A study of the socio-economic development of Italy in the 20th century. The state of industrial production and accession to the Common Market (EU). Study of problems arising from the gap between supply and demand. Consideration of the "economic miracle" in Italy.

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The industrial development of Italy began at the end of the 19th century. Fascist policies and the global economic crisis encouraged industrial restructuring but not expansion, and by the end of World War II nearly half the working population was employed in agriculture. However, since the 1950s, the Italian economy has undergone strong changes, and by the 1990s, manufacturing and mining, together with construction, were already generating approx. 33% of GDP, and the non-manufacturing sector (including trade, banking and management) another 63%, while the share of agriculture fell to 4%.

Between 1950 and 1964 industrial production almost doubled. Finished industrial goods replaced semi-finished products as the main export items, while the volume of imports of raw materials and capital goods increased. Between 1963 and 1974, production growth was 4.7% per year. In the early 1970s, Northern Italy became one of the most developed industrial areas in Europe.

Introduction to the so-called The Common Market (European Economic Community) in 1957 became an important factor in increasing the volume of Italian exports.

In 1973-1974, when oil prices quadrupled, this led to a significant increase in the country's balance of payments deficit. Inflation reached 21.1% in 1980 and remained at 9.9% per year throughout the 1980s. However, the decade was characterized by economic growth, significant increases in exports, a reduction in the trade deficit, significant gains for small businesses, and profits for public sector enterprises. In 1984-1992, annual economic growth was 2.5%, while in terms of GDP, Italy held third place in Europe after Germany and France.

Despite the recovery of the Italian economy in the 1980s, underlying structural problems were never resolved and became apparent in the 1990s. The Italian public sector deficit grew from 84.6% of GDP in 1985 to 103% in 1992. To meet the EU conditions set out in the 1991 Maastricht Agreement, the Italian government tried to reduce public debt and budget deficits, but in 1992 the debt still remained at 10.7% of GDP (6 times higher than the average for countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development - OECD). Enormous public debt and the persistent excess of expenditures over revenues in the public sector were the main reasons for the depreciation of the Italian lira by 7% in September 1992 and the adoption by the Italian government of a package of emergency financial and fiscal measures in 1992 and 1993.

Another important structural problem was the widening gap between output and wealth levels in the North and South. After 1945, southern Italy experienced radical social and economic changes. The rural population there decreased in the 1950s and 1960s due to its outflow to the growing industrial cities of Northern Italy, other EU countries and the USA, while incomes, living standards, education and employment levels increased. However, the gap between South and North became even deeper, important reasons for the South's lagging behind were the high concentration of population in the main cities (especially Naples, Catania and Palermo) and limited employment opportunities, lack of housing, unfavorable conditions for education and social assistance.

State planning and economic development. After 1945, the Italian state played the most direct role in economic development. Politically, this was dictated by the need for post-war economic recovery, reducing unemployment and dependence on imports, and reducing the imbalance between North and South. This was ensured by central economic planning, the practice of which remained from the Mussolini regime. In 1933, in response to the global economic crisis and the threat of collapse of the Italian banking system, Mussolini's government established the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IPR). He acquired a significant part of the leading industries in Italy, and by the 1950s the state completely controlled such sectors of the economy as metallurgy, mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, chemical and cement industries, air and road transport, telecommunications and television. The state oil and gas association ENI, founded by Enrico Mattei in the 1950s, was involved in the development of natural gas and oil fields and had branches in many other industries. The state also owned holding companies for electricity production, mineral extraction and manufacturing. In the 1950s, these companies played an important role in transforming the Italian economy, but by the mid-1960s they had become unprofitable and, amid their economic difficulties, new private sector giants began to rise, such as the chemical company Montadison (from the merger "Montecatini" and "Edison"). However, the distinction between public and private enterprises was not always clearly defined, and the private sector giants in turn became increasingly dependent on the state. During the 1980s, IPR and ENI underwent restructuring under Romano Prodi and Franco Reviglio, respectively.

The South remained an important target of state intervention in the post-war Italian economy. Strategies for its development were developed by the state credit and financial institution "Cass of the South" and the Southern Development Association. In the 1950s, these organizations focused on building infrastructure (roads, electrification, agricultural credit). Both the construction of a network of modern highways and government investment in the South increased employment levels (mainly in the service sector). This program was accompanied by a massive outflow of population from rural areas, which was partly reminiscent of previous scenarios of migration abroad, but this time a significant part of the population settled in the rapidly developing industrial centers of the North. Once the growth rate of the Italian economy slowed in the 1960s, planning strategy in the South was reoriented to encourage the development of heavy industry. The essence of the idea was to create “poles of industrial gravity” around Naples, Taranto and Brindisi, but this strategy turned out to be ineffective. In the South, in the 1960s, only two large industrial concerns were created: the Montadison petrochemical plants in Brindisi and the large Fiat automobile plant near Naples. This strategy gave rise to numerous "temples in the desert" - such as the Gioia Tauro ironworks in Calabria, which was built but never put into operation. In the 1980s, government investment in the economy of the South increased due to various programs to increase the welfare of the population, while huge targeted funds sent here after the earthquakes that destroyed a number of areas in the winter of 1981-1982 were siphoned off by organized crime. In the 1980s, new hopes arose with the growth of small businesses in the private sector in areas such as Apulia, Abruzzi and Campania, but these too proved elusive.

Despite the adoption of successive investment programs, the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula, Sicily and Sardinia provided only 23% of Italy's GDP in the late 1970s. The uncontrolled growth of public spending and the restrictions introduced since 1989 by the EU's economic convergence program have required a radical overhaul of public funding programs in the South. Ultimately, the future of southern Italy is still uncertain and largely depends on the political situation.

Italy's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), i.e. the total volume of market goods and services in 1991 (according to the latest census) was estimated at $976 billion. Per capita GDP was $16,896 (in France - 18,227, in Germany - $19,500). In 1991, personal consumption accounted for 62% of GDP, government consumption accounted for 17%, and investment accounted for almost 20%.

After World War II, the state stimulated the development of export industries. This was especially true for metallurgy, mechanical engineering and the chemical industry. New equipment and increased production efficiency contributed to a noticeable increase in steel production, which increased more than 8 times between 1951 and 1980. Significant successes were achieved in mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and the automotive industry (the latter was dominated by the Fiat concern in Turin). The modernization of the chemical industry has influenced the expansion of its product range - from petroleum products to dyes, synthetic fibers and plastics.

The cotton and wool industries played a leading role in the early 20th century, but after 1950 they experienced a decline in comparison with the main, rapidly growing industries. From the early 1950s, clothing production expanded rapidly. Shoes and clothing from Italy poured into foreign markets, Italian fashion houses successfully conquered the markets of foreign countries.

The manufacturing industry is the most important sector of the Italian economy. It accounts for almost 25% of national income and the bulk of export earnings. This sector accounts for a fifth of all jobs in the country.

The main branch of the manufacturing industry is mechanical engineering. Office equipment (calculators, typewriters, etc.), agricultural machines (tractors), weaving machines, sewing machines, and electric heating equipment are produced in Italy. Electrical engineering includes the production of telecommunications equipment, refrigerators, washing machines and other household electrical appliances. Mechanical engineering products are produced mainly in the North, in the areas of Milan, Turin, Genoa, Bergamo, Brescia and Florence. After World War II, a number of engineering factories were built in the area around Naples and Bari.

The automotive industry is important, producing cars, trucks and scooters. The industry's companies are concentrated in the areas of Turin, Milan, Brescia and Desio. In 1991, Italy ranked sixth in the world in the production of passenger cars (1,627 thousand). In the same year, approx. 260 thousand trucks and buses.

In the early 1970s, Italy was a major shipbuilder. In 1974, Italian shipyards launched merchant ships with a displacement of 1,028 thousand gross registered tons. By the end of that decade, shipbuilding in Italy and many other countries had sharply reduced production. In the period 1978-1980, Italian shipyards launched merchant ships with a total displacement of 499 thousand gross registered tons (total 166 thousand tons per year). In 1986-1992, merchant ships with a total displacement of 4,438 thousand gross register tons (an average of 634 thousand tons per year) were launched. Shipbuilding is concentrated on the northwestern coast of the country, mainly in Genoa.

In the structure of Italy's manufacturing industry, the textile and clothing industry ranks second in importance, second only to mechanical engineering (together with automotive and shipbuilding). Cotton fabrics are produced in Gallarate, Busto Arsizio, Legnano, Bergamo and Brescia; woolen - in Biella, Vicenza and Prato; silk - in Brescia, Treviso and Como. Linen is produced in the southern part of Lombardy and Campania. Clothes are made in Florence, Turin and Rome. Shoe production is widely developed.

The chemical industry, including petrochemicals and the production of synthetic fibers, produces approx. 1/7 of the total volume of manufacturing products. The industry experienced significant growth in production following the discovery of natural gas and oil in Italy in the late 1940s. By the early 1970s, Italy was one of the largest producers of synthetic fibers and sulfuric acid. Other important chemical products include artificial ammonia, dyes, pharmaceuticals, photographic materials, plastics, synthetic rubber, fertilizers and petrochemicals. They are produced in Genoa, Venice, Milan, Ravenna, Brindisi, Ferrandina and Gela.

Metallurgy is a relatively new industry in Italy. Experiencing a shortage of coal and iron ore reserves, Italy began to develop the metallurgical industry only after the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952. During the period from 1959 to 1980, steel production in Italy increased by 292% (in France - by 56%, in West Germany - by 49%). In terms of steel production (28 million tons) in 1992, Italy ranked sixth in the world, ahead of Canada and Brazil. It also releases significant amounts of aluminum, zinc, lead, mercury and magnesium.

Food industry enterprises, specializing, for example, in the production of pasta (spaghetti), tomato products and beverage production, are dispersed throughout the country. The furniture is produced in Brianza, near Milan. Paper and paper products are produced in Lombardy and Piedmont. The world famous film industry is located in Rome. The production volume of cement, which is of great importance for the Italian construction industry, amounted to 40.8 thousand tons in 1990.

Construction began to develop rapidly after World War II. In 1990, 1.9 million people were employed in this industry. Power plants, highways and other facilities were built (especially in the South). Italian construction firms were active abroad in developing countries; already in the 1960s, Italian firms built the five largest dams in Africa.

From 1950 to 1960, total energy consumption increased by 176%, almost entirely through the use of local gas resources and imported oil. Coal, which in 1950 provided almost half of the energy needs, in 1960 accounted for only 20% of the energy consumption structure. Rapid growth in energy consumption, mainly based on the use of imported oil, continued until 1973-1974, when oil prices quadrupled. From 1960 to 1974, energy consumption increased by 232%, and oil consumption by 374%. By 1974, the share of oil in Italy's electricity sector reached 75%. At the end of the 1970s, the growth in energy consumption stopped. Oil consumption decreased by 4%, and gas consumption increased by 35%. In 1978, the share of oil in Italy's electricity production was 71%, gas - 19% (in 1974 - 14%), coal - 6%; 4% came from hydropower and nuclear power. From 1980 to 1990, energy consumption increased by 11%. In 1990, the structure of the energy balance was as follows: oil - 61%, gas - 25%, coal - 9%, hydro and geothermal energy - 5%.

In 1990, Italy produced 216.9 billion kWh of electricity. About 82% was provided by thermal power plants running on liquid fuels (mainly oil), 16% by hydroelectric power plants and 2% by geothermal power plants. Nuclear power plants, which produced approx. 1% of Italy's electricity was taken out of service in 1988-1990 after mass protests by the population. In a referendum in 1987, the population voted against the construction of new nuclear power plants.

The types of agriculture in Italy vary greatly depending on geographical conditions. The most productive agricultural lands are located on the fertile plain in the Po River basin in the North, where intensive non-specialized farming predominates with a large share of large farms. This territory is also the main supplier of dairy products in Italy. Lombardy, in the northeast of the plain, is the only region of the country where animal husbandry predominates over agriculture. In the south of the plain, the Emilia-Romagna region has a more diversified agricultural system and is an important area for fruit growing and grain farming, as well as livestock farming. Eastern Piedmont and western Venice have high agricultural productivity and are famous for their wines.

The central regions of Italy - Tuscany, Umbria and Marche - are also characterized by non-specialized agriculture with the cultivation of olive trees, cereals, grapes and livestock. Natural conditions here are not as favorable as in the North, since the hilly and mountainous terrain predominates. Until 1960, the sharecropping system of agriculture (medzadria) was widespread here. As farming on the slopes became ineffective, there was a massive exodus of the rural population to the cities.

In the South, the specialization of agriculture is very diverse. The fertile coastal lands are occupied by fruit, olive and almond orchards and vineyards. Inland areas are dominated by marginal soils, and only certain varieties of cereals and sheep can be raised there. Water shortage remains the main problem in the South, where agricultural development is entirely dependent on irrigation.

In 1990, there were 2,940 thousand peasant farms in Italy, and the area of ​​cultivated land was 22.6 million hectares. Only 4% of farms could be classified as large. The landowners themselves and members of their families worked on the farms (about 2 million people in total); the average land area was 5.4 hectares. In addition, many Italians employed in other fields received additional income or food for their own consumption from small plots of land of less than 1 hectare.

After the adoption of land reform laws in 1950, the number of large farms decreased (especially in the South) due to the redistribution of land among peasants. However, the number of small farms also decreased in the 1960s and 1970s, as Italian agriculture modernized through the introduction of expensive agricultural machinery, which turned out to be unaffordable for many peasants. Between 1960 and 1978 the number of tractors in Italy almost quadrupled.

Main crops. Cereals are the main food crops. Italian farms supply approx. 2/3 of grain consumed on the domestic market. The main grain crop is wheat, grown throughout the country. In 1992, 8.9 million tons of wheat were produced. Half of its harvest is harvested in the North, where, undoubtedly, the highest yield of this crop is. Corn and rice are also grown in the North. Other important grain crops are oats and barley.

Of great importance, especially in the South, is the cultivation of typical Mediterranean crops such as olives, grapes, citrus fruits and almonds. Italy is one of the world's largest producers of olive oil and wine, and these products, along with tomatoes, fruits and early vegetables (such as peas and beans), are important exports.

The main industrial crops are sugar beets (mainly in the Venice region), tobacco (mainly in the South), soybeans, hemp, cotton and flax.

In 1992, Italy was the third largest meat producer in Western Europe, but despite this, it must import almost a third of the beef and veal consumed in the country.

Cattle are raised in the North, mainly on large dairy farms in the Po valley. Some hardy alpine cattle breeds began to be bred in the hilly regions of the South, where sheep and goats had previously been raised.

Agricultural development plans. In the 1960s, Italian governments encouraged farm mechanization, technical training, cooperative processing and marketing, soil conservation, irrigation and reforestation. Many of these programs were subsidized by the EU in the 1970s. However, the EU's common agricultural policy was mainly to establish a price system in which much more money was spent on supporting the prices of northern European products such as milk and beef, rather than on fruits, vegetables, wine, the very important for the Italian economy.

Forests and woodlands cover 6.8 million hectares, or a fifth of Italy's territory, but forestry is of little importance to the country's economy. On average, 8.5 million cubic meters of wood are cut down annually. The main forested areas are the mountainous and hilly regions of the Alps and Apennines (including the areas of Sila and Aspromonte in Calabria). Coniferous species - fir and pine - grow in more elevated areas, while broad-leaved species - beech and oak - predominate in the lower parts of the slopes.

Fisheries. Despite the long coastline, the fish catch in Italy is small, on average 543 thousand tons per year, i.e. almost 3/5 of the catch level in France. The fishing industry is localized and has small enterprises.

Natural gas, produced in the Po Valley and in the South, is Italy's main mineral fuel resource. Explored gas reserves are estimated at 300 billion cubic meters. In 1990, 17 billion cubic meters of gas were produced. Oil reserves are very small and are located mainly in Sicily and the South. Explored oil reserves are 91 million tons, and production in 1990 amounted to 4.6 million tons. A certain amount of hard and brown coal is mined in Sicily. Italy is self-sufficient in bauxite, lead and zinc and produces some mercury and marble for export.

Domestic trade and services. The share of domestic trade, finance and other services in GDP is the highest compared to other sectors of the economy. Many people who left their farms in the 1950s and 1960s found work in shops or small businesses. The structure of domestic trade has changed significantly in these years. A network of large stores and supermarkets has emerged, although these are less common in Italy compared to other Western European countries. These stores have branches in most provincial centres, including the southern cities of Cosenza and Potenza. Consumers began to buy inexpensive clothes from big stores instead of ordering them from tailors. The 1980s saw rapid growth, integration, and specialization in the service and small business industries.

The length of the Italian railway network in Italy in 1991 was approx. 19.6 thousand km, half of them were electrified. Back in the 1960s, the tracks and equipment on all main lines were modernized, much of the obsolete rolling stock was scrapped, and steam locomotives were replaced by diesel and electric locomotives. High-speed trains between Rome and centers such as Milan, Genoa, Venice and Naples are among the best in Europe.

By the early 1970s, Italy had one of the most developed (after West Germany) road systems in Europe. The super highway "Autostrada de la Sol" connects Milan and Naples with branches to Bari and via Salerno to Calabria and Sicily. The number of cars increased significantly in the 1960s; in 1989 there were 26.3 million passenger cars in the country, about 10 times more than in 1960, and 2.1 million trucks and buses.

Air transport is also an important means of transportation on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula. Airplanes are widely used to communicate with the islands. As well as the major international airports in Rome, Milan and Naples, there are many smaller airports on the mainland and islands. The main airline of Italy is Alitalia.

The Italian merchant fleet consists of 1.5 thousand ships and ranks 10th in the world. The maritime fleet includes first-class passenger ships plying the Atlantic and Far Eastern lines, cargo ships, fishing vessels and ferries. Tankers account for more than 2/5 of the fleet's total displacement. Ferry services operate between the mainland and Sicily and Sardinia. The country's largest ports are Genoa, Trieste, and Naples.

Foreign trade and payments. Italy's industry is heavily dependent on foreign trade. In the early 1990s, export goods accounted for 18% of its GDP.

Since the late 1950s, Italy began to export finished equipment, especially engineering products, metals and chemical products. Such goods accounted for almost half of export earnings in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The leading export items are cars and trucks. Other more traditional export products are textiles, clothing and footwear.

The Italian economy is heavily dependent on foreign raw materials and oil. Oil and petroleum products in 1979 accounted for almost 1/4 of Italy's import costs. Other raw materials, including scrap metal and metal ore, and textile fibers, accounted for another 13% of import expenditure.

The main trading partners in the 1970s were West Germany, France and the United States. In the late 1970s, EEC countries bought half of Italy's exports and supplied almost half of its imports (in value terms). In the mid-1970s, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Iraq and Iran became important new trading partners for Italy. In the late 1970s, Italy gradually increased its exports to Saudi Arabia and Libya.

In the mid-1970s, one of the most difficult economic problems was the problem of the payments deficit in the foreign trade balance. Until 1957, Italy had a persistent payments deficit, mainly because it spent more on imports than it earned from exports. Industrial development allowed Italy to increase exports, and the payment situation improved in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

However, in 1973-1974 world oil prices quadrupled, and since Italy was heavily dependent on foreign oil, it was forced to spend huge amounts of money on fuel purchases. In 1974, oil import costs to Italy amounted to $10.2 billion (in 1972 - $2.6 billion), and Italy had a total balance of payments deficit of $7.8 billion. By 1978, thanks to the rise of the Italian economy for the first time after 1972, a favorable trade balance was established. However, Italy's position in the world economic community remained precarious. In 1980, a deficit reappeared when Italy earned $77.7 billion from exports, while imports, including shipping and insurance costs, cost $99.5 billion.

In the 1980s - early 1990s, the main trading partners were Germany, France, the USA and the UK, and the main imports were engineering products, cars, petroleum products, crude oil, iron and steel, and chemical products. Exports were dominated by mechanical engineering products, cars, office equipment, mass household electrical appliances, equipment, pipes, fabrics, clothing, and shoes. Italy consistently spent more money on imports than it earned from export sales; its trade deficit in 1988 was $9.5 billion, in 1989 - $12.5 billion, in 1990 - 11.8 billion and in 1991 - $12.9 billion. However, 1993 ended with a positive balance.

The monetary unit of Italy is the lira, issued by the Italian Bank. For many years until the mid-1970s, 100 liras were worth $0.16. Then a huge balance of payments deficit and rapid inflation caused the value of 100 liras to fall to almost $0.12. A new decline in value began in late 1980 -1981 - up to $0.08 per 100 lira. The decline continued in the early and mid-1980s, so that in 1985, 100 liras were worth $0.06. But in the late 1980s, the value of the lira increased relative to the dollar, and in 1989, 100 liras were worth 0.07, and in 1990 - $0.08 Following the devaluation and exit from the European Monetary System in September 1992, the value of the lira fell by 25% against major world currencies. In 1994, 100 liras cost $0.06. After Italy joined the European Monetary Union in 1999, it is planned to gradually withdraw the lira from circulation and replace it by 2002 with the euro, the common currency of 11 EU countries.

The three main commercial banks of national importance are the Banca Commerciale Italiana (Italian Commercial Bank, Milan), the Credito Italiano (Italian Credit, Milan) and the Banca di Roma (Rome Bank). All of them were reorganized in 1934-1936 during an extensive operation to save domestic industry, carried out by the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction. The banks transferred all their assets (except short-term loans) to this Institute, which from then on owned controlling stakes in the banks. There are also almost 1,100 other banks, which vary in size - from such large concerns as Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, Banco di Napoli and Banco di Sicilia, to small cooperative "people's banks".

During the 1950s to 1980s, large loans were directed to industry and agriculture, as well as to the development of backward areas, particularly the South. For this purpose, special institutions were created that provided medium- and long-term loans to industry, and credit institutions to finance state development plans.

The government budget ran persistent deficits from the 1950s to the 1970s. It decreased slightly in the 1960s, thanks to revenue from higher taxes. In 1967, the deficit was only $170 million. But in the early 1970s, it grew again. In 1979, total government spending was $110.9 billion, and revenues were only $75.1 billion. In 1990, total government spending was $446.8 billion, and budget revenues were $342.3 billion. The goal All governments since 1992 have reduced public debt and spending. The state managed to balance expenditure and revenue items in the budget thanks to the introduction of a strict and unpopular tax system.

Income and real estate taxes in 1990 accounted for 45% of state budget revenues. Income tax is stepwise progressive, very high for the middle and high income category. The main purpose of the new legislation, in force since 1992, is to prevent tax evasion. Business taxes and duties in 1990 accounted for 23% of budget revenues. Customs and border duties contributed 9%, and government monopolies accounted for 2%. The main items of government spending in 1990 were repayment of the national debt, social security and health care, education, public works and defense.

Italian "economic miracle"

Since the early 50s. Italy entered a period of rapid industrial development, surpassing all Western European countries in terms of average annual growth in industrial output, and second only to Japan on a global scale. For 1950 - 1963 its total industrial output tripled. Some specialized branches of the chemical industry developed at a particularly high pace (oil and gas refining and the production of synthetic fibers in 1953 - 1962 gave a 28-fold increase in production, plastics production - 10-fold) and precision engineering. In less than a decade and a half, Italy has transformed from a country with an average level of industrial development into a highly industrialized country. This breakthrough was made thanks to large investments in key industries, which allowed them to be radically updated. Capital investments of such a scale were possible primarily for the most powerful companies that held commanding positions in the relevant industries, which carried them out both at their own expense and with the help of loans received mainly from the “Marshall Plan” (35% of these loans were received only by the automobile concern FIAT, 40% - several companies that dominated the electric power industry, etc.-). The fact that leading corporations spearheaded a broad modernization of production was facilitated by confidence in the future of the democratic system in Italy, which returned to the “captains of industry” after the breakdown of anti-fascist unity. To re-equip industry, levers of government intervention in the economy were also used. The state financial institution of Iran, created under fascism, survived and continued to play an important role in long-term lending to industry. With the discovery of oil reserves in Italy, the state company ENI (National Liquid Fuels Authority) was established, which completely took control of a new industry - petrochemicals. State capital investments amounted in 1952 - 1953. 41% of all national economic investments, and in 1959 only the IRI and ENI accounted for 30% of their total.

Industrial progress in Italy was stimulated by its participation in the process of economic integration of Western European countries. Having become a member of the EEC in 1957, Italy had to catch up to the level of its stronger partners, otherwise it was threatened with defeat in the competition with them in the pan-European market.

The intensive development of industry caused mass migration of the rural population to the city, especially from the southern regions. The government agrarian reform did not lead to the creation of any significant layer of viable peasant farms in the South, since most of the plots distributed under the reform were small (2-4 hectares), and their owners found themselves under the burden of heavy redemption payments and debt to the reform committees. Many peasants who had recently received land abandoned their plots and moved to the city. In total, during 1950 - 1960. 1.8 million people left the village. The share of people employed in agriculture, which amounted to 39.6% of the self-employed population in 1952, dropped to 26.2% 10 years later. But not everyone who left the village managed to find work in the city. Constantly having a huge reserve of workers, Italian entrepreneurs were able to keep wages in industry at a level lower than in other EEC countries, and thereby reduce production costs and strengthen competitiveness of their products.

Having made a leap forward in its economic development over the years of the “economic miracle,” Italy still remained a country of acute social problems. The strengthening of the industrial potential of the North occurred while the agricultural South continued to lag behind. In the South during this period, only isolated islands of industry arose, the placement of which met not the needs of the southern Italian economy itself, but the interests of the economy of the North. The South's share in the creation of national income decreased from 23.5% in 1951 to 20.3% in 1962. In the industrial regions of the North, the massive influx of immigrants from the South led to the rapid and disorderly growth of cities and their suburbs, creating an acute need for housing . In 1951 - 1961 under favorable economic conditions, the average hourly earnings of industrial workers increased by 20%, but such an increase in wages did not correspond to the increase in the cost of their physical and nervous energy as a result of the widespread introduction of conveyor belt production.

Before the Second World War, Italy was noticeably behind other major capitalist countries in terms of growth rates and levels of industrial production. The reasons for this lag were the weakness of the raw material base and the narrowness of the domestic market. From the mid-50s to the 60s there was a rise in industrial production. An agrarian-industrial country has become an industrial-agrarian one. Active government intervention in the economy played a big role in this. After the war, the state became the owner of railways, communications, most of the metallurgical plants and many other enterprises. It provides various benefits and loans to private industrial companies. Italian monopolies are strengthening their positions through mergers and establishing links with multinational companies. The capital of the USA, Germany and Switzerland takes a particularly large part in Italian industry. Based on the latest technical achievements, large enterprises in the mechanical engineering and chemical industries and a number of other industries have been updated, and new modern factories have been built. However, along with large modern factories, Italy is characterized by the presence of many small, poorly mechanized enterprises.

The lag of agriculture in Italy is much greater than in other capitalist countries. This is explained by the fact that the system of land ownership and land use in Italy retained stronger vestiges of feudal relations; There is still a significant share of agricultural production in small, fragmented farms of peasants with backward agricultural technology.

A characteristic feature of the location of the farm is the sharp territorial disproportion between Northern and Southern Italy. Even before the political unification of the country in the 70s. XIX century in Northern Italy there were rich trading republics with diverse connections, with large centers of handicraft and factory production. Now Northern Italy is not inferior in terms of economic development to the largest countries in Europe, while Southern Italy is close to such less developed countries as Greece and Portugal. The regional policy pursued by the state is not able to eliminate this disproportion. The location of production is increasingly influenced by environmental factors, especially in the North.

The formation and development of fascism in Italy (1918-1929), the main prerequisites and reasons for its emergence. Features of the establishment of a fascist dictatorship. Social and economic policy of Italy, the European vector of the state’s foreign policy.

thesis, added 04/17/2015

The essence of the socio-political situation, the economic development of Italy after the crisis, its legal and state unification. Characteristics of the stages of the revolution, the democratic movement in Central Italy and Venice, the struggle for independence.

abstract, added 10/24/2010

The rise of the fascists to power in Italy. History, background and causes of the emergence of fascism. Features of the political system of fascist Italy. Formation of institutions of state power. Social and economic policy of the fascist government.

thesis, added 06/14/2017

The withdrawal of Italy from the war and the seizure of its territory. Allied losses. Landing in Sicily and mainland Italy. Advance towards Rome. Allied landings in Normandy. The last allied offensive at the front. Italian Partisan Liberation Committee.

presentation, added 05/20/2015

Characteristics of the economic development of Italy in the 18th-19th centuries. A heavy load of medieval heritage. Main directions of the social movement. The political system and features of the country’s foreign and domestic policy. The process of unification of Italy.

presentation, added 12/16/2013

Analysis of the socio-economic and political situation in Italy after the First World War. Prerequisites for the emergence of fascism. Problems of neo-fascism, features of its manifestation and development. Left extremism and right movement. "Strategy of Tension"

thesis, added 10/09/2013

Analysis of the socio-economic and political prerequisites of fascism. The rise of the fascist party to power in Italy and Germany. Stages of A. Hitler's career. Confrontation between Hitler and the founders of the NSDAP. Establishment of the absolute power of the Fuhrer in all layers of society.

course work, added 03/24/2012

The socio-political situation in Italy at the beginning of the twentieth century. Prerequisites for the emergence of fascism and the creation of the first fascist organizations. Features of the state structure of fascist Italy. The political regime and the repressive apparatus of Hitler's Germany.

The defeat of France in the war with Prussia made it possible to remove the last obstacle to the complete unification of Italy.

On October 3, 1870, Rome was also annexed to the country. It was declared the capital of the Italian Empire. The power of the Pope was limited to the Vatican Palace. Until this point, Pope Pius IX had opposed Rome's annexation to Italy, and his interests were protected by the French army.

According to the political system, Italy became a constitutional monarchy. According to the constitution, a bicameral parliament was formed (Senate and Chamber of Deputies). King Victor Emmanuel II shared legislative power with parliament. Senators were appointed by the king for life. Executive power was concentrated in the hands of the prime minister.

The constitution recognized the equality of all citizens before the law, the right to inviolability of home, freedom of speech and press, and the right to hold meetings. The Catholic branch of the Christian religion was recognized as the state religion. In 1871, a law was passed regulating relations between church and state. The law declared the Pope sacred and inviolable, and the Vatican was given the right to establish diplomatic relations with other states.

Economic situation

The unification of Italy created favorable conditions for accelerating the process of establishing a capitalist system in the country. But Italy was still an agrarian state.

The land was owned mainly by large landowners. In addition, old forms of land use dominated. Most of the landowners' land was divided into small plots and leased to peasants with the condition of paying 3/4 of the harvest.

At the same time, the country was experiencing great financial difficulties. This was the result of Italy's increasing internal and external debts.
To cover increasing costs, the government was forced to issue a government loan and seek help from capital owners (investors) inside and outside the country.

Italy's public debt was rising sharply. Despite this, capitalism asserted itself more and more. The government first expanded the construction of railways. The construction of a merchant fleet developed widely. Italy has taken third place in the world in terms of total merchant fleet tonnage. The government built two tunnels connecting Italy with France and Switzerland. New industrial sectors appeared in the form of joint-stock companies.

Formed in 1906, the Fiat joint-stock company soon took a dominant position in the chemical, rubber, mechanical engineering, automotive, electricity and goods manufacturing industries.

Until World War I, Italy remained an agrarian state, with the majority of the working population employed in agriculture. Despite this, the number of people employed in agriculture was constantly decreasing.

Social movement

The situation of the working people in the country was very difficult. Italy ranked last in Western Europe in terms of per capita income distribution. The working day lasted 12-13 hours. The situation was especially difficult in the south of the country. The majority of the population emigrated to foreign countries.
The Italian people fought to improve their situation and their rights. In 1892, the Socialist Party of Italy was created.

The situation of the peasants was also extremely difficult. The plight of the working people led to a riot in Sicily. The general strike that took place in Milan in 1898 turned into a 5-day barricade battle. The government suppressed the workers' movement with army forces.

In 1903 -1914 (at certain intervals) the government of Italy was headed by the famous politician of his time, G. Giolitti.
G. Giolitti understood well that without increasing the purchasing power of the population, the development of industrial production is impossible. And for this we need to increase wages for workers. Speaking about this, he emphasized: “Industrial progress is led by countries where wages are high.” During his reign, laws were issued on the creation of trade unions, on allowing strikes, on the prohibition of the use of child and female labor on the night shift, on the abolition of property qualifications and on the literacy of elected officials. At the same time, he was a supporter of increasing the role of the state in the country's economy. In his opinion, the state should act as a judge between labor and capital.

Foreign policy

A movement of supporters of irredentism began in Italy. This circumstance worsened Italy's relations with neighboring states.
The territories of North African states, claimed by Italy, gradually began to be occupied by France. This situation brought Italy closer to Germany. In 1882, Italy joined the alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Italy, which had allies, soon occupied Somalia and also captured Eritrea. In 1895, it invaded Ethiopia with the intention of occupation.
But on August 1, 1896, Italian troops were defeated near Adua. 5 thousand Italian soldiers died.

This was perceived in Italy as a national disgrace. It was necessary to create acceptable diplomatic conditions for the occupation of new colonies. The Italian government was able to create just such conditions. For example, Italy has achieved the elimination of strained relations between Italy and France. In 1902, an agreement was concluded between these two states, according to which the parties pledged to strictly observe mutual neutrality in the event of an attack by a third party.

In 1908, Italy protested the conquest and annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary. The result was a very dangerous situation. In 1909, Italy concluded an agreement with Russia on the mutual protection of its own interests in the Balkans.

After creating acceptable diplomatic conditions, Italy declared war on Libya in 1911, which at that time was part of the Turkish Empire. This led to the Italo-Turkish War, which ended in Italian victory. Since 1912, Libya has become a colony of Italy.

Property qualification is a restrictive condition (ownership of certain property) for a person to be allowed to exercise any electoral rights.
Irredentism (Italian irredenta - unliberated land) is a nationalist movement in Italy for the annexation of border lands partially inhabited by Italians to Italy.

ABSTRACT ON HISTORY

ITALY B XX CENTURY

12TH CLASS STUDENT OF SCHOOL 226

Abramova Taisiya

ITALY IN THE XX CENTURY.

The full name of the country is the Italian Republic (Republica Italia).

1. General information .

Italy is located in South-West Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea. It occupies the Apennine Peninsula, the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and a number of small islands. Territory - 301.2 thousand km 2. The capital is Rome. The largest cities are Milan, Naples, Turin, Genoa, etc. Within Italy there are two states - the Vatican and San Marino, surrounded on all sides by its territory. Administrative division: 20 regions. Population 57.8 million (1995). 94% - Italians. The official language is Italian. The dominant religion is Catholicism. The monetary unit is the lira. National holiday - the first Sunday of June - Day of the Proclamation of the Republic (June 2, 1946).

2. Italy at the turn XIX–XX centuries .

Italy approached the 20th century as a capitalist country, in which Italian imperialism had already begun to take shape. According to V.I. Lenin, it was “beggarly imperialism.” On the eve of the 20th century, Italy was still an agricultural country. More than half of the national income came from the value of agricultural products (3 billion liras), against 1 billion liras from the value of industrial products.

By the end of the 19th century, Italy was already a unified state. It should be noted that Italy was fragmented for a long time and consisted of numerous city-states. On its territory there were states (kingdoms) under the rule of France and Austria. Rome was under the rule of the popes.

After the wars and revolutions of 1848-1849. and 1859-1860, led by the Carbonari and members of the Young Italy organization (G. Mazzini and G. Garibaldi), and the annexation of Rome (1870), Italy became a single state.

This made it possible to create a single national market, eliminate customs barriers between individual regions, and introduce a single monetary system.

The creation of a national market accelerated the development of industry and its branches such as cotton, wool, mining, metallurgy, and engineering. However, the share of handicraft industry remained high. There were still many artisans and handicraft enterprises in the country. The development of industry led to an increase in population in cities.

At the same time, domestic and foreign banks and railway companies began to appear in the country. The construction of railways began, which were combined into two lines and stretched from north to south. The highway network grew, the volume of maritime transport and the tonnage of the merchant fleet increased.

Capitalism, although slowly, penetrated into agriculture. In Italy, large landowner farms remained, on which landless peasants worked and were subjected to brutal exploitation. Agriculture in the northern provinces of Italy was more progressive. Machines and agricultural technology were used here, and products were produced for export: rice, meat and dairy products, and wine. In the southern agricultural regions, low-productivity peasant labor was used, so agricultural products were not competitive. The standard of living of the population of the southern provinces was very low. The South became, as it were, a colony of the North. The "southern" problem was one of Italy's pressing national problems.

One of the leading problems for the development of the Italian economy has been the large migration of the population to other countries of the world, especially from the southern provinces. Internal migration, mainly from the southern to the northern provinces, also remained a big problem in the country.

The development of various industries, the construction of industrial enterprises, the growth of cities, and at the same time the ruin of the peasants led to the growth of the industrial and agricultural proletariat. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were over 1 million industrial workers and about 2.5 million rural proletarians in the country. At the same time, there was no social legislation in Italy. There was brutal exploitation of labor not only of men, but also of women and children: the working day lasted 15-16 hours, the natural payment system was maintained, forced purchase of products in the entrepreneur’s shop was practiced, etc. The standard of living of the working people was very low.

The development of industry and the growth of the proletariat led to a strengthening of the labor movement. The first political organizations arose: in 1882 the Italian Workers' Party (IWP) was formed, and in 1892 the Italian Socialist Party (ISP). In it, representatives of the “right” forces defended the old order, the interests of the great nobility and the power of the king. The “left” forces were more progressive and liberal and sought to carry out democratic changes. From this time on, the political struggle of the Italian working class acquired organized forms.

Since the end of the 19th century, Italy has intensified its colonial expansion: Somalia was occupied in 1889, and Eritrea in 1890.

Italy remained a kingdom. At the end of the 19th century, it was headed by King Victor Emmanuel II.

Thus, at the end of the 19th century, Italy was still an agricultural country. At the same time, it was a capitalist state in which the industrial revolution took place, and in which capitalism passed into its highest phase - imperialism. A proletariat of workers and peasants was formed in the country. The first political organizations appeared: the IRP and the ISP. Italy had colonies in Northeast Africa. According to its political system, it was a kingdom.

3. Italy before the First World War(1900-1914).

Italy entered the 20th century when a new era of world history began - the era of imperialism. This era, as we know, is characterized by the development of capitalism into its monopoly phase, the competition of great powers for the division and redistribution of the world, and a sharp aggravation of class contradictions.

Unlike other capitalist countries, Italy was a relatively backward country with feudal remnants, almost devoid of natural resources, a country in which the population in most cases dragged out a miserable existence. The uniqueness of the economic and social structure of Italy lay in the sharp disproportion in the level of development of individual parts of the country: the industrial North and the backward agricultural South constituted, as it were, two different, separate countries, “two Italys,” as they said in those years.

Italy needed to catch up with other capitalist countries. It should be said that the development of capitalism into imperialism in Italy occurred in a shorter period of time than in other countries. Economic development in the country in the first decade proceeded spasmodically: either rapid growth, then slowdown and even decline. Thus, until 1907, the country experienced a tremendous economic growth with some slowdown in some years. 1907-1908 – economic crisis. Then there was a rise again, and in 1912-1913 there was a decline. It is clear that crises and economic downturns were accompanied by rising prices, unemployment, and aggravation of social contradictions.

Already in the first years of the 20th century, the industrialization of the country began in Italy, which took place mainly in the Northern provinces - Lombardy, Piedmont, Liguria. The cost of industrial products increased, there was an increase in national income, the number of industrial enterprises increased, and, consequently, the number of industrial workers (the proletariat). The textile, engineering, chemical, and automotive industries developed rapidly. This was facilitated by the growth of industrial investment, the creation of banks and the growth of monetary investments in them. There was a concentration of production and the formation of monopolies in mechanical engineering, metallurgy, electrical, chemical, and automotive industries.

Large banks were formed, which, through joint-stock companies, subjugated the leading sectors of the economy. There was a merger of banking and industrial capital and the emergence of a financial oligarchy. The process of merging banking and industrial capital took place most rapidly in metallurgy and mechanical engineering, as well as in the energy industry.

Consequently, we can say that by the beginning of the First World War, Italian imperialism had formed in Italy, and the country had turned from an agrarian one into an agrarian-industrial one.

At the same time, the transition to imperialism exacerbated contradictions within the country, both in the economy and in the social sphere.

The country's agriculture still lagged significantly behind industry and was based not on technical innovations, but on the brutal exploitation of peasants. The south of the country and the islands remained a “southern problem” for Italy.

Emigration of the population, which was a national disaster, has become a pressing problem in the country. It is clear that the most able-bodied part of the population emigrated, and this increased the lag of the agricultural regions even further, damaging the country’s economy and its defense capability.

Although Italy's economy was booming at the beginning of the 20th century, the country lagged behind other capitalist powers. Goods and capital came to Italy from other countries and, first of all, from Germany, England and France. Italy imported grain, coal, raw materials, and industrial equipment. In an effort to strengthen its international position and eliminate the foreign trade deficit, Italy increased the export of its goods to North Africa, the Balkans, Asia Minor, and also tried to open its banks not only in less developed countries (Belgium, Brazil, Morocco, Ethiopia), but also in France, Germany, England. This Italian policy was called "Peaceful Economic Penetration".

At the beginning of the 20th century, Italy had only two colonies - Eritrea and Somalia, but had plans to expand its territories at the expense of other states.

Thus, to the beginning. During the First World War, Italian imperialism had already taken shape in Italy, the features of which were: the intertwining of the dominance of monopolies with semi-feudal forms of exploitation and the dominance of large landownership, the uneven development of individual industries and regions and the growing lag of the South at the beginning of the 20th century, the extremely low standard of living of the bulk of the population and as a consequence of this, the narrowness of the domestic market, mass emigration and the severity of social contrasts in the country, the aggressive nature of foreign policy and the growth of colonial claims.

After the assassination of King Umberto in 1900, the throne was transferred to Victor Emmanuel III. The liberal government of Giovanni Giolitti (1901 – 1914) was formed, which went down in history under the name “Long Ministry”. The program of the new government included measures that weakened social contradictions in the country, ensured economic growth, and strengthened the country's international position. The government recognized trade unions, workers' rights to strike, laws on the protection of women's and children's labor, etc. All this expanded political freedoms in the country and led to the growth of the workers' movement for their rights. In 1904, the first national general strike in Italy took place, in which workers from industrial and agricultural enterprises took part. Their demands were: higher wages, improved working conditions, recognition of trade unions and other economic demands, as well as the resignation of the government. The strike covered all provinces of Italy (its center is Milan). The strike was led by the Italian Socialist Party. The government has called early parliamentary elections.

The strike showed that workers were capable of defending their rights, but it increased divisions within the COI. Currents of “reformists” and “irreconcilables” appeared in the party.

The “reformists” believed that workers should only be directed to fight reforms using parliamentary methods. Their tactics concerned mainly the workers of the northern provinces. The “Southern Question” did not interest them.

The “irreconcilables” criticized the “reformists” and recognized the need for class struggle, the main form of which was the general economic strike.

The years 1906-1908 were marked in Italy by an unprecedented scale of the strike movement and mass uprisings of the industrial and agricultural proletariat, office workers, and peasants. The Russian Revolution in Russia (1905) played a major role in the new upsurge of the popular movement. Workers in Italy expressed sympathy and support for the Russian people in the struggle against the autocracy. During these years there was

from 1600 to 2200 strikes, not only in the northern, but also in the southern regions. The largest of them were: strikes of gas industry workers (1906), railway workers (1907), and the Parma strike (1908).

The strike in Parma began as a movement of farm laborers who demanded increased wages, but it was supported by workers throughout Italy. The strike lasted two months.

The results of the strikes of 1906-1908 showed that fighting the government for one’s economic rights through strikes alone is not enough. Economic demands must be combined with political demands.

During this period, Italy pursued an active foreign policy. Its interests remain in Northeast Africa. It expands its territories at the expense of Ethiopia, where a new Italian colony was created - Italian Somalia. Italy is moving closer to England, France, and Russia, which it could not do in accordance with its entry into the Triple Alliance. Relations between Italy and Austria-Hungary worsened over Austrian lands with an Italian population, which Italy wanted to annex.

Italy also has great interests in Turkish territories (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in Africa).

At this time, Nicholas II makes a visit to Italy, where an agreement on cooperation in the Balkans and the Mediterranean basin is signed.

The expansion of its territories at the expense of other states is one of the features of imperialism, but at the same time, the imperialist country wants to justify its policies by putting forward one theory or another. In Italy during this period the ideology of nationalism became widespread. The basic principle of this ideology is the need to consider the entire nation as a single organism that must fight with another nation for a worthy economic and moral place in the world. It was proclaimed that Italy was a “proletarian nation” oppressed by other countries and therefore it should conduct its foreign policy in such a way as to extend Italian civilization “to the whole world.” It is clear that such an ideology is accompanied by increased militarization of the country and the need to increase spending on military needs, which was done in Italy. The above shows that already at the beginning of the 20th century, ideas were widespread in Italy that later became the basis of fascism.

In 1910, the “Nationalist Association” was created in Italy (Florence), which pursued a policy of force against other states, as well as against the liberal course of its country, against social reforms. The ideology of nationalism was also confirmed by Italian foreign policy. So, in 1911, there were celebrations in the country on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Italian kingdom. In the press, in parliament, and in the church, there were calls to return Italy to the former greatness of the Roman Empire and provide it with a worthy place among the great powers of the world. Italy began by presenting an ultimatum to Turkey, declaring its intention to occupy Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (Turkish lands in Africa) in order to “bring them into progress” and bring them out of “a state of disorder and abandonment.” The Turkish government was ready to resolve the conflict peacefully, but Italy declared war on Turkey, which is known as the Libyan or Tripolitan war. Italian troops landed in Libya and also began operations in the Adriatic, Red Sea, Aegean Sea and the Dardanelles. In the Aegean Sea, the islands of Rhodes and the Dodecanese archipelago were occupied. All this happened under the pretext of fighting arms smuggling for the people of Libya. The Italians brutally dealt with the local population and virtually exterminated them. But the local population resisted the Italian army and the “easy military walk”, as expected, did not work out. In Italy itself, attitudes towards the war were different: there were both its supporters (right-wing conservatives) and opponents (ISP and CGT).

In 1912, the Balkan states also opposed Turkey, which pushed Turkey to conclude peace. According to the Lausanne Peace Treaty (1912), Tripolitania and Cyrenaica passed to Italy, but Italy had to return Rhodes and the Dodecanese Islands to Turkey. Italy did not fulfill this condition.

The imperialist war ended in victory, but at great cost to the people. During the war, taxes and food prices increased, especially grain and bread. The war and military orders gave impetus to the development of the metallurgical, engineering, and mining industries, and large banks became rich. But in those industries that were not directly related to the war (textiles, paper, construction industries), the crisis intensified, unemployment increased, the ruin of artisans, and emigration increased sharply. The war enriched the monopoly bourgeoisie, it became stronger and was ready to conquer new markets and spheres of influence in other countries, primarily in the Balkans (Albania). In addition, the war strengthened the spirit of nationalism in the country not only among the intelligentsia and petty bourgeoisie, but also among certain sections of the peasantry and working class. Nationalists believed that the main result of the Libyan War was that it “awakened the nationalist consciousness of the new Italy.” Naturally, the nationalists did not agree with the liberal policies of the Giolitti government. In 1914 it was replaced by the conservative government of Salandra.

The change of government, and therefore the political course of Italy, was accompanied by the beginning of an economic crisis in the country, rising prices, rising unemployment, the growth of the anti-war movement and an increase in anti-government attacks. During this period, the ISP and the CGT decided to hold a general strike. Before this, strikes had already taken place in some cities. Of course, the government responded to this with repression using weapons and shooting demonstrators. In response to this, a strike began throughout Italy, in which 1 million people took part and which lasted seven days. This strike went down in history as “Red Week”. In various cities, republics were even proclaimed and weapons were confiscated, old documents were destroyed, etc. All events took place very rapidly, but the people did not have a single leadership and unity of purpose. A week later the movement began to wane.

Thus, in the period before the First World War in Italy, industrial development and the growth of monopolies continued; The economic expansion of Italian imperialism into less developed countries expanded under the slogan of “peaceful economic penetration,” which was also combined with military expansion in Ethiopia and Turkey.

During this period, the labor movement expanded, the number of strikes in various cities of Italy grew, and the General Confederation of Labor was created. A split in the party ranks is brewing within the ISP. An imperialist ideology is being formed, which was reflected in the creation of the “Nationalist Association”.

4. Italy during the First World War(1914-1918)

The events of “Red Week” showed that workers were hostile to militarism, so in 1914, when the First World War began, Italy declared neutrality and did not enter the war. In 1914, Italy was part of the Triple Alliance (Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary), and she feared that in the event of war, Germany might send troops onto its territory.

The outbreak of the World War immediately paralyzed the international credit system and the international market, which dealt a strong blow to the economies of all the warring countries. Italy felt this more than other countries, because its economy was largely dependent on foreign imports (Italy imported up to 25% of the grain it consumed, all coal, industrial raw materials, etc.). Enterprises and banks were closing in the country, unemployment and prices were rising. This, naturally, caused discontent among the people and opposition to Italy's entry into the war. The ISP also advocated this, but it was not united. So, in 1914, a member of the ICP leadership and editor of the party newspaper Avanti! Mussolini called for war on the side of the Entente. Mussolini was expelled from the ranks of the ISP, but he created his own new newspaper, in which he continued to call for war.

Italy, as an imperialist power, demanded compensation from Austria-Hungary for its neutrality. She demanded that Trentino, Gradiski, and Istria be immediately transferred to her, that Trieste be given autonomy, and that claims to Albania be renounced. She also demanded islands in the Aegean Sea and part of Turkish territory in the event of its division. The situation in the country was heating up: on the one hand, the demand of the people not to fight, on the other, the demand of the big bourgeoisie, right-wing forces and other countries to start a war. Italy reconsidered its position, broke with the Triple Alliance and in 1915 entered the war on the side of the Entente (Russia, France, England). Italy's entry into the war was also facilitated by nationalist views, which were actively expressed by right-wing forces in the country. It was widely believed that Italy's entry into the war would create an Italian colonial empire, restore the “glory of ancient Rome” and smooth out the severity of class contradictions in the country. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary. The offensive of the Italian army was not successful, and in six months it lost 268 thousand people. The army was poorly armed: there were not enough cannons, machine guns, shells, clothing for soldiers, medicines, and doctors. This was the so-called “Small War”. In 1916, the Austro-Hungarian army, breaking through the Italian front line, entered the territory of the Italian kingdom. Italy was saved by the offensive of Brusilov's Russian army in Galicia, which drew back the Austro-Hungarian forces. The Entente insistently demanded that Italy fight all its opponents, and not just Austria-Hungary. Therefore, in 1916, Italy declared war on Germany (“Great War”). But, in fact, Italy, having no borders with Germany, could not conduct direct military operations with it.

The ISP opposed the war, it explained its essence to the people, and showed that war brings great profits to the capitalists and great suffering to the people. Such propaganda was of great importance, because during these years it did not allow chauvinism to be introduced into the consciousness of the Italian masses. But the ISP was unable to use the situation in the country to carry out revolutionary changes in it. The country held only rallies and demonstrations under the slogans: “Down with the war!” In 1917, after the revolution in Russia in Italy, the famous slogan of the Italian proletariat was born: “Make it like in Russia!” Rallies were held in the country in support of the Russian brothers. A particularly major anti-war protest of the Italian proletariat during the First World War was the Turin uprising (1917), which took place under the slogans: “Down with war!”, “Long live Lenin!”. But this uprising, although it found a spontaneous response in other cities of Italy, was left to the mercy of fate. The government sent troops into the city and it was suppressed. Arrests and repressions began. At this time, nationalists led by Mussolini declared that the parliamentary government of the country had outlived its usefulness and demanded that harsh measures be taken against opponents of the war. “Italy needs a dictator more than ever,” said Mussolini.

Anti-war sentiment also existed within the Italian army itself. The soldiers protested against the continuation of hostilities under the slogans: “Long live peace!”, “Long live the Russian revolution!”, “Down with war!”

In 1917, Italian troops were defeated at Caporetto. The reasons for the defeat were both military (lack of weapons, ammunition, incompetent command) and moral (reluctance to fight). The Italian army fled, throwing away their weapons. In the Battle of the Piave River, the Italians were defeated by Austro-German troops, which created the threat of a breakthrough of German troops into the interior of the country. However, in 1918, the Italians defeated the Austro-German troops and occupied Trentino, Roveretto and Trieste. In 1918, an armistice was signed and Italy left the war.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919), after the First World War, Italy annexed South Tyrol, Hertz, Gradiska, Istria, and the city of Zara to its territory.

Thus, Italy ended the First World War as a victor, but it was a Pyrrhic victory, i.e. victory at the cost of huge losses. During the war, 700 thousand were killed and 1.5 million Italians were wounded. Military losses amounted to 12 billion lire, this is 1/3 of its national wealth.

5. Italy between the First and Second World Wars .

The emergence of fascism.

After the First World War, chaos reigned in the country both in the economy and in politics: many enterprises were closed, rising taxes, inflation, high prices, a drop in real wages by 4-50%, and rising unemployment led to a sharp decline in the standard of living of Italians. Before the war, Italy exported food, but after the war it was forced to buy it abroad. Deprived of stable foreign markets, without a sufficiently capacious domestic market, Italy found itself on the verge of the economic crisis of 1920. True, during the war, industries providing military orders (metalworking, automobile, chemical, etc.) became significantly stronger, but in the post-war period Italy was forced to curtail military production.

Economic difficulties have exacerbated class contradictions, and a powerful labor movement is growing. In response to the refusal to raise wages, workers began to seize enterprises and manage them themselves, organizing factory councils - bodies of workers' self-government. Such councils were created at metallurgical, shipbuilding, textile, automobile and other enterprises. The workers considered the seizure of factories and factories as the first step towards establishing the power of the proletariat in the country. They even created Red Guard units and began manufacturing weapons. Along with the workers were office workers, engineering and technical workers, as well as peasants and farm laborers, who began to seize the landowners' lands.

Period 1919-1920 - This is a period of revolutionary crisis, it is called the “Red Biennium”. During this period, Italy was rocked by incessant strikes. Food riots became more frequent with the seizure of food stores; in some cities, trade unions began distributing confiscated food to workers at low prices. In a strike movement involving over 2 million people, workers demanded an 8-hour working day, higher wages, the introduction of a sliding wage scale and the conclusion of collective agreements. There were also political demands to stop intervention in Soviet Russia. The strikes were accompanied by mass workers joining trade unions. The leading trade union organization was the General Confederation of Labor (CGT), in 1919 its ranks included 2.1 million people.

The largest action of the “red two-year period” was the movement of the Italian proletariat to seize factories and factories in the “industrial triangle” (Milan, Turin, Genoa). Workers from a metallurgical plant in Milan occupied the plant, and workers from factories in other cities followed suit. For almost three weeks, workers guarded the factories, organizing work there, issuing wages and food. Factory councils were created at captured enterprises. The scale of the labor movement caused confusion for the government. The government promised workers that it would increase wages and allow worker control in factories. The trade union leaders of the CGT convinced the workers that the government’s promises were solid and reliable, and achieved the return of factories to their owners, who, naturally, abandoned their promises.

In 1918, the most progressive members of the ISP came out with a call for the creation of a socialist republic in Italy and the establishment of a dictatorship of the proletariat, in the image of Russia. The workers of Italy put forward the slogan: “Let’s do it like in Russia!” Supporters of this direction of development in Italy began to be called “maximalists,” i.e. supporters of the program - maximum - dictatorship of the proletariat. In addition to this direction, there were “reformists” who were also in the ISP. They only advocated for democratic reforms: an 8-hour working day, democratization of elections, salary increases, control over the management of enterprises, etc. During this period, the Catholic movement, led by the People's Party, created with the assistance of the Vatican (1919), also greatly increased.

Following the city workers, peasants, tenants, and farm laborers rose up to fight. They demanded land, lower rents, an 8-hour workday and higher wages. A spontaneous movement began to seize landowners' lands; it reached such a scale that the government was forced to pass laws improving the situation of the rural population, including in a number of cases allowing the transfer of seized lands into the hands of peasants.

The leadership of the ISP did not dare to take the lead in the workers’ and peasants’ movement and support the revolutionary spirit of the working people. The leaders of trade union associations supported only the economic demands of the people. During this period, there was no party in Italy that could lead the proletariat and peasantry to fight for their rights. Therefore, the decline of the revolutionary war began. However, the government made concessions and satisfied many of the economic demands of the workers. At the same time, already in 1919 Antonio Gramsci created a “renewed socialist party”, which in its views and tasks was close to the Communist Party in Russia. In 1921, this party was transformed into the Italian Communist Party (PCI). Its first leader was Antonio Gramsci. This party was supported by 50 thousand people.

The failure that befell the workers' and peasants' movement had an important consequence, namely: a loss of trust both in the government and in the leaders of the socialist party and trade unions, which soon turned the workers' movement towards fascism.

It should be said that the bourgeoisie of Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the First World War. She believed that Italy deserved better. It was widely believed that Italy was "defeated in the victors' camp." During this period, there were many former front-line soldiers in the country who were also dissatisfied with the results of the war for Italy. “We have been betrayed!” was their slogan. They did not hide their resentment at the betrayal of the Allies, who “deprived” Italy after the First World War, and picked up nationalist slogans about the need for external conquests and the “national greatness” of Italy.

At the end of the First World War, the state and political system of Italy found itself in a state of crisis. The government was unable to cope with the serious difficulties of the first post-war years. The Italian bourgeoisie did not have a large, well-organized political party capable of achieving a parliamentary majority and then stabilizing the internal party situation. Bourgeois circles needed a new strong party connected with the masses. In 1919, on the initiative of Catholic circles and on the basis of the mass Catholic movement, the People's Party (popolari, from the Italian word - “people”) was created. In essence, it was a bourgeois party, based on the broad masses of the peasantry, the urban petty bourgeoisie and partly on the proletariat and took advantage of the traditionally deep religious feelings of the Italians. The program of the People's Party contained demands close to the interests of its ordinary members, which distracted the masses from the socialist party. Under its control, the People's Party created its own national trade union center - the Italian Confederation of Workers.

In 1919 In the parliamentary elections, the People's Party and other bourgeois parties came to power.

The weakness of the Italian state in its domestic and foreign policy, the consequences of the “crippled victory”, the active mass movement of workers in 1919-1920. created the emergence of specific historical conditions in which fascism arose.

In 1919, the first fascist organization was created in Milan. It was the "Union of Struggle". The word "Union" in Italian is "fascio". The words “fascist” and “fascism” come from him. The “Union” initially put forward demands that were close to the people: the abolition of the monarchy, the abolition of titles, the demand for a tax on large capital and the abolition of compulsory military service, an 8-hour working day and the implementation of agrarian reform. But all these were demagogic demands and they were put forward only with the aim of attracting the broad masses of the population to their side.

Fascist organizations began to be called fighting unions. The Nazis introduced a paramilitary uniform - black shirts, a special organizational structure - legions, cohorts and the ancient Roman greeting - a wave of an outstretched straight arm. In fact, all the activities of the fascists were aimed, firstly, at inciting nationalist sentiments of the aggressive foreign policy of Italy, which was looking for a “place in the sun”, secondly, against the organized labor movement and its parties and, thirdly, at seeking support influential monopoly circles and the top of the army. During the first years, the demagogic propaganda of the fascists did not have mass success: the number of fascist unions was small and in the first post-war elections the fascists were unable to get a single deputy into parliament.

Benito Mussolini became the leader of the Italian fascists. He was born in 1883. in the family of a blacksmith. After graduating from school, he worked as a teacher at school, then went to Switzerland, where he quickly distinguished himself among Italian emigrants, speaking at rallies and collaborating in the press. Mussolini joined the Socialist Party. Upon returning to Italy, he studied journalism and politics. With the outbreak of the First World War, Mussolini, disillusioned with the Socialist Party, left it and in 1919 became the initiator of the creation of fascist unions.

Mussolini was a very capable man, had a great will, was an excellent speaker, and knew how to captivate people with his words. He was considered a man of the crowd, possessing political intuition and practicality; he was called an “artist of action”; he loved spectacular poses, gestures and clothes.

In a fairly short time, Mussolini was able to skillfully take advantage of the economic and political situation in Italy and ensure that fascism became a mass movement. He put forward slogans that attracted the broad masses to him. Thus, his slogan: “The land is for those who work it” attracted the masses of the middle peasantry and the sympathy of many segments of the Italian population. He supported the front-line soldiers who fought in the First World War, and together with them demanded to forcibly take away and annex to Italy the territories of North Africa, which it lost during the war. He managed to enlist the support of the Italian monopoly bourgeoisie, bankers and farmers, the leadership of the army, the royal court, and the Vatican. After the defeat of the workers' movement to take over factories in 1920, the number of fascist unions and their numbers began to grow rapidly. In 1921 in Rome, the “Union of Struggle” formed into a political party, which already had 300 thousand supporters, with 40% made up of proletarian elements: workers, peasants, employees, artisans, students. Preparations began for the seizure of power. The obstacle on this path was the labor movement and its parties - socialist and communist. Mussolini creates detachments of “black shirts” (members of these detachments wore black shirts), which began an outright brutal street civil war with socialists, communists, and liberals. The fascists carried out pogroms and raids on workers' organizations, disrupted rallies, beat up workers' leaders, and used terror and bullying against their opponents. Mussolini's troops destroyed newspaper editorial offices, cooperatives, and trade union organizations. Armed clashes between fascists and anti-fascists have become a daily occurrence in Italy. Italian workers resisted the fascists, and clashes between workers and fascists sometimes turned into bloody battles. However, the disunity of the labor movement did not allow the creation of an insurmountable barrier for the fascists on their path to power. In October 1922 Mussolini gave the order for the so-called “March on Rome” and the armed columns of the Blackshirts entered the “eternal city” without encountering resistance. King Victor Emmanuel III received Mussolini and, after negotiations, offered him the post of head of government. So a fascist coup took place in Italy, and Italy became the first country where the fascists came to power. Mussolini was supposed to form a coalition government, but in reality it became the government of a one-party dictatorship. Gradually, all legislative and executive power passes to the fascists. Mussolini himself concentrated enormous power in his hands: he is the prime minister, the minister of the interior, the head of three military ministries, and the minister of colonies. Parliamentary elections of 1924 took place in an atmosphere of terror and falsification. The fascists gained a majority through fraud. The fascist machinations were courageously exposed by Socialist Party deputy Matteotti, for which he was killed. Matteotti's murder caused outrage in the country and led to the so-called "Matteotti crisis". The opposition committee, which demanded the dissolution of the fascist parliament and the resignation of Mussolini, was dispersed. In 1925, laws were passed according to which the composition of the government became completely fascist. Mussolini is appointed not by parliament, but by the king, and is released from responsibility to parliament, the government receives the right to make laws bypassing parliament, all non-fascist political parties and trade unions are dissolved. Exile without trial is introduced and the death penalty is restored for enemies of the state. The “Labour Charter” is adopted, a document that defines the structure of the state. According to the main sectors of the economy, 22 corporations were created, which united entrepreneurs, trade unions and all workers. The introduction of the corporate system was a form of strengthening state control over the entire Italian economy. Mussolini began to remake the Italian economy. But economic restructuring was not aimed at improving the standard of living of the population, but at strengthening the country’s military potential. The economy was rebuilt under conditions of terror, strict censorship, persecution of dissent, banning trade unions, suppression of strikes, demonstrations, repressions, etc. She marched under the slogan “Long live the dictatorship!” and Mussolini's cult of personality. He was called nothing less than “Duce” (Leader). Mussolini sought autarky - self-sufficiency and economic independence. For this purpose, a sectoral and technical reorganization of the economy was carried out, strict control over production and finance, regulation of consumption, and militarization were introduced. Through direct multilateral intervention in the economy, the Italian fascist state was able to accelerate the pace of development of the country.

Mussolini is making plans to conquer other states. He declared that Italy should become “the leader of the civilized world.”

Mussolini welcomed the establishment of fascism in Germany, because this proved, in his opinion, the “triumph of the fascist idea” in Europe. He believed that fascism could be spread peacefully, but at the same time, Germany was becoming a competitor to Italy, because Hitler spoke about the superiority of the German race.

Fascist Italy hatched plans to expand its territories. To this end, it was necessary to rearm the army both technically and morally, which was done. Italy enters into secret agreements with France and England on the division of spheres of influence in colonial countries, particularly in Africa. Mussolini decided to start with Ethiopia. The choice of this country was due to the fact that Ethiopia could become a source of raw materials and a sales market for Italy. The public perception was that Ethiopia was “a gun pointed at the heart of Italy.” In 1935, a well-armed Italian army invaded Ethiopia, which had great raw material wealth and an important strategic position. Modern weapons and toxic substances were used in the war. In 1936, the Italians occupied the capital of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. Ethiopia was declared a colony of Italy. The League of Nations declared Italy an aggressor. Appropriate sanctions were applied to it: a ban on exports, imports, loans, but this was formal. Attitudes towards the seizure of Ethiopia were received ambiguously in the country. The bourgeoisie approved of the war, rallies were held in its support, and calls were made to pray for Italy's victory. A collection of gold and non-ferrous metals for military needs was announced, and a ceremony was held to donate wedding rings to the war (Queen Helena and Mussolini's wife also donated their rings). On the other hand, anti-fascist parties opposed the war. They revealed its essence: “The war that began in Africa is not the war of Italy, but the war of fascism... immediate peace with Ethiopia! Down with Mussolini!

After taking over Ethiopia, Mussolini said that Italy had become an empire again. The end of the war in Ethiopia marked the beginning of the fascistization of life in Italy. A single “fascist” style of life in the country was defined. Among the obligatory events, “fascist Saturdays” occupied a special place. All Italians were required to devote their Saturdays to military, political and sports training. A new man of the “Mussolini era” was being formed. Youth organizations were created - “Children of the She-Wolf”, “Young Fascists”. In these organizations, children were taught to live like a fascist. At the age of 6, the child took an oath to serve fascism, “without sparing his own blood.” Everywhere there was a cult of the Duce, he was deified, everywhere there were slogans: “Mussolini is always right.”

In 1936, during the revolution in Spain, Italy, together with Germany, assisted the Franco government in suppressing the revolution, i.e. undertook an intervention - interference in the internal affairs of Spain. By doing this they supported the fascist regime in the country.

Italian planes and ships transported rebel cargo to Spain and transported “volunteers”. Italian anti-fascists also sent their volunteers to Spain to fight against fascism with arms in hand, at least in another country. And it so happened that the Italians competed against each other in Spain. Aid to Spain was equal to 2/3 of the annual Italian budget. In 1937, at the insistence of Franco, Mussolini withdrew Italian troops from Spain.

Participation in the intervention in Spain by Italy and Germany contributed to their rapprochement. They developed a coordinated policy for the “anti-Bolshevik struggle” and intentions for a coordinated policy in Europe. This is how the Berlin-Rome Axis was formed, then Japan joined them. The main thing in this alliance was the “fight against communism.”

In 1939, Italy captured Albania. In the same year, the so-called “Pact of Steel” was signed in Berlin, which completed the formation of an aggressive bloc of fascist Germany and Italy. This bloc of Italy and Germany was not defensive, but offensive in nature. It was created in order to “change the geographical map of the world.”

The aggressiveness of Italy's foreign policy was accompanied by the militarization of the country. Mussolini believed that Italy should represent a military camp. In Italy, not only the idea of ​​a nation, but also a racist ideology began to be cultivated. Italians were considered to be the superior Aryan race; all other nationalities were discriminated against.

In September 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact for a political and military-economic alliance. He defined the spheres of influence of each of the three states and declared their goals to be the division of the world and the enslavement of peoples.

Thus, before the Second World War, a fascist dictatorship was formed in Italy, which has already celebrated its 17th anniversary. Fascism in Italy made claims to external expansion and demanded subordination of the country's internal life to these goals. The aggressiveness of Italy's foreign policy was accompanied by further militarization of the country. Mussolini believed that Italy should represent a military camp. There were extreme measures of violence against all workers, militant anti-communism, chauvinism, and racism in the country. At the same time, anti-fascist resistance was growing in Italy, led by the Italian Communist Party. Strikes and demonstrations continued in Italy demanding not only economic but also political changes.

6. Italy during the Second World War (1939-1945).

The fall of the fascist dictatorship.

World War II began on September 1, 1939. In July 1940, Italy, having declared war on England and France, entered World War II on the side of Germany. In September of the same year, she concluded the Triple Alliance with Germany and Japan.

In October, the Italian fascists attacked Greece, but during the war they were defeated by regular Greek troops and partisans. In 1941, fascist Italy began a war with Yugoslavia and the USSR. It must be said that before World War II, the armament of the Italian army was at the level of the war with Ethiopia in 1935.

Italy has long wanted to assert its dominance in the Mediterranean, North and Northeast Africa and the Middle East. In 1940 After the defeat of France, Italian troops launched an offensive from Libya in an easterly direction. This posed a threat to the Suez Canal and British possessions in the region. The British went on the offensive and defeated the Italian army. The British advanced further into Northeast Africa (Eritrea, Somalia, Ethiopia) and forced the Italians to capitulate. In 1942 the threat to the countries of the Middle East was eliminated.

In addition to military operations in the Mediterranean basin, the Italian army also fought on the Eastern Front against the USSR. Here Italy lost major forces. After the defeat of Nazi troops at Stalingrad, the Italian army capitulated.

By the end of 1942 Italy found itself faced with serious not only external but also internal difficulties. Industry experienced an acute shortage of raw materials and electricity, and the country's finances were strained to the limit by unsuccessful military operations. A clear discrepancy emerged between the far-reaching aggressive goals of Italian fascism and the limited means for their implementation. The hidden discontent of the Italians grew and in 1943 resulted in mass strikes, which took place under the sign of not only economic, but also political slogans.

In July 1943 Anglo-American troops captured the island of Sicily. The ruling circles of Italy sought to prevent the victory of democratic forces. They wanted to establish a military-monarchical dictatorship in the country (“Fascism without Mussolini”). For this purpose, Mussolini was removed from his post as head of government and arrested. The new government was formed by Marshal Badoglio. This government began negotiations with the Anglo-American command and an armistice agreement was signed. Allied troops landed in the south of the Apennine Peninsula and Italy capitulated. Then German troops occupied the northern, central and part of the southern provinces of the country and entered Rome. On this territory the “Italian Social Republic” or the Republic of Salo was created with its capital being Rome. The country seems to have split into two states: in the south there is a military-monarchical regime ruled by the king and the government of Badoglio, in the north there is the so-called Italian Social Republic with a fascist regime. Mussolini, who was arrested and was in the province of Abruzzi, was “kidnapped” by the German command and taken to Hitler’s headquarters. After meetings with Hitler, Mussolini formulated a program for a new fascist state. He declared that from now on Italy is the Italian Social Republic. But, since this “republic” was located on the territory of Italy, occupied by the Germans, all its industrial facilities and the government were under the control of the Germans. The Social Republic became Germany's raw material appendage.

A resistance movement began on its territory. The struggle was led by the National Liberation Committees. During this movement, the unity of all anti-fascist forces emerged - communists, socialists, Catholics, etc. One of the forms of the nationwide resistance movement was the strike struggle of workers. This caused serious damage to the economy of the fascist regime of Northern Italy. But the strikers put forward not only economic demands - higher wages, but also political demands. They opposed the forced sending of workers to German factories, against military mobilization. Partisans blew up communications, attacked German barracks, punished traitors, and carried out various acts of sabotage. Strikes turned into armed struggle. Weapons were used against the strikers.

Southern Italy, where power belonged to the king and the Badoglio government, and where Anglo-American troops were located, declared war on Germany. At this time, a new coalition government was formed there, which included communists, socialists, Christian democrats, and liberals. This government contributed to the democratization of the regime in Southern Italy. Decrees were adopted on the punishment of fascist criminals, on cleansing the state apparatus of fascist elements, and on the creation of a national army. In May 1944 Anglo-American troops began an offensive in northern Italy. They occupied Rome and other cities. After the liberation of Rome, the capital of the “Social Republic” moved to Salo, near the Swiss border. A wide partisan movement developed in northern Italy, which helped the advance of the Allied forces to the north of the country. The “Republic of Salo” began to negotiate with the allied forces to conclude a truce, but in such a way as to preserve the fascist army and use it to fight the partisans. In June 1944, a single guerrilla army was created - the Freedom Volunteer Corps - with a single command. This army included separate partisan detachments that operated in Italy. The same army included the Garibaldian brigades. Among those who fought were Soviet soldiers who were in captivity in Italy.

April 25, 1944 In northern Italy there was a nationwide uprising against the occupiers, which ended with the liberation of Italy from fascism. 250 thousand people took part in the uprising. On April 27, Mussolini was caught (he fled, dressed in a soldier's overcoat). The next day he and his ministers were shot. On April 29, their corpses, as well as that of Mussolini's mistress, were hanged upside down in Milan.

In 1947, Italy signed a peace treaty with the USSR, USA, France, England, which determined the land borders of Italy and the amount of reparations it had to pay to the USSR, Yugoslavia, Greece, Albania, whose territories suffered from the invasion of the Italian army. Italy renounced its colonies in Africa, recognized the sovereignty of Albania and Ethiopia, and returned the Dodecanese Islands to Greece. The city of Trieste and its district were allocated as a “free territory”. Then, in 1954, the territory of Trieste was divided between Italy and Yugoslavia, the city of Trieste went to Italy. In Italy, the creation of fascist organizations was prohibited, the size of the armed forces was limited, and the placement of military bases on the territory of the country was prohibited.

7. Italy after World War II (1945-1999)

The fascist dictatorship existed in Italy for twenty years. This period was called the "Black Twenties". The fascist dictatorship and the war inflicted deep wounds on Italy: hundreds of thousands of young people died or became disabled, equipment from many enterprises, works of art, etc. were taken out of the country. Italy has lost a third of its national wealth. There was a shortage of food in the country, which caused speculation and the “black market”, inflation was growing rapidly, unemployment hit almost two million people, the country was occupied by Anglo-American troops. At this time, it was necessary to resolve the issue of the country's state structure.

After the war, Italy was still a monarchy. King Victor Emmanuel III, who had been on the throne since 1900, transferred power to Mussolini in the early 1920s and supported the fascists, which caused discontent among the people.

In 1945, a government consisting of representatives of anti-fascist parties was in power. Christian Democratic (CDA), Communist (PCI), Socialist (ISP). These parties demanded to replace the monarchy with a republic. A national referendum was held: 12.7 million people cast their votes for the republic, and 10.7 million people, mainly in the south of the country, for the monarchy. Italy became a Republic. This happened on June 2, 1946 and became a national holiday in Italy. The majority in the government was given to the Christian Democratic Party, then the ISP and the ICP.

In 1947, with the participation of these parties, a new constitution of Italy was developed, which came into force on January 1, 1948. The constitution proclaimed freedom of speech, press, assembly, the right to work and its fair payment, the need for agrarian reform, the participation of workers in the management of enterprises, discrimination based on political or religious views was prohibited, and the equality of women was proclaimed. The activities of fascist organizations were not allowed, and members of the royal family were not allowed to return to Italy.

According to the constitution, legislative power in the country belongs to parliament, elected for five years by universal suffrage. Parliament consists of two chambers: the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The government is headed by a representative of the party that received the largest number of votes in the parliamentary elections. He also forms the entire government. The President is elected at a joint meeting of both chambers for a term of seven years.

Thus, already in the first post-war years, Italy became a republic (1946), in which a new constitution was in force (1948).

The first post-war government of Italy was headed by the representative of the Christian Democratic Party De Gasperi, who held this post until 1954. The communists were not in government for long. In 1947, a government crisis broke out: communists and socialists were expelled from the government. Christian Democrat De Gasperi formed a one-party cabinet. The era of Christian Democratic Party rule has begun.

It is clear that after the war, Italy needed financial assistance, which was promised to it by the United States, provided that there were no communists or socialists in the government. That's why they were removed from the government in 1947. The US economic assistance plan of J. Marshall, aimed at restoring the economy destroyed by the war, was adopted by Italy in 1948 for a period of 2 years, but then extended. Initially, food products were imported into Italy, and then the import of industrial equipment began. The total volume of supplies under the Marshall Plan initially amounted to $1.5 billion, and the United States controlled the expenditure of incoming funds. Subsequently, US financial assistance amounted to over $3 billion. Internal funds were also used to restore the Italian economy. The country introduced state-monopoly regulation, state financing and lending, and state assistance to certain industries. In addition, the Italian economy is receiving large investments from Italian oligarchs. In 1957, Italy entered the common market.

All of the above allowed Italy, by the end of the first post-war decade, not only to restore the destroyed industry, but also to modernize it, achieve an increase in production, which ultimately led to an increase in living standards and a change in the way of life of Italians. All this was called the Italian “economic miracle”. Of course, this “economic miracle” also had its downside: the uneven economic development of the country, dependence on foreign capital, lagging agriculture, the persistence of the problem of the South, etc.

The South of Italy was home to one third of the population, and the per capita income was half that of the rest of the country. Therefore, there, in the 50s, there was poverty, unemployment, migration and emigration. The country had to solve the problem of the South. The state development policy of the South acquired a broad and permanent character with the creation in 1950 of the Cash Fund of the South - a state fund for special long-term financing of backward areas. In 1950, an agrarian reform was adopted, according to which surplus land was confiscated from large landowners for ransom and transferred to needy peasants with payment in installments. Huge financial costs gradually turned the South from agrarian to industrial-agrarian. However, the standard of living there is still lower than in the northern regions to this day.

Of course, you have to pay for everything. The foreign policy of the Christian Democratic Party was focused on the United States. Italy participated in NATO (North Atlantic, a military-political alliance directed against socialist countries and the national liberation movement). She took part in the Cold War (the hostile political course pursued by Western countries and the United States against the USSR). Military formations and NATO headquarters were located on Italian territory. In violation of the peace treaty, American military bases were established in Italy. Italy has concluded a mutual defense assistance agreement with the United States. It became a member of the Common Market and Euratom. In accordance with this, American military bases equipped with missile weapons were located on the territory of the country.

In the post-war period, Italy had a strong, united labor movement. Workers opposed Italy's participation in the Cold War, the country's entry into NATO and Euratom, and put forward demands aimed at improving living and working conditions.

The interests of workers in Italy were represented by: the General Italian Confederation of Labor (GICT). This association was born during the anti-fascist Resistance movement; The Italian Confederation of Trade Unions (ICTU), unites mainly Catholic workers; The Italian Labor Union (ITU) was influenced by socialists, republicans, and social democrats.

During the years of economic recovery, Italian workers used various forms of struggle: “non-cooperation” (slow work), “chess strikes” (alternate cessation of work in different workshops), “reverse strikes” (carrying out work on their own initiative and demanding payment), solidarity strikes , general strikes in the city, province and even throughout the country. The organization and mass character of the labor movement forced the authorities to make concessions. Therefore, in terms of wages, social insurance system, pensions and benefits, Italy occupied one of the first places in the world. During these years, the student movement intensified. Students demanded improvements to the higher education system. The intelligentsia and the urban petty bourgeoisie took part in the mass movements. Trade union organizations gave the strike movement unprecedented scope. Suffice it to say that at the end of the 60s, 20 million people took part in the general strike. The strike movement in Italy was significantly ahead of other countries in its scope. The government responds to all the demands of the workers with repression and reprisals against demonstrators.

Rapid economic growth in the 50-60s allowed Italy to enter the seven most advanced industrial states in the world. They began to talk about Italy as a “land of prosperity.” However, since the late 60s, the economic situation has been deteriorating: the “economic miracle” has passed, the growth rate of the Italian economy has slowed, and in the mid-70s Italy found itself in the grip of a global economic crisis. Production growth almost completely stopped, prices rose, the number of unemployed increased, and the foreign trade deficit increased. All this required a structural restructuring of production: the introduction of high-tech technologies, energy-saving materials, the use of microprocessors, robots, computer science, and automation of control systems. This led to Italy beginning to emerge from the crisis. An economic recovery began that lasted until the 90s.

A feature of the political life of Italy is its instability. Economic crises are combined with political crises. Italy is a multi-party country with the following leading parties:

1. Christian Democratic Party (CDP). Founded in 1943 - defends the interests of the big bourgeoisie, farmers and the Catholic Church. Maintains close ties with the Vatican. Existed until 1996. Its successor was the Italian People's Party (IPN).

2. Italian Republican Party (IRP). Founded in 1832 - the party of the petty and middle bourgeoisie.

3. Italian Socialist Party (ISP). Founded in 1892 - expresses the interests of part of the working class, petty bourgeoisie and petty intelligentsia.

4. Italian Social Democratic Party (ISDP). Founded in 1947 - reflects the interests of the petty bourgeoisie and workers.

5. Italian Liberal Party (ILP). Founded in 1845, it reflects the interests of the most conservative circles of the big bourgeoisie and farmers.

6. Italian Communist Party (ICP). Founded in 1921 - defends the interests of the working class and all workers. Its printed organ is the newspaper Unita (Unity). In 1991, the PCI announced the cessation of its activities and on its basis the Democratic Party of Left Forces (DPLS) was created.

7. Italian social movement (neo-fascist party). It emerged in 1947 on the basis of the former fascist party and calls for the restoration of fascism in the country. In 1995, it dissolved itself and on its basis the National Alliance party was created, which declared its break with fascist ideology.

It must be said that from time to time disagreements and the formation of new parties occur within different parties.

In Italy, the government is formed by the party that received the most votes in the elections. The Christian Democratic Party was in power for many years. Its representatives headed the government from 1945 to 1981. (De Gasperi, Aldo Moro, Giulio Andreotti, A. Fanfanni, etc.). Since 1981, the government has been headed by a representative of the ISP, Benedetto Craxi. In Italy there is a constant change of government, which has become an Italian tradition. From 1945 to 1993 There have been 52 governments in Italy.

Political instability poses a threat to the state. In these conditions, terrorism, corruption, mafia arise, and the activity of neo-fascists intensifies, using terror methods: assassinations, murders, explosions and other acts of violence. The most famous organizations uniting terrorists were the Red Brigades. Neo-fascist organizations seek to destabilize society and establish a dictatorship. In their activities, they are the political and ideological successors of the fascist organizations dissolved after the Second World War. The mafia, a secret terrorist organization that operates by methods of blackmail, violence, and murder, has become a great disaster for the country. She terrorizes the population, extorts money, and smuggles drugs. The mafia is associated with corrupt government structures, making the fight against it difficult. The mafia originated on the island of Sicily and spread throughout the world. It exists in Italy to this day. In the 70-80s, it became a generally recognized factor that of all capitalist countries, Italy was the most affected by terror and the mafia.

In Italy the Communist Party had great influence. Established in 1921, it enjoyed the authority of the working people for many years. She was an active leader of the Resistance Movement during the Second World War and was a member of the Italian government for many years. It should be said that already in the 50s, the communist parties of many capitalist countries began to lose their influence. The head of the PCI, Palmiro Togliatti, considered it necessary to reconsider the party's policy taking into account the changes that had occurred in Italy. The PCI recognized the values ​​of the democratic system in the country and, instead of the revolutionary struggle, put forward a course for social reforms in the interests of the poor. This allowed the PCI to remain as one of the leading political forces, second only to the Christian Democrats. In the 70s, the PCI was seen as the only force capable of defending democracy in the country. At this time it had 1.7 million members and was the largest communist party in the West. In 1976, during the parliamentary elections, 34.4% of voters voted for the Communists (38.7% for the Christian Democratic Party). However, despite these results, the communists did not enter the government. But the Christian Democratic Party developed reform programs in the country to destabilize the economy and fight terrorism together with the communists and socialists, i.e. pursued a policy of “national solidarity”. But this policy soon ceased to be carried out and the communists left parliament. In the 80s, the influence of the Communist Party in the country began to decline. The communists themselves believed that this happened because the communist movement in Italy clearly followed the Soviet model of socialism, without taking into account the national characteristics of their country. The communists of Italy and other countries did not agree with the policies pursued by the Communist Party of the USSR: they condemned the USSR's interference in the internal affairs of other countries, the absolute role of the party, which replaced all other power structures, etc. The term “Eurocommunism” appeared, i.e. communism for Western European countries. However, the “Eurocommunists” did not present their clear platform of action, and there was no unity among the PCI. In 1991, the PCI was transformed into the Democratic Party of the Left. The symbols of the ICP - the red flag and the hammer and sickle - were abolished.

In the 1980s, Italy was governed by a government of five parties: Christian Democrats, Liberals, Republicans, Social Democrats and Socialists. For the first time in Italian history, this government was headed by the socialist Benedetto Craschi. This government used new liberal market methods in its policies. At this time, the public sector had a large share in industry (3/4 of the mining industry, 1/2 of the steel industry, 70% of the shipbuilding industry, 2/3 of the electromechanical industry). Partial privatization of state-owned enterprises was carried out, and unprofitable state-owned enterprises were liquidated. In addition, the Kraska government pursued a policy of “austerity, mainly at the expense of the workers: the effect of the “sliding scale” of wages was limited, spending on health care, education, and social security was reduced. The government waged a vigorous fight against the mafia and limited the influence of the church on schools and family legislation. These years saw an increase in the activity of leftist forces, which was reflected in an increase in the number and severity of strikes. In 1980 - 1982 42 million people went on strike throughout the country, which is twice as many as in the USA, Great Britain, France, Germany and Japan combined. The strikes took place not only in connection with economic demands, but also in connection with the deployment of American cruise missiles in Sicily, and the “green” movement spoke out in defense of the environment. There was also no stability in the government and there was constant rivalry between Christian Democrats and Socialists.

Italy entered the 1990s as a developed industrial power, ranking fifth in the capitalist world in terms of gross domestic product (GDP). Mechanical engineering has become one of the leading sectors of its economy. In terms of production of various machine tools, Italy ranks fourth among the developed capitalist countries of the world. The FIAT automobile concern is called the “Industrial Myth of the 21st Century.” FIAT is the largest private concern (290 thousand workers), produces over 80% of passenger cars (1.3 million cars annually). The administrative center of FIAT is Turin.

The Italian economy is characterized by the dominance of monopoly capital, as well as the participation of foreign capital. There are many state associations and private monopolies in the country.

State associations: Institute of Industrial Reconstruction. Unites over 150 enterprises in various industries, the number of employees is 500 thousand. people – Oil and Gas Association, includes 160 companies in the oil, gas and chemical industries, employing 140 thousand people.

In addition to FIAT, large private monopolies include Fininvest, which employs 26 thousand people. Its main activities are television, publishing, advertising, insurance, department stores, etc. This association belongs to S. Berlusconi (Prime Minister of Italy).

Italy ranks sixth in world trade. It entered global markets as a major exporter of automobiles, furniture, building materials, agricultural machinery, ready-made garments, footwear, electrical appliances, medical equipment, as well as fruits and wines. Italy produces 4 thousand industrial robots annually.

The agricultural sector is mainly agricultural. Its basis is crop production - 58% and, above all, grain crops (wheat, corn, rice). Under pressure from the European Union, the area under cultivation and the volume of agricultural products are being reduced. Italy supplies the market with a large variety of fruits and vegetables (citrus fruits, grapes, almonds, walnuts, tomatoes). Tourism is a profitable and promising sector of the Italian national economy. Over 50 million tourists visit Italy every year. Italy is a major scientific center. The country is home to the oldest universities in Europe - Bologna, Parma, Rome, Naples, etc. The most influential newspapers: Repubblica, Stampa, Corriere della Sera, Unita.

Italy maintains its position as one of the leading countries in the world. It ranks 5th in the world in terms of production volume, and 3rd in terms of per capita income. Its economy has the following structure: industry accounts for 35.6%, agriculture – 3.9%, service sector – 65.5%. This gives reason to believe that a post-industrial society has been created in Italy, in which the leading role belongs to the service sector, science and education.

Italy is linked with the USSR and Russia by a traditional economic partnership. Italy is the second trade and economic partner of Russia in Europe (after Germany). Russia exports oil, petroleum products, natural gas, and coal to Italy, because Italy is not rich in natural resources. Italy supplies machinery and equipment to Russia. Italian firms are building various industrial facilities, taking part in the modernization of Russian light and food industry enterprises and the creation of joint Russian-Italian firms. Thanks to Italian businessmen, Zhiguli cars appeared in Russia. Now our domestic automakers are going to start building cars in Italy. By 2007, 20 thousand cars will be produced - "Simbir".

In the socio-political life of Italy at present, three trends can be distinguished: the influence of the socialists has grown, the influence of the communists has decreased, the influence of the Christian Democratic Party has stabilized and its dominant role remains. The Christian Democratic Party is either in power itself or leads a coalition with other parties. But she is doing her best to block the path to power for the communists, who are her main opposition force. At the same time, since the Christian Democratic Party begins to, as it were, share power with the ISP, the question arises whether such “imperfect bipartisanship” will continue to exist, or whether a version of the two-party system “CDA - ISP” will be created. The elections of May 1996 were won by the left, united around the Democratic Party of the Left. This allowed the representative of the center-left bloc, Romano Prodi, to form a government. In the 1990s, Italy experienced its biggest scandal involving the revelation of bribery in Milan in 1992. The leader of the Christian Democrats, as well as ministers, senators, and major entrepreneurs, were under investigation. After this scandal, the Christian Democratic Party split, and the Italian People's Party became its successor.

The policy in the late 90s was aimed at bringing the Italian economy into line with the criteria of the Maastricht Treaty (Netherlands). As is known, this agreement provided for the creation of a monetary and economic union (MEC) in 1999 and the introduction of a single currency in Europe. In 2002, Italy, among other European countries, introduced a new currency - “EURO”.

Thus, Italy entered the 20th century as an agrarian country. In this century, it has passed its economic path from agrarian to agrarian-industrial, industrial and entered the post-industrial period of its development. A feature of its economy is the dominance of monopoly capital in the form of state and private monopolies. Throughout the 20th century, the Italian economy experienced both global economic crises and production declines associated with internal reasons.

A characteristic feature of Italy is the high activity of workers in defending their rights and freedoms, which is expressed in the strike movement, which intensifies during years of social upheaval (crises, wars, etc.). The workers put forward not only economic, but also political demands, which is still observed today.

A political feature of Italy is its multi-party system, with instability and frequent splits within parties, which leads to frequent political crises and is accompanied by changes in government cabinet.

Italy is a country where terrorism and mafia flourish, and the fight against these phenomena has not yet been successful. In terms of the scale of corruption, Italy has no equal in the world. This is largely due to the peculiarities of the Italian political mechanism. In Italy, during parliamentary elections they vote not for a specific person, but for a party. The personal composition is determined by the leader of the party, which creates conditions for bribery, intrigue, and corruption. In Italy there is even a joke: the Mafia cannot be defeated. It can only be led.

There are friendly partnership relations between Russia and Italy. Trade and economic cooperation is expanding. In April 2002 During the visit of Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi to Moscow, a protocol of mutual understanding in the field of technical cooperation was signed, as well as a memorandum of understanding between the relevant space institutes of the two countries on joint research in the field of space.

LITERATURE

1. History of Italy. 1971 vol. 2-3.

2. Belousov L.S. Mussolini: dictatorship and demagoguery. M. 1993

3. Kunz I. Italy at the turn of the century. M. Nauka, 1980

4. Countries and peoples. Foreign Europe. Italy. 1983

5. Countries of the world. Directory. M. 1997

6. Dictators and tyrants. 1998

7. World history. 1999

8. Periodicals.

The formation of a unified Italian state in 1870, when Rome was annexed to Italy and the elimination of foreign oppression, as well as the elimination of the centuries-old influence of the Vatican, created favorable conditions for the development of capitalism in the country and strengthened international positions in Europe.

The resolution of the main problem of the historical development of the country - its unification - opened the way for social progress and the completion of the formation of the Italian nation.

Large landed properties, including huge latifundia, remained intact after unification. Production relations in the southern village, burdened with feudal remnants, did not undergo any changes.

Thus, the urgent tasks of the bourgeois transformation of Italian society were only partially resolved.

Characteristic features of development in the last third of the 19th century were: uneven development of industry and agriculture, South and North, and the severity of class contradictions.

By 1871, Italy was an agricultural country where the process of initial accumulation of capital was not completed. There was a dominance of feudal land ownership and small handicraft industry predominated.

The cost of agricultural products was 3 billion liras versus 1 billion liras for the cost of industrial products.

The elimination of feudal fragmentation gave impetus:

Development of capitalism

Accelerated the process of establishing a single national market

Separation of industry from agriculture

Capital accumulation

Industrialization of the country.

Customs barriers between regions of Italy were eliminated and a unified monetary system was introduced.

The construction of railways and highways began. The volume of maritime transport and the tonnage of the merchant fleet increased. Based on local markets, a single national market has emerged.

The transition of industry from craft-manufacturing to factory-based industry began, although the years 1896-1914 played a decisive role in this.

The cotton, wool, and mining industries developed. Machine-building and metallurgical enterprises arose in Piedmont, Lombardy, and Liguria.

With the help of the state, banks, railway companies, and shipping companies developed. The population of cities grew.

However, by the end of the 19th century, the industry still retained a craft, semi-handicraft character.

There were 1.4 million artisans, small business owners and shopkeepers.

As for the development of capitalism in the countryside, this development followed the “Prussian” path. A large landowner economy was preserved. The number of landless peasants grew. Semi-feudal methods of exploitation remained. Peasant farms eked out a miserable existence. Due to the agricultural crisis, Italy was forced to import large quantities of wheat and other grain products into the country.

During this period, the number of monopolies in Italy grew. Italian imperialism began to take shape. The formation of imperialism coincided with the high development of industrialization of the country and the birth of the factory industry, the core of which was located in the 3 provinces of the North - Lombardy, Liguria and Piedmont.

Increased:

The cost of gross output doubled

National income doubled

The number of industrial enterprises doubled

The number of industrial workers doubled.

Developed:

Textile, - engineering, - chemical, - automotive industries.

1914 - Italy transformed from an agricultural country into an agrarian-industrial one.

The industrial boom was accompanied by stock market fever, the birth of large fortunes, and an increase in industrial investment and bank deposits.

The positions of the industrial and financial bourgeoisie strengthened. The sphere of capitalist production expanded to include manufactories and craft enterprises.

The formation of monopolies was accelerated due to the concentration of production and capital, due to international competition, borrowing forms of organization of production and banking from developed countries and the protectionist policy of the ruling circles.

The main sphere of monopoly capital was in the North of the country, especially heavy industry, the textile industry, and banks.

The penetration of monopolies into agriculture gave only the first steps.

That. Economic development proceeded unevenly in individual sectors. The South lagged behind in development. The low standard of living of the population resulted in a narrow domestic market. There was an interweaving of monopolies with semi-feudal forms of exploitation and the dominance of large landowners.

General information

Italy is located in South-West Europe, in the Mediterranean Sea. It occupies the Apennine Peninsula, the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and a number of small islands. Territory - 301.2 thousand km2. Capital - Rome. The largest cities are Milan, Naples, Turin, Genoa, etc. Within Italy there are two states - the Vatican and San Marino, surrounded on all sides by its territory. Administrative-territorial division - 20 regions. Population 57.8 million (1995). 94% - Italians. The official language is Italian. The dominant religion is Catholicism. The monetary unit is the lira. National holiday - the first Sunday of June - Day of the Proclamation of the Republic (June 2, 1946).

Italy at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries

Italy approached the 20th century as a capitalist country, in which Italian imperialism had already begun to take shape. According to V.I. Lenin, it was “beggarly imperialism.” On the eve of the 20th century, Italy was still an agricultural country. More than half of the national income came from the value of agricultural products (3 billion liras), against 1 billion liras from the value of industrial products.

By the end of the 19th century, Italy was already a unified state. It should be noted that Italy was fragmented for a long time and consisted of numerous city-states. On its territory there were states (kingdoms) under the rule of France and Austria. Rome was under the rule of the popes.

After the wars and revolutions of 1848-1849. and 1859-1860, led by the Carbonari and members of the Young Italy organization (G. Mazzini and G. Garibaldi), and the annexation of Rome (1870), Italy became a single state.

This made it possible to create a single national market, eliminate customs barriers between individual regions, and introduce a single monetary system.

The creation of a national market accelerated the development of industry and its branches such as cotton, wool, mining, metallurgy, and engineering. However, the share of handicraft industry remained high. There were still many artisans and handicraft enterprises in the country. The development of industry led to an increase in population in cities.

At the same time, domestic and foreign banks and railway companies began to appear in the country. The construction of railways began, which were combined into two lines and stretched from north to south. The highway network grew, the volume of maritime transport and the tonnage of the merchant fleet increased.

Capitalism, although slowly, penetrated into agriculture. In Italy, large landowner farms remained, on which landless peasants worked and were subjected to brutal exploitation. Agriculture in the northern provinces of Italy was more progressive. Machines and agricultural technology were used here, and products were produced for export: rice, meat and dairy products, and wine. In the southern agricultural regions, low-productivity peasant labor was used, so agricultural products were not competitive. The standard of living of the population of the southern provinces was very low. The South became, as it were, a colony of the North. The "southern" problem was one of Italy's pressing national problems.

One of the leading problems for the development of the Italian economy has been the large migration of the population to other countries of the world, especially from the southern provinces. Internal migration, mainly from the southern to the northern provinces, also remained a big problem in the country.

The development of various industries, the construction of industrial enterprises, the growth of cities, and at the same time the ruin of the peasants led to the growth of the industrial and agricultural proletariat. By the beginning of the 20th century, there were over 1 million industrial workers and about 2.5 million rural proletarians in the country. At the same time, there was no social legislation in Italy. There was brutal exploitation of labor not only of men, but also of women and children: the working day lasted 15-16 hours, the natural payment system was maintained, forced purchase of products in the entrepreneur’s shop was practiced, etc. The standard of living of the working people was very low.

The development of industry and the growth of the proletariat led to a strengthening of the labor movement. The first political organizations arose: in 1882 the Italian Workers' Party (PRI) was formed, and in 1892 the Italian Socialist Party (ISP). In it, representatives of the “right” forces defended the old order, the interests of the great nobility and the power of the king. The “left” forces were more progressive and liberal and sought to carry out democratic changes. From this time on, the political struggle of the Italian working class acquired organized forms.

Since the end of the 19th century, Italy has intensified its colonial expansion: Somalia was occupied in 1889, and Eritrea in 1890.

Italy remained a kingdom. At the end of the 19th century, it was headed by King Victor Emmanuel II.

Thus, at the end of the 19th century, Italy was still an agricultural country. At the same time, it was a capitalist state in which the industrial revolution took place, and in which capitalism passed into its highest phase - imperialism. A proletariat of workers and peasants was formed in the country. The first political organizations appeared: the IRP and the ISP. Italy had colonies in Northeast Africa. According to its political system, it was a kingdom.