bayazid I (1389-1402) acted even more energetically in relation to the Byzantine Empire. He blockaded the capital on all sides (1391-1395), and when the West's attempt to save Byzantium at the Battle of Nicopolis (1396) failed, he attempted to storm Constantinople (1397) and simultaneously invaded the Morea. The invasion of the Mongols and the crushing defeat inflicted by Timur on the Turks at Angora (Ankara) (1402) gave the empire another twenty years of respite. But in 1421 Murad II (1421-1451) resumed the offensive. He attacked, although unsuccessfully, Constantinople, which vigorously resisted (1422); he captured Thessalonica (1430), purchased in 1423 by the Venetians from the Byzantines; one of his generals entered the Morea (1423); he himself successfully acted in Bosnia and Albania and forced the ruler of Wallachia to pay tribute. The Byzantine Empire, brought to the extreme, now owned, in addition to Constantinople and the neighboring region to Dercon and Selimvria, only several separate regions scattered along the coast: Anchial, Mesemvria, Athos and the Peloponnese, which, having been almost completely conquered from the Latins, became, as it were, the center Greek nation. Despite the heroic efforts of Janos Hunyadi, who defeated the Turks at Jalovac in 1443, despite the resistance of Skanderbeg in Albania, the Turks stubbornly pursued their goals. In 1444, the last serious attempt of Eastern Christians to resist the Turks ended in defeat at the Battle of Varna. The Duchy of Athens submitted to them, the Principality of Morea, conquered by the Turks in 1446, was forced to recognize itself as a tributary; in the second battle of Kosovo (1448), Janos Hunyadi was defeated. All that remained was Constantinople - an impregnable citadel that embodied the entire empire. But the end was near for him too. Mehmed II, ascending the throne (1451), firmly intended to take possession of it. On April 5, 1453, the Turks began the siege of Constantinople, a famous impregnable fortress. Even earlier, the Sultan built the Rumeli fortress (Rumelihisar) on the Bosporus, which cut off communications between Constantinople and the Black Sea, and at the same time sent an expedition to the Morea to prevent the Greek despots of Mystras from providing assistance to the capital. Against the colossal Turkish army, consisting of approximately 160 thousand people, Emperor Constantine XI Dragash was able to field barely 9 thousand soldiers, of whom at least half were foreigners; The Byzantines, hostile to the church union concluded by their emperor, did not feel the desire to fight. However, despite the power of Turkish artillery, the first attack was repulsed (April 18). Mehmed II managed to lead his fleet into the Golden Horn Bay and thus endanger another section of the fortifications. However, the assault on May 7 failed again. But in the city rampart on the approaches to the gate of St. Romana had made a hole. On the night of May 28 to May 29, 1453, the last attack began. Twice the Turks were repulsed; then Mehmed sent the Janissaries to attack. At the same time, the Genoese Giustiniani Longo, who was the soul of defense along with the emperor, was seriously wounded and was forced to leave his post. This disorganized the defense. The emperor continued to fight valiantly, but part of the enemy army, having captured the underground passage from the fortress - the so-called Xyloporta, attacked the defenders from the rear. That was the end. Konstantin Dragash died in battle. The Turks captured the city. Robberies and murders began in captured Constantinople; more than 60 thousand people were captured.

Culture of Byzantium.

Formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system.

The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be

considered as the most important stage in the formation of a worldview

Byzantine society, based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism

and principles of Christianity.

The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and lengthy process. Christianity absorbed many philosophical and religious teachings of that time. Christian dogma developed under the strong influence of Middle Eastern religious teachings, Judaism, and Manichaeism. Christianity itself was not only a syncretic religious teaching, but also a synthetic philosophical and religious system, an important component of which were ancient philosophical teachings. This, perhaps, explains to some extent the fact that Christianity not only fought against ancient philosophy, but also used it for its own purposes. The irreconcilability of Christianity with everything that bore the stigma of paganism is being replaced by a compromise between the Christian and ancient worldviews.

The most educated and far-sighted Christian theologians understood the need to master the entire arsenal of pagan culture in order to use it in the creation of philosophical concepts. In the works of Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus, in the speeches of John Chrysostom, one can see a combination of the ideas of early Christianity with Neoplatonic philosophy, sometimes a paradoxical interweaving

rhetorical ideas with new ideological content. Thinkers like

Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa and Gregory of Nazianzus,

lay the actual foundation of Byzantine philosophy. Their

philosophical constructs are deeply rooted in the history of Hellenic

thinking

In the transitional era of the death of the slave system and

formation of feudal society, fundamental changes occur in all

spheres of spiritual life of Byzantium. A new aesthetic is born, a new

a system of spiritual and moral values that is more appropriate

mindset and emotional needs of medieval man.

Patriotic literature, biblical cosmography, liturgical

poetry, monastic stories, world chronicles, permeated with a religious worldview, little by little take possession of the minds of Byzantine society and replace ancient culture.

The man of that era himself changes, his vision of the world, his attitude

to the universe, nature, society. A new one is created, compared to

antiquity, the “image of the world”, embodied in a special sign system

characters. In place of the ancient idea of a heroic personality,

The ancient understanding of the world as a world of laughing gods and heroes fearlessly going to death, where the highest good is to fear nothing and hope for nothing, comes the world of a suffering, torn by contradictions, small, sinful person. He is infinitely humiliated and weak, but he believes in his salvation in another life and tries to find consolation in this. Christianity reveals with unprecedented intensity the painful division within the human personality. A person’s idea of space, time, space, and the course of history is also changing.

In early Byzantium one of the fundamental ideas crystallizes

Middle Ages - the idea of the union of the Christian church and the "Christian

empire."

The spiritual life of the society of that time was characterized by dramatic tension; in all spheres of knowledge, there is an amazing mixture of pagan and Christian ideas, images, ideas, a colorful combination of pagan mythology with Christian mysticism. The era of the formation of a new, medieval culture gives birth to talented thinkers, writers, and poets, sometimes marked with the stamp of genius.

Radical changes are taking place in the field of fine arts

and aesthetic views of Byzantine society. Byzantine aesthetics

developed on the basis of the entire spiritual culture of Byzantium. A distinctive feature of Byzantine aesthetics was its deep spiritualism. Giving preference to the spirit over the body, she at the same time tried to remove the dualism of earthly and heavenly, divine and human, spirit and flesh. Without denying physical beauty, Byzantine thinkers placed the beauty of the soul, virtue, and moral perfection much higher. The early Christian understanding of the world as a beautiful creation of a divine artist was of great importance for the establishment of Byzantine aesthetic consciousness. That is why natural beauty was valued higher than beauty created by human hands, as if “secondary” in origin.

Byzantine art was derived from Hellenistic and Eastern Christian art. In the early period, Byzantine art seemed to merge the platonicism and sensuality of late antique impressionism with the naive, sometimes crude expressiveness of the folk art of the East. For a long time, Hellenism remained the main, but not the only, source from which Byzantine masters drew elegance of forms, correct proportions, enchanting transparency of the color scheme, and technical perfection of their works. But Hellenism could not fully resist the powerful stream of eastern influences that surged into Byzantium in the first

centuries of its existence. At this time, the impact on

Byzantine art Egyptian, Syrian, Malaysian, Iranian

artistic traditions.

In the IV-V centuries. in the art of Byzantium the late antique elements were still strong

traditions. If classical ancient art was different

peaceful monism, if it did not know the struggle between spirit and body, and its

the aesthetic ideal embodied the harmonious unity of the physical and spiritual

beauty, then already in late antique artistic creativity it is planned

tragic conflict of spirit and flesh. Monistic harmony is replaced

collision of opposite principles, “the spirit seems to be trying to throw off

the shackles of the bodily shell." Subsequently, Byzantine art

overcame the conflict of spirit and body, it was replaced by a calm

contemplation, designed to lead a person away from the storms of earthly life into

supersensible world of pure spirit. This "pacification" occurs in

as a result of recognizing the superiority of the spiritual principle over the physical,

victory of the spirit over the flesh.

In the VI-VII centuries. Byzantine artists managed not only to absorb these

diverse influences, but also, having overcome them, create your own

style in art. From this time on, Constantinople turns into

renowned artistic center of the medieval world, the Palladium

sciences and arts." He is followed by Ravenna, Rome, Nicaea, Thessalonica,

also became the focus of the Byzantine artistic style.

The flourishing of Byzantine art in the early period is associated with the strengthening of the power of the empire under Justinian. At this time, magnificent palaces and temples were erected in Constantinople. Built in the 30s of the 6th century, the building became an unsurpassed masterpiece of Byzantine creativity. Church of St. Sofia. For the first time, it embodied the idea of a grandiose centric temple topped with a dome. The shine of multi-colored marbles, the shimmer of gold and precious utensils, the radiance of many lamps created the illusion of the boundlessness of the cathedral space, turned it into a semblance of a macrocosm, and symbolically brought it closer to the image of the Universe. No wonder it always remained the main shrine of Byzantium.

Another masterpiece of Byzantine architecture is the Church of St. Vitaliy in Ravenna - amazes with the sophistication and elegance of its architectural forms.

Its famous mosaics brought particular fame to this temple not only

ecclesiastical, but also secular in nature, in particular images

Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora and their retinue. The faces of Justinian and Theodora are endowed with portrait features, the color scheme of the mosaics is distinguished by full-blooded brightness, warmth and freshness.

In painting of the VI-VII centuries. a specifically Byzantine image, purified of foreign influences, crystallizes. It is based on experience

masters of the East and West, who came independently from each other to

creation of new art corresponding to spiritualistic

ideals of medieval society. In this art appear already

various directions and schools. The capital's school, for example, was different

excellent workmanship, refined artistry,

picturesqueness and colorful diversity, reverence and

iridescent colors. One of the most perfect works of this

schools had mosaics in the dome of the Church of the Assumption in Nicaea.

Other trends in the art of early Byzantium, embodied in

mosaics of Ravenna, Sinaia, Thessalonica, Cyprus, Parenzo, mark the refusal

Byzantine masters from ancient reminiscences. The images become

more ascetic, not only to the sensual, but also to the emotional moment

there is no longer any place in such art, but spirituality reaches extraordinary

Church worship became a kind of

lush mystery. It’s twilight in the twilight of the vaults of Byzantine temples

many candles and lamps shone, illuminating them with mysterious reflections

gold mosaics, dark faces of icons, multi-colored marble colonnades,

magnificent precious utensils. All this was supposed to be

church, to eclipse in the human soul the emotional elation of the ancient

tragedies, healthy fun of mimes, vain excitement of circus shows and

to give him joy in the everyday life of real life.

In the applied art of Byzantium to a lesser extent than in architecture

and painting, the leading line of development of Byzantine

art, reflecting the formation of the medieval worldview.

The vitality of ancient traditions was manifested here both in images and

forms of artistic expression. At the same time, they also penetrated here

gradually the artistic traditions of the peoples of the East. Here, even in

less than in Western Europe, the impact of

barbarian world.

Music occupied a special place in Byzantine civilization.

affect the character of the musical culture that represented

a complex and multifaceted phenomenon of the spiritual life of the era. In the V-VII centuries.

The formation of Christian liturgy took place, new genres of vocal art developed. Music acquires a special civil status and is included in the system of representation of state power. The music of city streets, theatrical and circus performances and folk festivals retained a special flavor, reflecting the rich song and musical practice of many peoples inhabiting the empire. Christianity very early appreciated the special capabilities of music as a universal art and at the same time possessing the power of mass and individual psychological influence, and included it in its cult ritual. It was cult music that was destined to occupy a dominant position in medieval Byzantium.

In the life of the broad masses they still played a huge role

mass spectacles. True, the ancient theater began to decline -

ancient tragedies and comedies are increasingly being replaced by mime performances,

jugglers, dancers, gymnasts, wild animal tamers. Place

The theater is now occupied by a circus (hippodrome) with its horse shows,

enjoying enormous popularity.

The culture of early Byzantium was an urban culture. Big cities

empires, and primarily Constantinople, were not only centers

crafts and trade, but also centers of the highest culture and education,

where the rich heritage of antiquity was preserved.

The struggle between secular and ecclesiastical cultures is especially characteristic of

first period of Byzantine history. In the history of Byzantine culture

The first centuries of the existence of Byzantium were a time of intense ideological struggle, a clash of contradictory tendencies, complex ideological collisions, but also a time of fruitful quest, intense spiritual creativity, and positive development of science and art. These were centuries when, in the throes of the struggle between the old and the new, the culture of the future medieval society was born.

The time of greatest power and

the highest point of cultural development.

The defining feature of the spiritual life of the empire by the middle of VII

century, the Christian worldview became the undivided dominance.

Deep religiosity was now feigned not so much by dogmatic

disputes about how much of the offensive of Islam, which was led by the Arabs, was inspired

"holy war" and the fight against pagans - Slavs and pro-Bulgarians.

The role of the church increased even more. Instability of life's foundations,

economic and everyday instability of the masses of the population, poverty and

constant danger from an external enemy has exacerbated religious

feeling of the subjects of the empire: the spirit of humility before

vicissitudes of “this world”, resigned submission to “spiritual

shepherds", boundless faith in signs and wonders, in salvation through

self-denial and prayer. The class of monks increased rapidly,

the number of monasteries increased. The cult of saints flourished as never before.

The widespread spread of superstitions helped the church to dominate

minds of parishioners, increase their wealth and strengthen their position.

This was also facilitated by a decline in the literacy level of the population, extreme

narrowing of secular knowledge.

However, the triumph of theology, the assertion of its dominance with the help

violence posed a serious danger - theology could turn out to be

powerless in the face of criticism from infidels and heretics. Like any

The ideological system of Christianity needed development.

The need for this was realized in the narrow circles of the church elite,

preserving the traditions of high religious and secular education.

Systematization of theology became the primary task, and for this

had to resort again to the spiritual treasures of antiquity - without it

idealistic theories and formal logic, the new tasks of theologians were

impossible.

Search for original philosophical and theological solutions

were undertaken already in the second half of the 7th century, although most

outstanding works in this area were created in the next century.

Characteristic in this regard is the fact that against the general background of decline

culture in the middle of the 7th century, in essence only theology experienced

a certain rise: this was required by the vital interests of the ruling

elites, presented as an urgent need for the broadest sections of society.

John of Damascus set himself and fulfilled two main

tasks: he sharply criticized the enemies of orthodoxy (Nestorians, Manichaeans, iconoclasts) and systematized theology as a worldview, as a special system of ideas about God, the creation of the world and man, defining its place in this and the other worlds.

Compilation based on Aristotelian logic represented the main method of his work. He also used the natural scientific ideas of the ancients, but carefully selected from them, as well as from the dogmas of his theologian predecessors, only that which in no way contradicted the canons of the ecumenical councils.

In essence, the work of Damascus, even by medieval standards

lacks originality. His works played a major role in the ideological struggle

with iconoclasm, but not because they contained new arguments in defense

traditional ideas and religious rituals, and thanks to the elimination of contradictions from church dogmas, bringing them into a coherent system.

A significant step forward in the development of theological science, in

development of new ideas concerning the problems of the relationship between spirit and matter,

expression of thought and its perception, the relationship between God and man, was made

during fierce disputes between iconoclasts and icon worshipers.

But in general, until the middle of the 9th century. philosophers and theologians remained within the circle of traditional ideas of late antique Christianity.

The ideological struggle of the era of iconoclasm, which took an acute political form, and the spread of the Paulican heresy made

the obvious need to improve education

clergy and representatives of the upper strata of society. In the setting

general rise of spiritual culture, a new direction in scientific and

philosophical thought of Byzantium was outlined in the works of Patriarch Photius,

who did more than anyone else before him for the revival and

development of sciences in the empire. Photius made a new assessment and selection of scientific and

literary works of the previous era and modern times, based

not only on church doctrine, but also on considerations

rationalism and practical benefit and trying to explain the causes of natural phenomena through natural science knowledge. The rise of rationalist thought in the era of Photius, accompanied by a new increase in interest in antiquity, became even more noticeable in the 11th-12th centuries. But contradictions clearly emerged in the interpretation of the idealistic concepts of antiquity between the adherents of Aristotle and Plato. After an era of long-term preference given by Byzantine theologians to the teachings of Aristotle, from the 11th century. in the development of philosophical thought there was a turn towards platonism and neoplatonism. A prominent representative of this particular direction was Mikhail Psell. For all his admiration for ancient thinkers and for all his dependence on the positions of the classics of antiquity that he quoted, Psellus remained nevertheless a very original philosopher, able, like no one else, to combine and reconcile the theses of ancient philosophy and Christian spiritualism, to subordinate even the mysterious prophecies of the occult to orthodox dogma. Sci.

However, no matter how careful and skillful the attempts of intellectual

In order for the Byzantine elite to preserve and cultivate the rationalistic elements of ancient science, a sharp clash turned out to be inevitable: an example of this is the excommunication and condemnation of the philosopher John Italus, a student of Psellus. Plato's ideas were driven into the rigid framework of theology.

Rationalistic tendencies in Byzantine philosophy will be resurrected

now not soon, only in the context of the growing crisis of the 13th-15th centuries.

The general decline of creative activity in the "dark ages" with particular force

affected the state of Byzantine literature. Vulgarization,

lack of literary taste, “dark” style, formulaic

characteristics and situations - all this was established for a long time as

the dominant features of works of literature created in the second

half of the 7th - first half of the 9th century. Imitation of antiquity

the models no longer found an echo in society. Main customer and

The black clergy became connoisseurs of literary work. There were monks

came to the fore. Preaching of asceticism, humility, hopes for a miracle

and otherworldly retribution, glorification of religious feats - the main thing

Byzantine hagiography reached particular heights in the 9th century. IN

mid-10th century about one and a half hundred of the most popular lives were

processed and rewritten by the prominent chronicler Simeon Metaphrastus. The decline of the genre became apparent in the 11th century: instead of naive but lively descriptions, dry schemes, stereotyped images, and stenciled scenes of the lives of saints began to dominate.

At the same time, the hagiographic genre, which has invariably enjoyed the widest

popular among the masses, had a noticeable influence on

development of Byzantine literature in both the 10th and 11th centuries. Vulgarization

often combined with vivid imagery, realistic descriptions,

the vitality of details, the dynamism of the plot. Among the heroes of lives, it is often

turned out to be the poor and offended, who, committing martyrdom for the glory of God, boldly entered into struggle with the strong and rich, with

injustice, untruth and evil. A note of humanism and mercy -

an integral element of many Byzantine lives.

Religious themes dominated in this era and in poetic

works. Some of them directly related to the liturgical

poetry (church chants, hymns), part was dedicated, like

hagiography, glorification of religious feat. Yes, Fedor Studit

sought to poeticize monastic ideals and the very routine

monastic life.

The revival of the literary tradition, which consisted in focusing on

masterpieces of antiquity and their reinterpretation, which became especially noticeable in

XI-XII centuries, which affected the choice of subjects, genres, and

artistic forms. During this period, plots and forms of both Eastern and Western literature were boldly borrowed. Translations and revisions from Arabic and Latin are carried out. Experiments with poetic compositions in popular, spoken language appear. For the first time in the history of Byzantium since the 4th century. took shape and began to gradually expand from the 12th century. cycle of vernacular literature. The enrichment of the ideological and artistic content of literature by strengthening the folk tradition and heroic epic is most clearly represented in the epic poem about Digenis Akritos, created on the basis of a cycle of folk songs in the 10th-11th centuries. Folklore motifs also penetrate into the Hellenistic love-adventure novel, which was revived at that time.

The second period also saw the rise of the Byzantine

aesthetics. Development of aesthetic thought in the VIII-IX centuries. was stimulated

the struggle over cult images. Icon worshipers had to

summarize the main Christian concepts of image and based on them

develop a theory of the relationship between image and archetype, first of all

in relation to fine arts. Functions have been studied

image in the spiritual culture of the past, a comparative analysis was carried out

symbolic and mimetic (imitative) images, in a new way

the relationship between the image and the word is meaningful, the problem of priority is posed

painting in religious culture.

There was a renewed interest in human physical beauty; the aesthetics of eroticism, condemned by religious rigorists, received new life; Secular art again enjoyed special attention. The theory of symbolism, especially the concept of allegory, also gained new impulses; gardening art began to be valued; The revival also affected dramatic art, the understanding of which was devoted to special works.

In general, aesthetic thought in Byzantium in the 8th-12th centuries. reached,

perhaps the highest point of its development, exerting a strong influence on

artistic practice of a number of other countries in Europe and Asia.

The crisis phenomena of the transitional era in Byzantine culture were

especially protracted in the field of fine arts of the 7th-9th centuries, on

whose fate was affected more strongly than in other industries

iconoclasm. Development of the most popular, religious species

fine arts (icon painting and fresco painting)

resumed only after 843, i.e. after the victory of icon veneration.

The peculiarity of the new stage was that, on the one hand, it was noticeable

the influence of ancient tradition has increased, and on the other hand, more and more

developed in that era acquired a stable framework

iconographic canon with its stable norms regarding choice

plot, relationship of figures, their very poses, selection of colors, distribution

chiaroscuro, etc. This canon will be strictly followed in the future.

Byzantine artists. The creation of a pictorial stencil was accompanied

increased stylization designed to serve the purpose of transmission through

a visual image not so much of a human face as of a prisoner

this image of a religious idea.

During this period, the art of color reached a new peak.

mosaic image. In the IX-XI centuries. old ones were also restored

monuments. Mosaics were also renewed in the church of St. Sofia. New ones have appeared

plots that reflected the idea of a union of church and state.

In the IX-X centuries. the decoration of manuscripts became significantly enriched and complicated,

Book miniatures and ornaments became richer and more varied. However

a truly new period in the development of book miniatures falls on

XI-XII centuries, when the Constantinople school flourished

masters in this field of art. In that era, generally the leading role in

painting in general (in icon painting, miniature, fresco) acquired capital

schools marked with the stamp of special perfection of taste and technique.

In the VII-VIII centuries. in temple construction of Byzantium and countries

The Byzantine cultural circle was dominated by the same cross-dome composition that arose in the 6th century. and was characterized

weakly expressed external decorative design. The decor of the facade acquired great importance in the 9th-10th centuries, when it arose and received

spread of a new architectural style. The emergence of a new style was associated with the flourishing of cities, the strengthening of the social role of the church, and a change in the social content of the very concept of sacred architecture in general and temple construction in particular (the temple as an image of the world). Many new churches were erected, a large number of monasteries were built, although they were, as a rule, small in size.

In addition to changes in the decorative design of buildings, there were also changes

architectural forms, the very composition of buildings. The value increased

vertical lines and divisions of the facade, which also changed the silhouette of the temple.

Builders increasingly resorted to using patterned brickwork.

The features of the new architectural style appeared in a number of local schools.

In the VIII-XII centuries. a special musical and poetic

church art. Thanks to his high artistic merits, the influence on church music and folk music, the melodies of which previously penetrated even the liturgy, weakened.

However, musical theoretical monuments allow us to conclude that the ichos system did not exclude scale understanding. The most popular genre of church music has become the canon.

The progress of musical art led to the creation of musical notation, as well as liturgical handwritten collections in which chants were recorded.

Social life also could not exist without music. The book “On the Ceremonies of the Byzantine Court” reports almost 400 chants. These are procession songs, and songs during equestrian processions, and songs at the imperial feast, and acclamation songs, etc.

From the 9th century In the circles of the intellectual elite, interest in ancient musical culture grew, although this interest was predominantly of a theoretical nature: attention was attracted not so much by the music itself, but by the works of ancient Greek music theorists.

Byzantium at this time reached its highest power and the highest point of cultural development. In the social development and evolution of the culture of Byzantium, contradictory trends are obvious, due to its middle position between East and West.

Conclusion.

Literature.

1. http://www.bankreferatov.ru:

"Culture of Byzantium" in three volumes. Ed. "SCIENCE", Moscow 1984,1989

2. http://www.netkniga.ru: Vasiliev A.A. History of the Byzantine Empire, Volume I. Time before the Crusades until 1081

Vasiliev A.A.. History of the Byzantine Empire, Volume II. From the beginning of the Crusades to the fall of Constantinople

Charles Diehl, “History of the Byzantine Empire” (1948 edition, the book itself was written in 1919)

3. http://www.gumer.info

4. http://www.ancientrome.ru

5. http://www.chrono.ru:

History of Byzantium, vol. 1, M., 1967, ch. 10-14. 3. V. Udaltsova.

Abstract on the topic: The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Christian world. Completed by: Kushtukov A.A. Checked by: Tsybzhitova A.B. 2007 Contents. Introduction

The Byzantine Empire is rightly considered the direct successor of the Roman Empire. It existed for more than a millennium, and even after the attack of the barbarians, which was successfully repelled, it remained the most powerful Christian state for several centuries.

Main features of the Byzantine Empire

First of all, it should be said that the name “Byzantium” did not appear immediately - until the 15th century, this state was called the Eastern Roman Empire. This empire was located in the east of the Mediterranean, and during its heyday it had lands in Europe, Asia and even Africa.

Thanks to the Mediterranean climate, agriculture and cattle breeding in the country developed and flourished. Also, mineral resources such as gold, tin, copper, silver and more were actively mined on its territory. But what was important was not only its ability to provide itself with everything necessary, but also the fact that the empire had a very advantageous location: for example, the Great Silk Road to China passed through it. The route of incense covered 11 thousand kilometers, it passed through many important points and brought the state a considerable part of its wealth.

The Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Christian world were connected by an equally famous route - “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” which began in Scandinavia and, passing through Eastern Europe, led to Byzantium.

The capital of the Byzantine Empire was Constantinople.

TOP 4 articleswho are reading along with this

Rice. 1. Constantinople.

The population of the state was very high - no European country could boast of so many people. For example, in the Middle Ages, 35 million people lived in Byzantium - a very large number for those times. The bulk of the population spoke Greek and were carriers of Hellenic culture, but in Byzantium there was a place for Syrians, Arabs, Egyptians, and representatives of other ethnic groups.

Two traditions in the life of the Byzantines: ancient and Christian

Byzantium preserved its ancient heritage longer than the states of Western Europe, since it became the cornerstone of its state structure. Like the Romans, the Byzantines had two favorite entertainments: theatrical performances and equestrian competitions.

However, by the 8th century, the Christian tradition became dominant: all genres of art glorified God and his devotees. Thus, the most widespread genre of literature is the lives of saints, and painting is iconography. Outstanding figures of this period are Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom and Basil the Great.

Rice. 2. John Chrysostom.

It was in Byzantium that the cross-domed type of church arose, which would later become the main architectural direction in the construction of churches in Ancient Rus'. Churches were decorated with mosaics - this is another characteristic feature of the Byzantine church tradition.

Rice. 3. A sample of Byzantine mosaic.

Interesting: Education in Byzantium was very developed and accessible to all - even a poor person could go to school and then apply for a government position, which was both honorable and profitable.

What have we learned?

How many centuries did the Byzantine Empire last and when did its name, which is accepted now, appear, what main features did it have, and what city was its capital. The features of its culture, which mixed ancient and Christian traditions, were also examined. Particular attention is paid to the advantageousness of its geographical location: the route from the Varangians to the Greeks and the Great Silk Road ran through Byzantium. Special attention is also paid to architecture and education, as well as literature and the way of life of the Byzantines in general: its characteristic features are listed.

Evaluation of the report

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Abstract on the topic:

Byzantine Empire and

Eastern Christian world.

Completed by: Kushtukov A.A.

Checked by: Tsybzhitova A.B.

2007.

Introduction 3

History of Byzantium 4

Division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires 4

Becoming an independent Byzantium 4

Justinian Dynasty 5

The beginning of a new dynasty and the strengthening of the empire 7

Isaurian Dynasty 7

9th – 11th centuries 8

XII – XIII centuries 10

Invasion of the Turks. Fall of Byzantium 11

Byzantine culture 14

Formation of Christianity

as a philosophical and religious system 14

The time of greatest power and

. 18

Conclusion 24

Literature 25

Introduction.

History of Byzantium.

Division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires

The formation of independent Byzantium

Dynasty of Justinian.

The beginning of a new dynasty and the strengthening of the empire.

Isaurian dynasty

XII-XIII centuries.

Invasion of the Turks. Fall of Byzantium.

Culture of Byzantium.