Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	Ancient Rome.
Rubric (thematic category)	Trade

The emergence of Rome took place in the 8th century BC.

From the point of view of the socio-political structure, it is divided into three periods:

-royal period from 8-6 BC Shows expansion to capture neighbors. Since its foundation, Roman territory has been urban. The townspeople are engaged in agricultural labor. The land is in community ownership. For military operations, military leaders were invited. After the capture by the barbarians (the Roman generals were invited).

The contemporaries of the Sumerians were people who occupied the territory of the Etruscan settlements. There was no single state here. The territory was divided into cities and small settlements. There was coinage, sewerage, plumbing, active trade. They were closer to the Greeks.

The Etruscans became the first Roman kings.

Meal'n'Real. The state took care of its citizens. Conducted all kinds of performances. Bread was given out. The concern for citizens was adopted from the Etruscans. There was an influx of people from outside. The population of Rome is divided into two categories of citizens:

-patricians- native people.

-plebeians- newcomers (residents of the conquered territories, who came, etc.). engaged in crafts and trade.

The number of urban dwellers is increasing, but there was not enough land and food. Why was it not enough? The fact is that the cultivation of the land is a sacred occupation of free citizens; slaves did not cultivate it. Peasants in private ownership had a small patch, and huge fields of communal lands. Those who came to the communal lands were not allowed. They were given small plots of land (about a hectare).

The Romans were not interested in uncultivated land. Roman citizens annexed a third of the occupied territory to the communal lands.

Agrarian labor is the work of the patricians, then crafts and trade were brought to the share of the plebeians. Until the 3rd century BC The size of the farm is about 25-30 hectares.

capitalist Extensive intensive capitalist

2 hectares (n.h) 8 hectares 60g 200 hectares

farm business

Personal labor.

Semi-subsistence farming did not show demand. It was not easy for the first plebeians - artisans or merchants. The first merchants appear - numerators. Why did they appear? Rome wages wars, the frontiers need to be defended, a garrison is placed to defend the frontiers, colonies appear along the roads (very good quality), but the roads were intended for military affairs (transportation of military weapons and so on). Road protection was carried out only when transporting a military contingent. Merchants did not dare to set foot on the road, because of the large number of pirates and robbers.

Further, the plebeians accompanied the goods along the roads. Those products that are not found at home may find demand in remote areas. Retail trade was conducted with the roadside population. Such merchants were called merkats.

By the 3rd century BC, Rome had subjugated Italy and entered the Mediterranean Sea. Here the interests of Rome clash with those of Carthage over an independent Sicily. The wars were protracted.
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Why so long? Reason for defeat:

Rome waged land wars, and Carthage sea. Rome did not have a raft and the skills of warfare at sea.

The Romans adopted the experience well. Also solved the problem of the lack of a raft. Ships were constructed in the image and likeness of the captured settlements. In the end, the victory was for the Romans.

Consequences of the war:

1) A navy was created. Subsequently, the merchant fleet. Need money. The patricians had money (they took part in the division of the occupied lands). The lands were cultivated by their families. There was a limit to private land holdings. Money remained, they need to be implemented. In the 3rd century there was supply (building ships) and demand from merchants. Bankers appear (private commercial credit). The value did not exceed 12% per annum, there was a downward trend.

3) After the Cunic wars, Rome moves to the classical type of slavery. An example of this is the state of Sicily, the Romans free themselves from agricultural labor and are transferred to Sicily. Slaves are living, talking tools. The degree of exploitation increases, but in relation to all slaves. Many slaves were from the East (poets, artists, musicians) they were promised freedom, cruelty was not used. Many slaves cooled off, doing not necessarily difficult, menial work. ʼʼWe need to watch the slaves more, they get drunk and roam ʼʼ. The classic type of slavery, slaves are put on the ground. Now the size of allotments is not limited to one family. The concentration of land begins to grow. Large land holdings appear: Villas(territory of Italy, wide specialization, small territories) and latifundia(highly specialized, grain, amounted to 10 and 100 thousand hectares). Grain farming in Rome is unprofitable.

4) The growth of large-scale commercial and more specialized landownership will lead to the ruin of the small. This caused an unhealthy situation, tension. Brothers (Grabski)???? carried out reform of large land ownership. They wanted to return to private possessions, all the rest of the land to the community fund and be subject to division among the community members. This involved the division of private property. Οʜᴎ died. But they launched a slow-moving machine - the division of the land, the distribution of bread. Further medical assistance, etc. The peasants are ruined and cannot stand the competition. There is an influx of peasants into the cities. The outflow of peasants affected the performance of the Roman army. Commander Mari conducts military reform. The military reform was associated with the fact that there were fewer applicants, the peasants were ruined, because the limitation of the land allotment was semi-natural. Now, as under capitalist economy, the concentration of land in one hand is growing. The ruin of the small peasants in favor of the large ones. Subsistence farming is a thing of the past. A mercenary, professional army was formed from the ruined peasants, the servicemen of which received a salary. In Rome, the service life was 16 (after 20 years), then the military retired and received a land allotment. This resulted in the state having to seize land in order to pay. Cities are born from military settlements. Οʜᴎ were overgrown with civilians (civilian families). Legionnaires' settlements turned into cities because slavery was turned on (the peasant did not need to work on the land himself), the peasant himself could not work on the land (after such a long break in the war), the lands were sold.

5) The emergence of fighting societies. Such an economic structure that combines its capital. In case there are not enough own funds, and bankers have high interest. Such fighting societies are characteristic of the Middle Ages. This is due to the fact that maritime trade is very risky (pirates, storms) and transporting cargo on your own ship is very risky, in connection with this, merchants rallied and distributed goods over several ships.

Lecture 3 24.02.11

(continuation)

The income of the state was formed from the tax (tribute). The Romans did not pay the tax, the Roman state shifted the tax burden to the conquered population. Rome did not have a single tax rate. The amount of taxes directly depended on the resistance of the occupied territories.

Almost the entire territory of Italy paid low taxes.

The economy of the colonies worked for the Roman Empire.

There were also customs fees. At the mouth of the Tigris was the main load of goods. The size did not exceed 2.6% of the imported goods. Relatively low customs duties depend on the indirect influence of the state. The fact is that in Rome there was no economic policy, because there was nothing to protect (for example, as protectionism in other countries). Rome cared about the quality of imported goods.

There was an extraordinary loan. Budget revenues were financed by the colonies and provincial settlements. This aroused discontent.

Until the 1st century AD, there was no state apparatus. (earlier in Russia, the merchants were responsible for collecting taxes in the 16th century, rent - dues, corvée, etc.). Buy-out basis: there was no official apparatus, tax-farmers were called publicans- elected person. This person was elected on a competitive basis, for a period of up to 5 years, and the condition for occupying this position was to pay in advance the entire amount of taxes. Further, the farmer will extort a larger amount of money from the population, and naturally this led to an increase in taxes. As a result, in the 1st century there were uprisings of the provinces, slaves.

Rome is involved in civil wars. Caesar.

Further, what Caesar started is carried out by his nephew Augustus (carried out a financial reform). Augustus simplifies the tax-paying system and creates a staff of tax-collecting officials who receive salaries. Thanks to these reforms, Rome will flourish for another 200 years, but the crisis will not be reversed in the 3rd century.

Causes of the crisis of the late Roman Empire:

1) Transition from offensive wars to defensive wars against barbarians.

2) Protracted agrarian crisis (dramatic climate change).

In the 2nd century BC, Rome is faced with hordes - gunas who laid the wheel, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is gaining momentum. The cold snap led to the raids of the goons (more mobile)

barbarian tribes:

Settled

Seminomadic

Nomads

Historians divide these categories according to the speed of advancement. So the Huns were nomads. Οʜᴎ galloped through all the territories where there was food.

The cold snap affects the progress of the tribes. Affects the profitability of small peasant households. The ruin of the small peasants, they either sell or abandon their land and go to the cities. You can live in the city without working. Peasants will not work (after all, work is for slaves), and funds are needed to open a workshop. So they will drag the lumpen way of life.

The victorious wars are over. Slave prices began to rise. Many landowners are switching to ʼʼraising slavesʼʼ naturally. Maintenance of slaves becomes expensive. Landowners are moving to a new form of slavery - colonata. (piculi is a rather patriarchal form of ownership)

Colon is a tenant.
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Owners of large landed estates who break up their estates into small pieces and rent them out. Initially, columns gave land to free peasants. Gradually, the land is also given to the slaves for rent. The line between free and slaves is blurred, everyone is called a colony.

Serfdom established in Constantine's code (early 4th century)

Pikuli existed on the equestrian 3-4 centuries BC. When a slave owner can give a slave a piece of land called pikuli. The slave gave part of the harvest to his master. After the transition to classical slavery, pickles will become a thing of the past. ???? disassemble.

The number of cities is growing, which leads to problems:

The rich lived in their villas with sewers, water pipes, and the poorest lived in creepy multi-storey freaks (domuses or insuls). There were no water pipes, no sewerage, complete unsanitary conditions, public latrines, baths. Joint baths, libraries formed some kind of cultural evenings. Complete unsanitary conditions lead to epidemics.

And in the 2nd century, the trade balance takes a negative value (they exported more than they imported)

Institutions of physicians are established for the treatment of the sick. Appears government loan in the 2nd century.

To help the orphans, the state creates elementary funds. The money was transferred to the funds free of charge. To replenish these funds, part of the funds is sent as long-term loans by the small landowner.

Government expenditures are rising, there are not enough coins, the trade balance is negative, the state is taking the simplest path. Coin cramp: increase in the share of ligature (the share increased to 90%). This had a huge impact on the price level, the coin depreciated, merchants raise prices. It was the first hyperinflation in world history. In order to fight the state is on the introduction taxation– setting marginal prices in the market and salaries for employees. There is a massive transition to barter. (a huge step back). The state resigns itself and introduces annonu- natural tax in favor of the army. To pay the annona, he conducted economic accounting and, based on solvency, this tax was introduced. The villagers - agrarian labor, artisans - manufactured products, in the cities, members of state councils reimbursed arrears from their own funds. People are starting to shy away from government positions. Further, the population was assigned to professions and places of residence. The population turns from citizens into subjects.

In 395 Theodosius divides the Empire into western and eastern. The western one ceases to exist in 478, and the eastern one for another 1000 years

During the dawn period, handicraft production did not develop. Developed agricultural and most importantly. Three elements of the single market:

Unified monetary system. WAS

Unified customs system. WAS

Market with uniform prices. NO there was no quick transfer of goods. There was no infrastructure, no transport. The roads were strategic.

(here it is about ancient Egypt, other India)

Lecture 4 10.03.11

The formation of feudalism in the 5th-8th centuries. The story is divided into three parts:

Ancient world

new time

Latest, etc.

The frames of the periods are movable.

End of 5th century. The end of the Roman government. Upper borders - the end of the 16th century Great Geographical discoveries. Consider the feudal relations of the Franks. A powerful empire, a state, subsequently grew out of this tribe. The Franks most clearly manifest the main features of the formation of feudal relations.

The tribes of the Franks (who lived close to the borders of the Roman Empire) were farmers, had a high level of development. After the conquest of the Roman Empire, the process of mutual assimilation of the languages ​​and customs of the Romans begins. The tribes are cultivating.

Feudal relations from 5-8 century mutual penetration of customs and mores.

Kingdom of the Franks.

In the 5th century, they built a military democracy (all internal issues were resolved at a people's assembly, under the leadership of a military leader - the king)

The entire population was a people's militia. The king came to military operations with a certain detachment (mass of the militia). In the absence of commodity-money relations, land was the payment for military service.

Community, getting land

(Franks) RI

Private ownership of land or dues appears.

King Duke, Count, Marquis, Chevalier,

The king keeps a certain part of the land for himself, the rest is divided among the inner circle: Duke (Counts similarly surround themselves with subjects).

The kings of the Franks go to binification- conditional, private ownership of land. (conditional ownership of patrimony, boyar estates)

The binifications did not last long. There is a powerful offensive of the Arabs, Tatars. The kings of the Franks could not provide protection to the border authorities. They sign letters - immunities, according to which they find themselves from the protection of these territories. Since then, the lands have been called feudal.

The evolution of forms of land ownership goes from private to binifications and further to feudal (feuds)

feudal relations. In order to be able to talk about feudal relations.

Feudal landed property (feuds and alodes). They finally took shape by the 8th-9th century.

feudal dependent peasants. Against the background of the formation of ownership, there are categories of peasants:

There were no uniformly dependent serfs.

1) Serbs The group falls into bondage in the fifth century. Descendants of Roman peasants. direct coercion. All three forms of addiction: land, administrative, personal.

2) Appears by the 7th century, fixed in the 9th-10th century. Vilany. Prikarnye letters, the meaning of which is as follows: the peasant renounces his land, but at the same time they are protected from enemy raids. The peasant fell into administrative dependence, and then land dependence. Now the cross became not an owner, but a user, he had to pay taxes.

Feudal economy:

-corvée- feudal plowing was divided into two fields, lordly and allotment. On the allotment land, the peasants worked for themselves, on the lordly land they worked out the corvée. There is land rent.

-quitrent - all the land is transferred to the allotment of the peasants, who work on it and transfer part of the produced product to their feudal lord.

There could be no food rent in the 5th-6th century. What for? There is no trade, the accumulation of goods is useless.

In place of labor rent, food rent appears.

Difference between rent and tax:

Polyudius- ϶ᴛᴏ taxᴦ. Feeding comes to replace the polyud (the product that comes from the peasants is divided into two parts: one part goes to the prince, what is left is land rent).

Aloids- private ownership of land. Nothing was given for the use of the land.

At the stage of binification, land rent also appears.

Feuds are feudal landed property.

The 8th century, the beginning of the 9th century, a feudal society developed.

If we take the territory of Italy, for example, where the peasants became dependent in the 5th century, then we should not talk about feudal relations, but about slaveholding.

The Crusades began in the 11th century. Peasants are transferred to cash rent. (incompatibility of slavery on peasant morality). Serbs are transferred to this quitrent.

By the 10th century, all the land of western Europe had become a fief. ʼʼThere is no land without a lordʼʼ. The territory is covered by the network castles- the territory where you can survive a long siege (water supplies, food is produced). A closed territory, not dependent on trade.

In areas such as England and northeastern Germany, there were many tenants. Renting relations in individual lands arose faster than the peasants became dependent. In England, not all peasants signed piquards. The land is low-fertile, he must be guaranteed to receive quitrent (discrepancy)))

The lease period was 100 years.

Inheritance in which land passes to the eldest son. The rest of the children do not receive land, but receive movable property (weapons, livestock). Robbery appears.

Majorate rule (majorate law) is a form of inheritance of land, in which the land passes to the eldest son, the remaining children receive movable property.

In Rus', the boyar estates were divided, and the estates were transferred to the youngest son, and the eldest sons went to military service - the estate.

Petrovsky decree on single inheritance: lands are transferred to one of the sons, the rest to serve with a salary.

Catherine 2 - freedom to the nobility - fragmentation of estates.

The French Revolution of Napoleon abolished the rules of the Moyorate. France is lagging behind (4th place), because the main part of the land fund (90%) is small-scale ownership, about 2 hectares is subsistence farming.

It is important to note that capitalist farms or collective farms are important for the country as a whole.

Ancient Rome. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Ancient Rome." 2017, 2018.

The history of trade has been going on for more than one century, either fading (Middle Ages), or flourishing (Renaissance). Even among primitive people, relationships were observed in the process of which one object or product changed for another. In Mesopotamia and Egypt, they began to take shape more definitely, units of calculation appeared, a regular pattern began to form: goods - money - goods.

The cuneiform of the Babylonians tells about transactions for the purchase and sale of slaves, livestock, and land. At the same time, credit relations between people began to take shape, and the ways along which goods, slaves and livestock were delivered to Persia, Armenia, Media, Arabia and India were being mastered. Precious stones, spices and incense, fabrics and items made of silver and gold were delivered through the same routes. The cities through which the transportation of goods passed flourished.

The history of trade in ancient Greece, and later in the Roman Empire, was reflected in myths and Hermes and Roman Mercury helped people in the successful exchange of goods, and temples were erected in their honor, sacred gifts were brought to them. And if the ancient Greeks not only imported, but also sold various goods, the Romans, as a rule, only imported them. bought bread and lentils in Egypt, meat and dairy products in Gaul, fruits and olive oil were delivered from Africa, and silk from China. Almost the whole world had relations with Rome.

After the fall of this great empire, the history of trade turns in a different direction. New European states are being formed, which, in order to flourish, must engage in sales. During the time of Emperor Justinian in the VI century AD. Byzantium enters the world arena and between European countries and the East, sea and river routes for the delivery of goods are being laid. Byzantium imports cotton and sugar from Syria, trades with India, China, the Black Sea countries, until Italian merchants become their competitors, stealing the secret of silk production from the Chinese. From that time on, Europeans themselves began to make these exquisite fabrics.

The Middle Ages were not favorable for the prosperity and development of buying and selling, and it was only in the Renaissance that the history of trade took a new direction. People began to discover new, unexplored lands, navigation is flourishing, previously unknown ways are being mastered, along which goods are delivered. At the same time, there are surpluses of goods that need to be sold. This period is also characterized by the fact that the history of the development of trade begins to acquire a negative character. The mass export of slaves from Africa until the 19th century is a terrible shame for civilized Europe. People were sold worse than cattle, and taken to the Old and New Worlds.

Our ancestors began to engage in buying and selling relatively recently. The history of trade in Russia begins from the 8th-9th centuries, and Kyiv was its center. At that time, our ancestors supplied honey, furs, and agricultural products to the foreign market. In cities, markets were held on the squares, where they sold leather, furs, and various utensils. By the 12th century, Novgorod became the main Russian trading center, and in the 14th century, Moscow. Our ancestors knew how to sell and knew a lot about it. Various fairs began to appear and

In the era of Peter the Great, the history of trade in Russia becomes European. Merchants and industrialists are successfully promoting the country. A more intensive purchase of goods from Europe and America begins. By the middle of the 18th century, large companies were formed, relations were being established with India and China, from where many goods were imported. By the end of the 19th century, the history of the development of trade in Russia reached its peak. The empire became one of the leading powers, exporting the lion's share of products to the world market.

TRADE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

It is important to note one distinctive feature of the trade of antiquity - its closest connection with the culture of ancient peoples. The exchange of goods contributed to the exchange of thoughts, opinions, fruitfully influenced the development of spiritual and moral forces, the spread of civilization. Those paths that were laid by the trade of the ancient world later also served as the first missions to spread Christianity. The most ancient places of land and sea trade of the Phoenicians were the focus of Christianity.

Thus, all the trade of the ancient world, from the distant borders of Europe to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, was in the hands of this small people. Wherever the Phoenicians penetrated, everywhere they cultivated knowledge.

In the ancient world and the early Middle Ages, production was mostly natural, but some of the products were sold as commodities, even with surplus value, reflecting the relationship between slave and feudal exploitation. The social division of labor continued, trade developed, including with other countries. During this period, the simple commodity production of peasants and artisans also received a certain development, based on the private ownership of the producers themselves for the means of production and the products created, the personal labor of the owner in his economy. Under conditions of simple commodity production, an equivalent exchange of goods is ensured at prices close to value. During this period, the separation of the cost from the cost has not yet occurred and, therefore, there could not be an objective need to account for and determine the cost of products. The exchange value of a commodity was determined quite simply without such consideration.

Even greater importance in trade reached Corinth, which occupied an advantageous position at the junction of two seas - the Aegean and the Ionian (Adriatic). The most powerful trading place of the ancient world, because of its advantageous position, was the city of Rhodes. Magnificent buildings in the harbor, a large commercial and military fleet, huge warehouses with goods, strong residential buildings, temples, public buildings, rich architecture testified to the commercial greatness of the city, which was home to a lot of foreign merchants.

Rome. In the I-II centuries. BC. Ancient Rome (a city that arose in 754-753 BC) is a huge empire-city, stretching along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, which included significant territories of Western and South-Eastern Europe, North Africa and the Near East. All the lands and peoples that have so far been considered in this book, with the exception of India, Arabia and Central Asia, fell under the rule of Rome. The history of the latter constitutes the final part of ancient history. Professor of the history of trade at the Canton School in Lucerne, I. Engelman, in his monograph History of Trade and World Relations (1870), noted that high culture, the fruits of the labors of conquered peoples - all this became the property and at the service of the ruler of the ancient world. What benefits did Rome derive from the wealth entrusted to it? The answer to this question is rather sad. Like a gigantic spider, Rome girded the whole world with a net and sucked its blood. When everything healthy was sucked out, the ruler himself fell.

Compared with the ancient world and the Middle Ages, the progress in world trade in the late Middle Ages was manifest not only in the increase in goods, but also in the predominance of maritime trade and in the growing number of peoples participating in it. Of course, the small capacity of the then ships, the poor condition of access roads to the sea and land vehicles hampered the extensive movement of goods. On the other hand, maritime trade was significantly enriched with many new goods.

Starting from the Samaritan city of Kish, which existed in the fourth millennium BC, and the city of Thebes in Ancient Egypt (second millennium BC), through Venice, Genoa, Amsterdam, London and, finally, New York, trade ways that allowed these cities to become centers of world trade, and thus centers of economic power throughout the world. A similar thing happened to Moscow, which today occupies such a significant place in the economic life of Russia.

Thus, Phoenician and Greek merchants brought to Ancient Egypt the copper of Cyprus, the iron of the Elba Island and the silver of Spain, they also managed to deliver the tin of Britain, the Baltic amber and the furs of Eastern Europe. The main resources of the Greeks were not fertile soils, which they did not have, but the enterprise of Greek merchants and the art of shipbuilders, the skill and courage of sailors and the qualifications of artisans. The Greeks produced grapes and olives for sale, magnificent ceramics and weapons. Finally, Athens became one of the first cities in the world dependent on food imports - 300 thousand Athenians ate Egyptian and Black Sea bread (as Rome and Constantinople will eat it). And the basis of all this was, we repeat, trade with distant lands.

The exclamation of Archimedes, admiring the power of the lever, "Give me a fulcrum - and I will turn the world" is widely known. The predictability of the foreign exchange market is so random that, following the ancient thinker, I want to say, give me any trading system - and I will show how great it works on some segments of the path price movements and how useless it is on others. This circumstance, it would seem, implies a negative answer to the question “Is there any need for a game system at all?”

In the ancient world, great prerequisites were created for the development of handicrafts and trade, and the private property of artisans and their corporations was strengthened. However, industry and trade (with the exception of artistic crafts) were considered in ancient Greece and Rome as harmful occupations unworthy of free citizens.

The profession of a salesperson is one of the oldest in the world, every product or service must be sold. However, sales methods can be very different. Some products are sold by employees in retail stores, others are sold by sellers who come directly to customers, and others (as in the case of mail orders) are sold without the participation of sellers at all, and the entire burden of selling the product falls on advertising.

The conquest of Egypt by the Persians under Cambyses (529-522 BC) delayed trading activity; broken relations were resumed only under Darius (522-486 BC). The victory over the Persians and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) marked the beginning of a new relationship and role for Egypt in the new empire. Alexander the Great founded in 332 BC. the city of Alexandria, which under his successors became the center of international trade of the ancient world.

Trade in ancient times was a simple exchange of goods, and in this form it was preserved among all peoples who stood at the primitive stage of cultural development. The most commonly used commodities were skins, livestock, and so on. More civilized peoples have replaced barter with a single, common equivalent of the value of goods - money. Noble metals have become a measure of value for all trade items. The German economist Professor A. Baer in his monograph History of World Trade (M., 1876) noted that it is difficult to determine which of the peoples of the ancient world was the first to use

The Phoenicians were the richest people in the ancient world. In that distant era, when neither the Greeks nor the Romans were particularly famous, they were the rulers of the Mediterranean Sea. The two main cities of the Phoenicians - Sidon and Tire - were flourishing centers of trade and industry, and their ships and sailors became famous in the ancient world.

Oil is one of the ancient items of international trade. So, oil was exported from Colchis to Ancient Greece. Marco Polo during his journey observed caravans of camels loaded with skins of oil from Baku. Gas has become a subject of trade recently. In the capitalist world, from the first steps in the development of the oil industry, methods of fierce competition between business partners were established. Their clearest expression is the entire activity of the international oil monopolies, shamelessly profiting from the exploitation of the national wealth of the oil-producing countries.

But about the helmsman a little later. Now - about something else. The thing is, the world is not a treadmill. The ancients were absolutely right when they said that chlomir is a round disk resting on the backs of three huge elephants, which, in turn, stand on an even more huge turtle ... So, in the center of this very disk, 24 industrial X states are blissful , producing approximately 55% of the world product and carrying out more than 70% of world trade. Among these 24 industrial countries, the seven, or G-7, stands out (USA, Canada, Japan, Germany, France, Britain and Italy). The Seven produce 49% of the world product and control more than half of world trade.. 8 These are the true masters of civilization. It is they who dictate the rules of the game to everyone else, that is, to the periphery. It is clear that today's Russia, with its own two percent of world production, can only be included in this seven as a six. Alas, as a result of the reforms j we have become a periphery. And we ourselves, in the process of reform, did and continue to do everything to throw us further and further from the center. Is it really possible to fall into the center, destroying domestic science, culture, industry, agriculture, state integrity? Let us assume, however, that we want to penetrate into the center, at least not into the seven, but into the club of 24. What needs to be done for this To do this, we need to do everything that we are doing now, but only in reverse. Peter the Great and Joseph Stalin understood this best of all in Russia. It was they who tried to turn Russia into a powerful industrial power. True, both of them allowed a lot of truly Byzantine barbarism. But they succeeded. With corpses, with obscenities, with blood, sweat, tears... We, Petersburgers, have a special relationship with these two greats. If there were no Peter, there would be no us Petersburgers. If there had been no Stalin, there would have been no Leningrad case... Both Peter and Stalin tried to turn Russia into a great power by feudal-collective-farm methods. Otherwise they could not. Education did not allow.

All the inner part of Africa and all that part of Asia, which is far to the north of the Black and Caspian Seas, ancient Scythia, modern Tataria and Siberia, in all ages, were, apparently, in the same barbaric and wild condition in which they are and currently. The only sea of ​​Tartaria was the Arctic Ocean, which does not allow navigation, and although several of the greatest rivers in the world flow through this country, they are too far apart to be able to maintain communication and trade with most of the country. In Africa, there are no such large inland seas as the Baltic and Adriatic in Europe, the Mediterranean and Black in Europe and Asia, and the Gulfs of Arabia, Persian, Indian, Bengal and Siam in Asia, and therefore the interior of this great continent is inaccessible to maritime trade, large and the rivers of Africa are too far apart to allow any significant inland navigation. In addition, the trade that a people can carry on, using a river that does not have a large number of tributaries and branches and flows through foreign territory before falling into the sea, never reaches very significant proportions, because it is always in the power of the peoples possessing this territory to prevent communication between the sources of the river and the sea. The navigation of the Danube brings very little benefit to the various states through which it flows - Bavaria, Austria and Hungary - in comparison with what it could give if one of these states owned the river for its entire length before its confluence with the Black Sea. sea.

The center of Arab trade in Asia was Baghdad, the residence of the caliphs from the middle of the 8th century. Built near the ruins of ancient Babylon, it seemed to strive to show the whole world a picture of the past, the times of antiquity, grandeur and splendor. All the riches of India, Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Persia, Central Asia were exhibited in the bazaars of Baghdad. All trade routes, forgotten for millennia, were rediscovered and revived, and with them, many ancient trading cities were restored from ruins.

The development of agriculture, crafts and trade in ancient Rome

Agricultural production was based on the labor of a large number of slaves. A special place was occupied by pasture farms, which worked mainly for the market. There was a deepening of the specialization of agricultural production. In Italy itself, animal husbandry, viticulture, and horticulture became profitable. Livestock and poultry farming are turning into highly profitable independent industries. The efficiency of agriculture is increased by the concentration of land ownership. The growth of agriculture was also facilitated by the formation of permanent market relations between the regions of the country, provided with good roads. At the same time, the role of grain farming is decreasing, as Rome begins to feel growing competition from the provinces, which supplied cheap bread here.

A wide range of guns were used. A plow was widespread (from the 6th century BC), which loosened, but did not turn over the layer. The soil was cultivated by harrowing or breaking clods with special hammers. Sickles were used for harvesting, in the 1st century BC. n. e. The wheeled harvester was invented, which was a wooden platform on two wheels, which was pushed in front of itself by an ox or a donkey.

When processing the crop, presses were used (with a load, wedge, screw), wine presses for squeezing grapes, olives and vegetables, mills with millstones made of volcanic rocks or crushed basalt (appeared from the 5th century BC). At the beginning of a new era, water mills appeared.

At the end of the II century. BC e. the rapid development of handicrafts begins, where, unlike Greece, the labor of the free was of greater importance.

Metal processing has reached a high level. Its specialization developed: the professions of sheet metal moulders, drawers, engravers, polishers, grinders, etc. appeared. deed to obtain different grades of metal. Liquid metal (casting) was little used in handicraft production, it was used mainly for the manufacture of hollow statues. By means of casting, copper, silver, less often tin and gold were processed. The iron was just forged. Iron products were supplied from Puteola; bronze, lead and copper items from Capua.

The gradual separation of handicraft from agriculture, which can be traced throughout the first four centuries of Roman history, is inextricably linked with the development of internal trade.

The rise of agriculture and handicrafts, the establishment of commodity relations contributed to the revival of trade. As before, maritime trade flourished. It was more convenient and cheaper to transport goods by ship than by land. Rome, Puteoli, Syracuse remain the largest shopping centers. Wine, oil, ceramics, metal products are exported from the cities of Italy to the overseas provinces and non-Roman regions of the Mediterranean; they import metals, stone, paint, glass, luxury items, slaves, food. Italy establishes close economic ties with many Mediterranean regions, and finished products (handicrafts, wine, oil) went to the Western Mediterranean from Italy in exchange for raw materials (metals, slaves). The nature of trade with the Eastern Mediterranean was different. Roman handicrafts, oil and wine, could not compete with Greek ones, and the Romans, on the contrary, imported many Greek handicrafts, wine, oil, wheat, luxury items; Italy's trade balance with the Eastern Mediterranean was, in all likelihood, passive. Maritime trade was considered a very profitable business.

The intensification of Roman trade required an increase in the number of coins. Roman silver coin, sestertius and denarius, which began to be minted only at the turn of the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC e., soon flooded the Mediterranean and became the main currency, pushing all other monetary systems.

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Trade

The gradual separation of handicraft from agriculture, which can be traced throughout the first four centuries of Roman history, is inextricably linked with the development of internal trade. A professional craftsman usually sold his products himself. Sources speak of the early appearance of an internal market in Rome. Once every eight days, on the so-called nundinae, the peasant came to the city to the market, where he bought the necessary urban handicrafts in exchange for agricultural products. In the early era, weekly bazaars took place in the forum. Later, the malls were removed from it and moved closer to the Tiber. This is how the Edible Market, the Vegetable Market, etc. appeared. On the Tiber, to the west of the Palatine, there has long been a livestock yard (Forum boarium - cattle market).

Weekly bazaars for local trade took place, of course, not only in Rome, but in all the cities of Italy. Centers of wider exchange arose very early next to them. Annual fairs (mercatus) were held there, which usually coincided with great holidays,

causing crowds. It is natural, therefore, that the most revered sanctuaries became the centers of fair trade, which at the same time were also centers of religious and political unions.

Of these centers, we know: the sanctuary of Latin Jupiter on the Alban Mountain, the temple of Diana on the Aventina in Rome, the temple of Voltumna on the territory of Volsinium in Etruria, the sacred grove of the goddess Feronia near Mount Sorakte (in Etruria, north of Rome), etc.

The fairs were attended by merchants from all neighboring areas, including Roman ones.

As for the foreign trade of Rome, we have already seen that at the end of the royal period, thanks to connections with the Etruscans, it reached a fairly high level. This is evidenced by the first treaty with Carthage (508). But with the establishment of the republic and the decline of the political significance of Etruria, Rome's overseas ties are weakening. True, the second treaty (348) seems to still presuppose extensive commercial relations of Rome, even wider than in the first treaty, since southern Spain is now included in the zone closed to Rome. But, as noted above, the reservation about Spain could refer not to Rome, but to Massilia. In addition, the complete exclusion of Africa and Sardinia from the commercial sphere accessible to Rome, on the contrary, may prove that Rome at that moment was not interested in overseas trade.

A number of facts from the political history of Rome, cited above, confirm that in the first two centuries of the Republic (and even later), Roman foreign trade occupied an absolutely insignificant place in the Mediterranean turnover. In 338, the Romans burned the large ships of the Antiatian fleet that they had inherited. Obviously, they could not use them more rationally than to decorate the speaker's podium in the forum with ship prows! In 282 several Roman ships appeared in Tarentum. The whole situation suggests that this was the first visit of the Roman fleet to the southeastern waters of Italy. A large military fleet was first created by the Romans, as we will see below, only at the beginning of the First Punic War. How would these facts be possible if Rome were a commercial power? As an opposite argument, one could point out that around the middle of the 4th c. at the mouth of the Tiber, the harbor of Ostia was fortified. But it still needs to be proven that this was done in the interests of Roman maritime trade, and not to protect Rome from pirates.

Archaeological evidence also confirms the low level of Roman trade during the period we are studying. So, for example, the scarcity of Attic products in Rome and in Latium in general is striking, while in the Etruscan cities there are a lot of them. This, finally, is evidenced by the later appearance of the coin in Rome.

From early times, agriculture was considered by the Romans to be a noble occupation and certainly worthy of a citizen. On the contrary, trade, especially retail, was recognized as a dubious and unrespectable business. Freedmen and foreigners usually did it. True, later representatives of the so-called rider

the estate (the new monetary aristocracy) could carry out trade operations, but exclusively of a wholesale nature, while any trade was forbidden to senators. Even more unclean occupation was considered usury. So, at the time of the creation of the “Laws of the XII Tables”, the usurer was generally equated with a criminal and was punished even more severely than those convicted of theft. These ancient values ​​are beautifully reflected by Cato at the beginning of his treatise “On Agriculture”: “Sometimes it would be worthwhile to get involved in trade for the sake of income, if it weren’t so dangerous, or even to give money at interest, if only it were honorable. And it was so accepted by our ancestors and so laid down in the laws that a thief should be sentenced to a penalty twice, and a usurer to a penalty four times. From this one can judge how much they considered the usurer the worst citizen against the thief. And when they praised a good man, they praised him like this: "a good landowner and a good owner." It was believed that whoever was so praised, he was exacted with the highest praise. I consider the merchant a man who is persistent and zealous for gain, only his life, as mentioned above, is both dangerous and disastrous. And the most faithful people and the most steadfast soldiers come out of the farmers. And this income is the purest, the most faithful, and does not at all cause envy, and the people who are engaged in this business do not intend evil at all ”(translated by M. E. Sergeenko).

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