METHODOLOGY

A.M.Novikov

ON THE ROLE OF SCIENCE IN MODERN SOCIETY

Currently, society is undergoing a rapid reassessment of the role of science in the development of humanity. The purpose of this article is to find out the reasons for this phenomenon and consider the main trends in the further development of science and relationships in the traditional “tandem” of science and practice.

First, let's look at history. Since the Renaissance, science, pushing religion into the background, has taken a leading position in the worldview of mankind. If in the past only church hierarchs could make certain ideological judgments, then, subsequently, this role entirely passed to the community of scientists. The scientific community dictated rules to society in almost all areas of life; science was the highest authority and criterion of truth. For several centuries, the leading, basic activity cementing various professional areas of human activity was the science. It was science that was the most important, basic institution, since it formed a unified picture of the world and general theories, and in relation to this picture, particular theories and corresponding subject areas of professional activities in social practice were distinguished. The “center” of the development of society was scientific knowledge, and the production of this knowledge was the main type of production, determining the possibilities of other types of both material and spiritual production.

But in the second half of the twentieth century they decided cardinal contradictions in the development of society: both in science itself and in social practice. Let's look at them.
Controversies in science:
1. Contradictions in the structure of a unified picture of the world created by science, and internal contradictions in the very structure of scientific knowledge that science itself gave rise to, the creation of ideas about changing scientific paradigms (works of T. Kuhn, K. Popper, etc.);
2. The rapid growth of scientific knowledge and the technologization of the means of its production have led to a sharp increase in the fragmentation of the picture of the world and, accordingly, the fragmentation of professional areas into many specialties;
3. Modern society has not only become highly differentiated, but has also become truly multicultural. If previously all cultures were described in a single “key” of the European scientific tradition, today each culture claims its own form of self-description and self-determination in history. The possibility of describing a single world history turned out to be extremely problematic and doomed to become mosaic. The practical question arose of how to co-organize a “mosaic” society and how to manage it. It turned out that traditional scientific models “work” in a very narrow limited range: where we are talking about identifying the general, the universal, but not where it is constantly necessary to keep the different as different;
4. But this is not the main thing. The main point is that over the past decades the role of science (in the broadest sense) has changed significantly in relation to social practice (also understood in the broadest sense). The triumph of science is over. From the 18th century to the middle of the last 20th century, in science, discoveries followed discoveries, and practice followed science, “picking up” these discoveries and implementing them in social production - both material and spiritual. But then this stage ended abruptly - the last major scientific discovery was the creation of a laser (USSR, 1956). Gradually, starting from this moment, science began to “switch” more and more to the technological improvement of practice: the concept of “scientific and technological revolution” was replaced by the concept of “technological revolution”, and also, after this, the concept of “technological era” appeared, etc. The main attention of scientists has switched to the development of technology. Take, for example, the rapid development of computer equipment and computer technology. From the point of view of “big science”, a modern computer compared to the first computers of the 40s. XX century fundamentally does not contain anything new. But its size has decreased immeasurably, its performance has increased, its memory has grown, languages ​​for direct communication between a computer and a person have appeared, etc. – i.e. Technologies are developing rapidly. Thus, science seemed to switch more to directly serving practice.
If previously there were theories and laws in use, now science is less and less likely to reach this level of generalization, concentrating its attention on models characterized by the ambiguity of possible solutions to problems. In addition, obviously, a working model is more useful than an abstract theory.
Historically, there are two main approaches to scientific research. The author of the first is G. Galileo. The goal of science, from his point of view, is to establish the order underlying phenomena in order to imagine the possibilities of objects generated by this order and, accordingly, to discover new phenomena. This is the so-called “pure science”, theoretical knowledge.
The author of the second approach was Francis Bacon. He is remembered much less often, although now it is his point of view that has prevailed: “I am working to lay the foundations for the future prosperity and power of humanity. To achieve this goal, I propose a science skilled not in scholastic disputes, but in the invention of new crafts ... ". Science today follows precisely this path - the path of technological improvement of practice;
5. If previously science produced “eternal knowledge”, and practice used “eternal knowledge”, i.e. laws, principles, theories lived and “worked” for centuries or, in the worst case, decades, then recently science has largely switched, especially in the humanities, social and technological fields, to “situational” knowledge.
First of all, this phenomenon is associated with the principle of complementarity. The principle of complementarity arose as a result of new discoveries in physics at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when it became clear that a researcher, while studying an object, makes certain changes to it, including through the instrument used. This principle was first formulated by N. Bohr: reproducing the integrity of a phenomenon requires the use of mutually exclusive “additional” classes of concepts in cognition. In physics, in particular, this meant that obtaining experimental data on some physical quantities is invariably associated with changes in data on other quantities, additional to the first. Thus, with the help of complementarity, equivalence was established between classes of concepts that describe contradictory situations in various spheres of cognition.
The principle of complementarity significantly changed the entire structure of science. If classical science functioned as an integral education, focused on obtaining a system of knowledge in its final and complete form; for an unambiguous study of events; to exclude from the context of science the influence of the researcher’s activities and the means he uses; to evaluate the knowledge included in the available fund of science as absolutely reliable; then with the advent of the principle of complementarity the situation changed. The following is important: the inclusion of the subjective activity of the researcher in the context of science led to a change in the understanding of the subject of knowledge: it was now not reality “in its pure form,” but a certain slice of it, given through the prisms of accepted theoretical and empirical means and methods of its mastery by the knowing subject; the interaction of the object being studied with the researcher (including through instruments) cannot but lead to different manifestations of the properties of the object depending on the type of its interaction with the cognizing subject in different, often mutually exclusive conditions. And this means the legitimacy and equality of various scientific descriptions of an object, including various theories describing the same object, the same subject area. That’s why, obviously, Bulgakov’s Woland says: “All theories are worth one another.”
For example, at present, many socio-economic systems are studied through the construction of mathematical models using various branches of mathematics: differential equations, probability theory, fuzzy logic, interval analysis, etc. Moreover, the interpretation of the results of modeling the same phenomena and processes using Different mathematical tools give, although close, but still different conclusions.
Secondly, a significant part of scientific research today is carried out in applied fields, in particular in economics, technology, education, etc. and is dedicated to the development of optimal situational models for organizing production, financial structures, educational institutions, firms, etc. But optimal at a given time and in given specific conditions. The results of such studies are relevant for a short time - conditions will change and no one will need such models anymore. But nevertheless, such science is necessary and this kind of research is in the full sense scientific research.
6. Further, if earlier we pronounced the word “knowledge”, as if automatically meaning scientific knowledge, today, in addition to scientific knowledge, a person has to use knowledge of a completely different kind. For example, knowing the rules for using a computer text editor is quite complex knowledge. But it’s hardly scientific - after all, with the advent of any new text editor, the previous “knowledge” will disappear into oblivion. Or banks and databases, standards, statistical indicators, transport schedules, huge information arrays on the Internet, etc. etc., which every person has to use more and more in everyday life. That is, scientific knowledge today coexists with other, non-scientific knowledge. Often in publications, authors propose to divide these concepts into knowledge(scientific knowledge) and information.
Contradictions in practice. The development of science, primarily natural science and technical knowledge, has ensured the development of humanity industrial revolution, thanks to which, by the middle of the twentieth century, the main problem that had plagued all of humanity throughout history – the problem of hunger – had been largely solved. For the first time in history, humanity was able to feed itself (mostly), as well as create favorable living conditions for itself (again, mostly). And thus the transition of humanity into a completely new, so-called post-industrial era its development, when an abundance of food, goods, and services appeared, and when, in connection with this, intense competition began to develop throughout the world economy. Therefore, in a short time, enormous deformations began to occur in the world - political, economic, social, cultural, etc. And, among other things, one of the signs of this new era is the instability and dynamism of political, economic, social, legal, technological and other situations. Everything in the world began to change continuously and rapidly. And, therefore, practice must constantly be restructured in relation to new and new conditions. And thus, innovativeness of practice becomes an attribute of the times.
If earlier, a few decades ago, in conditions of relatively long-term stability of the lifestyle, social practice, practical workers - engineers, agronomists, doctors, teachers, technologists, etc. - could calmly wait until science, scientists (and also, in the old days in the USSR, the central authorities) develop new recommendations, and then they are tested in experiments, and then designers and technologists develop and test the corresponding designs and technologies, and only then it comes to mass implementation in practice, then such an expectation has become meaningless today. By the time all this happens, the situation will change radically. Therefore, practice naturally and objectively rushed along a different path - practitioners began to create innovative models of social, economic, technological, educational, etc. systems themselves: proprietary models of production, firms, organizations, schools, proprietary technologies, proprietary methods, etc.
Even in the last century, along with theories, such intellectual organizations as projects and programs appeared, and by the end of the twentieth century, activities for their creation and implementation became widespread. They are provided not only and not so much with theoretical knowledge, but with analytical work. Science itself, due to its theoretical power, has generated methods for the mass production of new iconic forms (models, algorithms, databases, etc.), and this has now become the material for new technologies. These technologies are no longer only material, but also sign production, and in general technologies, along with projects and programs, have become the leading form of organizing activities. The specificity of modern technologies is that no theory, no profession can cover the entire technological cycle of a particular production. The complex organization of big technologies leads to the fact that former professions provide only one or two stages of large technological cycles, and for a successful work and career it is important for a person to be not only a professional, but to be able to actively and competently participate in these cycles.
But for the competent organization of projects, for the competent construction and implementation of new technologies and innovative models, practical workers needed scientific style thinking, which includes such necessary qualities in this case as dialecticality, systematicity, analyticity, logic, breadth of vision of problems and the possible consequences of their solution. And, obviously, the main thing is that scientific work skills were needed, first of all, the ability to quickly navigate information flows and create, build new models - both cognitive (scientific hypotheses) and pragmatic (practical) innovative models of new systems - economic, industrial , technological, educational, etc. This, obviously, is the most common reason for the aspirations of practical workers of all ranks - managers, financiers, engineers, technologists, teachers, etc. to science, to scientific research - as a global trend.
Indeed, all over the world, including and, perhaps most of all, in Russia, the number of dissertations defended and academic degrees obtained is rapidly growing. Moreover, if in previous periods of history an academic degree was needed only by researchers and university teachers, today the bulk of dissertations are defended by practical workers - having an academic degree becomes indicator of the level of professional qualifications of a specialist. And postgraduate and doctoral studies (and, accordingly, competition) become the next stages of education. In this regard, the dynamics of the level of wages of workers depending on their level of education is interesting. Thus, in the United States, during the 80s of the last century, hourly wages of persons with higher education increased by 13 percent, while those with incomplete higher education decreased by 8 percent, with secondary education decreased by 13 percent, and those who did not graduate even high school, lost 18 percent of earnings. But in the 90s. the growth of wages for university graduates stopped - people with higher education by this time had become, as it were, “average” workers - like school graduates in the 80s. The wages of people with academic degrees began to grow rapidly - for bachelors by 30 percent, for doctors - almost doubling. The same thing happens in Russia - they are more willing to hire a candidate, or even a doctor of science, to work for a prestigious company than just a specialist with a higher education.

Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences N. MOISEEV.

Presentation of diplomas and congratulations to Phystech graduates of 1997.

Academician V. M. Glushkov (left) and his students - Doctors of Science V. P. Derkach, A. A. Letichevsky and Yu. V. Kapitonova.

Professor, Doctor of Biological Sciences N.F. Reimers at the International Environmental Conference in the USA. August 1989.

Participants of the first Soviet-American symposium on partial differential equations in Novosibirsk Akademgorodok (1963). In the picture in the center: academicians I. N. Vekua and M. A. Lavrentiev.

In order to understand and evaluate the processes taking place in the world, to see trends and be able to identify general directions of efforts that should be made, it is necessary to find a reference point, a certain foundation on which a scientific analysis of the situation under study can rest. Such a support can be the idea of ​​society as a kind of self-organizing, continuously evolving system, in which a mismatch between the spiritual and material worlds regularly occurs. These worlds are interconnected, but their correlation is by no means unambiguous. There are happy periods when the development of a person’s spiritual world far outstrips his material needs, and then a happy era of development of society, its culture, and economy begins. Apparently, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment that followed it were just such periods. But the opposite also happens, when, despite the development of the needs of the material world, degradation of the spiritual world occurs. Its valuables remain unclaimed, like the Library of Alexandria, which was burned by the early Christians. And then the Middle Ages sets in - a timelessness that throws humanity back centuries, dooming it to grief and blood. I am afraid that we are on the threshold of such a period and that enormous intellectual efforts will be required not to cross it.

Where are you, future Huns,
What a cloud hanging over the world!
I hear your cast iron tramp
Through the not yet discovered Pamirs.

Bryusov was right about everything, except for the “undiscovered Pamirs”. They are open, they are here, they are around us, this is our current reality, these are the powers that be, living today and understanding little of what is happening on the planet today. These megacities and the current mass media are the most striking manifestation of our intellectual degradation or, if you like, the coming Middle Ages. If we can't stop him!

Today there is a lot of talk about the environmental crisis, about the country's transition to a model of "sustainable development", about the economic crisis and many other phenomena of the same nature. All this is fair - humanity is really experiencing a crisis and not so much an ecological one as a civilizational one, if you like, a breakdown of the system that has established itself on the planet in recent centuries. And what is happening in our country is only a fragment of this global process.

It seems to me that everything that is happening is much more complicated than is commonly imagined. I think that the civilizational potential that was laid down by the Neolithic revolution has practically been exhausted. I am convinced that humanity is approaching a turning point in its development. Once, back in the Paleolithic, a person experienced something similar: the biological development of the individual gradually began to slow down, giving way to social development. And such a gradual restructuring was a vital necessity for our biological species. I will not guess what the new channel of human evolution should become, what its scenarios might be. I will devote this article to just one issue. It will remain extremely important, regardless of what path of development the biological species that called itself “Homo sapiens” chooses.

We will talk about the education system, about passing the baton of culture and knowledge. All those bifurcations, or, using the terminology of the French mathematician Rene Thomas, catastrophes through which the formation of humanity passed, were resolved in a “natural” way, that is, by selection mechanisms. Either at the level of organisms, or at the supra-organismal level - hordes, tribes, populations, peoples. The process of restructuring lasted for thousands of years and cost our ancestors a sea of ​​blood. Today this path is impossible: it will mean the end of history, and not according to Hegel or Fukoyama, but the real end.

And whatever path of development humanity chooses in order to preserve itself on the planet, this can only be a choice of reason, based on science, on knowledge. Only they can alleviate the difficulties that people have to cope with. This means that science and education must meet the level of these difficulties. But if we seriously think about the content and methods of modern education, we will easily discover the discrepancy between existing traditions in education, especially in university education, and the needs of today. And this crisis may be the most dangerous of the entire set of modern crises. Although for some reason they hardly talk about him.

The formation of university traditions began in the Middle Ages. The first university was founded in Bologna in 1088. It consisted of a number of schools - logic, arithmetic, grammar, philosophy, rhetoric. As the range of issues facing society expanded, new disciplines emerged. At the same time, scientists increasingly became narrow professionals and understood each other worse and worse. The same thing happened with technical educational institutions, the original purpose of which was to teach crafts. Many of them turned into higher educational institutions, and some, like the famous Moscow Higher Technical University, became full-fledged technical universities in the last century. And all higher educational institutions had one thing in common - multi-subject, the desire for narrow specialization, and the gradual loss of the universality of education. The Russian higher school survived the longest, but it gradually began to lose the breadth of education and follow the ideology of strict pragmatism.

Higher schools all over the world are becoming like the Tower of Babel, whose builders understand each other worse and worse and have very little understanding of the architecture of the tower and the purpose of construction! Excess and unstructured information gives rise to information chaos. And it is the equivalent of ignorance, loss of vision of true values.

These circumstances could not go unnoticed. Back in the 50s, the remarkable British novelist and physics professor Charles Percy Snow wrote about the gap between humanities and science education. Moreover, he drew our attention to the fact that two different cultures and two different ways of thinking are emerging.

And this was just one aspect of the problem. In general, everything turned out to be much more complicated. The development of science and technology in the twentieth century acquired a completely new character. These are no longer scientific and technological revolutions, but a kind of process “with aggravation,” as they say in synergetics. It is characterized by a rapidly increasing rate of innovation and technological change, which means changes in the living conditions (and survival) of not only individuals, but also nations as a whole. The existing education system is clearly not ready for such a turn in the “history of people.” I had to face this firsthand.

In the mid-50s, I was appointed dean of the aeromechanical faculty of the then famous Physics and Technology Institute. The faculty rapidly expanded and became an incubator of specialists for our aerospace industry. The number of disciplines taught increased rapidly. We clearly did not keep up with the development of technology. I was then a professor at the Department of Physics of Fast Processes, as the Department of Explosion Theory was then coded. It was headed by the future founder of the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Academician M. A. Lavrentyev. Therefore, first of all, I began to talk about my difficulties and doubts with Mikhail Alekseevich.

As a result of quite lengthy discussions, a principle was developed: it is necessary to teach not so much individual particulars, but the ability to learn new things and move away from standards. In fact, none of us can say what specific knowledge our pets will need in a rapidly changing world in 15-20 years. A specialist must rise above his craft and easily switch to a new one. And standards should be temporary and born not in ministries, but where science is done.

This principle has met with many objections. In fact, it is not only debatable, but also very difficult to implement. And it places rather difficult and, most importantly, unusual demands on the teaching corps. In those years, I taught many different courses and always tried to find reasonable compromises between professionalism and a broad view of the subject, its inclusion in the “overall picture of the world.” My courses were sometimes subjected to very sharp criticism. Mathematicians said that instead of proofs I limited myself to “indications”, and physicists accused me of teaching “models of physics” rather than physics. And they were all right - that's exactly what I wanted to achieve. In hindsight, the only thing I can blame myself for is that I didn’t build bridges between different disciplines clearly enough. And I am still confident that the principle that we formulated more than 40 years ago is universal for university education: it is necessary to teach in such a way as to facilitate a person’s ability to assimilate the new things that he will encounter.

One of the most pressing problems of modern education is the fight against growing information chaos. With the expansion of the scope and intensity of scientific and technological progress, the number of connections between people and especially between different fields of knowledge is growing very quickly. But the amount of information that is bombarded with a person grows many times faster. As a result, necessary (and not just useful) information is drowned in the chaos of “noise”, and with modern methods of information selection, that is, with the existing education system, it can be almost impossible to identify the desired signal, much less interpret it.

Within the framework of one of the Phystech faculties in the 50-60s, it seems that we managed to do this, relying on the fundamental principle that I talked about above. But even the entire Physics and Technology Institute is only a tiny part of that grandiose “teacher” system, on the effectiveness of which the fate of the people and the country directly depends. And the formulated principle, no matter how necessary, is clearly insufficient when it comes to the entire system. What else is needed? In what direction should the education system, especially university education, be reformed? These questions are extremely relevant today.

I do not at all pretend to be a revolutionary reformer: as a principled opportunist, I am an opponent of any revolutions. Any restructuring and reforms must be balanced and gradual. Especially when it comes to education and culture, which are sanctified by centuries-old traditions that did not arise by chance. Therefore, I will express only some thoughts, also based on personal experience.

In the 70s, a computer system (a system of computer models) capable of simulating the functioning of the biosphere and its interaction with society was created at the Computing Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences. With its help, a number of studies were carried out, one of which - an analysis of the consequences of a large-scale nuclear war - received wide public attention. Even new terms have appeared - “nuclear night” and “nuclear winter”. But, probably, the most important consequence of the analysis was the understanding that in the near future natural sciences will be able to answer the question: what is that forbidden line that a person in his relationship with Nature has no right to cross under any circumstances.

But human behavior is determined not only and not so much by the knowledge that arises in the natural sciences. And here we have to remember again what Charles Percy Snow said. Society cannot survive without knowledge of the house in which it lives, that is, without knowledge of the world around it. But they lose all meaning if society is not able to coordinate its behavior with the laws of this world and their consequences. Thus, it turns out that the second fundamental principle that should underlie modern university education is the integrity of education - scientific, technical and humanitarian.

Quite a few researchers and teachers both in Russia and in other countries have come to understand this principle. They came in different ways, for different reasons. And they talk about it in different ways too. Some are about the humanitarization of scientific, technical or engineering education. Others talk about the need for natural science education for humanists. Or they formulate their vision of the inferiority of modern education in some other way. But the essence of such thoughts is the same: all the sciences that we teach our pets have the same goal - to ensure the future of human existence in the biosphere. With the modern power of civilization and the complexity of the relationship between Nature and man, all human efforts must truly be based on this reality. Environmental education, if this term is appropriate, should become the backbone of modern education.

And one more thing: we need to pass on not just the baton of experience and knowledge, but also the baton of foresight! At the current rate of change in living conditions, with the growing threat to the very existence of humanity, it is no longer possible to rely only on traditions and past experience. The task of the Collective Mind of man is to look beyond the horizon and build its development strategy taking into account the interests of future generations. The above concerns, first of all, university education. For it is here that the intellect is forged, on which the future of the human race depends.

But how to achieve this? Any revolutions and distortions are very dangerous here. An active but restrained search is needed. Everything that was said relates to problems common to the entire planetary community. But how does this translate into our Russian reality?

On top of the planetary crisis of culture and education that I spoke about, in our country there is also our specific Russian crisis. The wave of ignorance, especially in management structures, is gradually turning into a tsunami capable of sweeping away the remnants of education and culture. Sometimes it seems to me that we have no choice but to follow Bryusov’s advice, with which he ends the poem, the first lines of which I took as the epigraph to this article:

And we, sages and poets,
Keepers of secrets and faith,
Let's take away the lit lights
In catacombs, in deserts, in caves.

But maybe it's worth fighting? Maybe all is not lost? And it’s too early to take into the catacombs those lights that were lit in our country more than a thousand years ago!

And I think that many people feel this desire. It is no coincidence that the congress on environmental education in universities, which was organized in June 1997 in Vladimir by the Russian Green Cross and the city administration, received 520 reports from different parts of the country. This means that the Russian intelligentsia is not going to go to the catacombs!

Our country and its economy are in a catastrophic situation today. I will not repeat well-known facts. But do the powers that be realize that they are cutting down the root on which, perhaps, one day the tree of Russian civilization will grow again? After all, scientific teams are collapsing, scientific schools are dying. The age-old peasant principle of “preserving seed material” is being violated: no matter how hungry you are in winter, do not touch the seed material until spring! Higher school, scientific teams, a high level of education of the nation are the main support, the key to the further development of the country. And now, in addition to all the troubles that have already befallen higher education, they are also preparing to reduce the number of universities.

Do those who start such things realize that the liquidation of several institutions such as MIPT, MVTU, MAI, MPEI is enough to stop the development of Russia for a century? Sometimes it seems that someone, with a skillful and cruel hand, is trying to destroy a possible competitor in the field of human intelligence. However, this “someone” can be both ignorance and conceit! Which, of course, is no better.

Let's look back: after all, we have had to rise from our knees more than once, we have experience in overcoming catastrophic situations. Let's remember the Patriotic War. During the most tragic period, when the country was tormented by the Nazis, we found the strength and opportunity to implement a scientific program to create a nuclear shield. There was a clear understanding that without this we will become the outskirts of the planet.

Our state did even more in those years - unlike Germany, it managed to preserve its scientific schools. And my generation, having removed their shoulder straps after the war, joined these schools. Ten years later we became the second scientific power in the world. At all scientific conferences in the 50-60s, Russian was spoken along with English. The nation was gaining self-esteem - a fact no less important than economic success! For some reason they forget about this now.

Scientific schools - a phenomenon that was characteristic of Russia and Germany - are not just a collection of specialists working in the same field. This is an informal group of researchers or engineers who have a sense of responsibility both for the fate of the business and for the fate of each other. It takes many decades to create a scientific school, like any tradition. In Germany they were destroyed by fascism. And they still haven’t recovered! Germany, even now, is deprived of the scientific and engineering importance and position in the intellectual world that it had before the Nazis came to power.

Recently I had to talk with one of those high-ranking destroyers of science, whom our people are unlikely to ever remember with a kind word. There was talk about the fate of Russian science. And the thought was voiced: “Do we need to develop science, since it’s cheaper to buy licenses?” Unfortunately for our people, this is not just the thought of one of the dropouts who consider themselves intellectuals, but a point of view that is consistently put into practice! The supposed decline in the number of higher education institutions confirms my assertion.

In this conversation, my opponent brought up, as it seemed to him, an absolutely irrefutable argument - the example of post-war Japan, which bought licenses rather than spending billions on education and fundamental science. I had a counterargument - the same Japan! In 1945, both we and Japan started from scratch. But Japan had both the Marshall Plan and the most favorable market conditions, while we rose on our own, and the management was far from the best. However, in the early 60s, the gross product per capita in the USSR was 15-20 percent higher than that of Japan. And then a quiet restructuring took place there: the state began to intervene in the economy, the focus was on the domestic market and the development of domestic “know-how”. And at the end of the 70s the picture was completely different.

Thus, if in general a new Middle Ages is approaching the planet, in which politicians who cannot see beyond their own noses, businessmen who know how to please the basest feelings of a person, and narrow artisans will rule the roost, then Russia is destined for a place in the hallway of this medieval hostel!

It is impossible to come to terms with such a prospect! People in the circles of the scientific and engineering intelligentsia began to talk about the rising wave of incompetence and misunderstanding of what is happening, about clan and industry interests, about the inability of our country to accept the challenge of continuously accelerating scientific and technological progress long before the start of perestroika. Perhaps, such a milestone, when the inevitability of the impending systemic crisis in the Soviet Union and our rollback from the advanced positions became obvious, was the failure of the Kosygin reforms, the transition to the production of a single series of computers and, accordingly, the liquidation of the domestic BESM line.

And many of us already then, in the 70s, began to look for those forms of activity in which we could, to the best of our abilities, at least somehow influence the course of events, at least slow down the advancing degradation and prepare new positions for future takeoff . Academician V.M. Glushkov fought desperately at meetings of the military-industrial complex, academician G.S. Pospelov wrote books and gave lectures on the principles of program management. I took up the problems of the relationship between man and the biosphere, believing that the inevitable ecological crisis would be the purgatory that could lead humanity to moral renewal. And the way through it is the improvement of education, the desire to give it a sharp environmental focus.

I have written several books about this, which have sold quite large copies. Together with my colleagues at the Computing Center of the USSR Academy of Sciences, we developed a computing system as a kind of tool for quantitative analysis of possible scenarios of mutual influence of the biosphere and society. I was sure, and now I think the same, that our domestic traditions, the highly educated nation, the education system itself, which began to take shape in the last century and received a unique development in the twentieth century, give Russia a chance to take its rightful place in the planetary community and find itself in number of leaders creating new civilizational paradigms.

It turned out that I’m not the only one who thinks along these lines. This was inspiring and gave me some hope. One of my like-minded people was the late Professor N. F. Reimers. (For his articles, see: “Science and Life” No. 10, 12, 1987; No. 7, 8, 1988; No. 2, 1991; No. 10, 1992) It turned out that we both thought about the need for such a reform of university education that would make ecology, in its modern understanding, as the science of one’s own home, the core of the educational process. Moreover, we both thought about environmental education, primarily in the humanities, and were confident that the 21st century would become the century of the humanities, which, on the basis of natural science knowledge, would form the foundations of a new universal civilization with its new morality.

We even came up with a scheme for such a restructuring and possible organizational experiments. I visited the “authorities” a lot and met with a generally favorable reaction. It seemed that we were on the verge of new important organizational decisions.

But then the collapse of the Great State occurred. There are many people in power who do not care about the country’s thousand-year-old traditions, about Russian science and education. It already seemed to me that all plans should be given up.

Thank God - I was wrong!

Once S. A. Stepanov, an employee of the USSR Ministry of Higher Education, shortly before the liquidation of this ministry, gathered a small group of specialists and proposed creating an independent, non-state environmental university with a humanitarian orientation. This was the same idea that Reimers and I discussed. But then the thought of creating a private university never occurred to us. This required “new thinking” and knowledge of the potential capabilities of the new organization of the state.

In September 1992, the first student was admitted to the university, which was named the International Independent Ecological and Political Science University - MNEPU. S. A. Stepanov was elected rector of the university, N. F. Reimers - dean of the Faculty of Ecology, I became president of the university.

So, the university took place. In 1996 there was the first graduation of bachelors, in 1997 we graduated specialists with a full 5-year period of study. This year we plan to graduate the first masters.

The creation of MNEPU is just the first experience, a drop in the ocean of what is necessary. But I always strive to establish the absolute of gradualism. From the fact that there is an urgent need to radically improve education and determine its status in society, it does not at all follow that a revolution must be carried out. It is necessary to gradually and carefully forge new principles, implement them in life, testing them through experience.

And in this context, small non-state universities can be invaluable for the future of our country. State universities have to work within fairly strict standards; it is difficult to introduce new ideas, new programs, and new teaching methods. It's hard to experiment. And small non-state universities may turn out to be the forward-looking ones of our domestic “teacher” system.

I am convinced that the time will come when our authorities will be able to think about the future of the Russian peoples, and then those centers on which we are now working will turn out to be very necessary for the civilization in which our country, as I hope, will take its rightful place.

LITERATURE

N.N. Moiseev about education:

How far is it until tomorrow? In three volumes. M.: Publishing house MNEPU, 1997.

Volume I. Free Thoughts (1917-1993).

Volume II. The world community and the fate of Russia.

Volume III. Time to set national goals.

T-

What to do with science From the editor

We live in an era of great change. For four thousand years the world has developed along an ascending logarithmic curve. The population has been growing all the time, but in the last 50 years - a historically insignificant period - there has been no growth. In physics, this phenomenon is called “phase transition”: at first there was explosive growth, and then it suddenly stopped. The world could not cope with its development and tried to solve new problems using old methods. The consequence of this approach was the First and Second World Wars, and later this led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Phase transition in human development

Now the rate of human population growth is falling, we are experiencing a phase transition. What happens after this critical transition? All developed countries today are experiencing a crisis - there are already fewer children than old people. This is where we are heading.

This forces people to change their lifestyle, way of thinking, methods of development. The distribution of labor is also changing. All over the world, small towns and villages are dying out. In America, which is only 30-40 years ahead of us in this regard, 1.5% feed the country, 15% are employed in production, and 80% are employed in the non-productive sphere - services, management, healthcare, education. This is a new world that we are entering, in which there is neither a peasantry nor a working class, but only a “middle class”.

The role of science in the new world

We usually divide science into fundamental and applied. The period for introducing the achievements of fundamental science is 100 years. For example, we are now using the fruits of quantum mechanics, which appeared in 1900. Fundamental science requires little money, say, one conventional unit.

Applied science develops over 10 years: these are new inventions, the implementation of new ideas that are developed over a hundred years. Applied science requires 10 conventional monetary units.

And then there is production and economics. If your production is well established, you can repurpose it in one year, but this will require 100 conventional units of money.

In one case, your motive is knowledge, in another, benefit, in the third, development and income. We must remember how little money is spent on fundamental science and what great results it brings. Fundamental science must be financed now so that in 100 years it will pay off a hundredfold.

This is the economics of modern progress.

Development of Russian science

The development of Russian science should lead us out of the crisis. To do this, we must enter world science. Soviet science developed in a closed space; it had contacts with the outside world, but was closed. And our education was at a very high level, and we still keep the mark. There are many Russian students in the management of huge international corporations with multimillion-dollar turnover. We have our own way of teaching, and we do not need to imitate anyone in this.

The main obstacle to the development of innovation is not the lack of money, but bureaucracy. People in the atomic department say that if they were now tasked with creating an atomic bomb, they would not be able to complete this project in the required time frame: they would simply drown in a bureaucratic swamp. The fight against bureaucracy is a political task.

When our scientists, led by Kurchatov, were tasked with developing an atomic project, they were all under forty. Young scientists can and should participate in big projects; their brains are still working. And now no one wants to take them into account.

We need to change the priorities of our science. Our specialists are now leaving for other countries - this is how they solve problems that the state should solve. In Tsarist Russia, the best students and young scientists were sent abroad for 2-3 years to prepare for a professorship. This path was followed by Pavlov, Mendeleev, and many other representatives of world science. This needs to be restored.

When I spoke to Stanford University in 1989, I was told that there were 40,000 Chinese studying in America. There were 200 Russians then, but now there are thousands of them, and they even say that American universities are places where Russian scientists teach the Chinese.

Our tasks are integration into world science, self-reliance in the field of education, development of economic, legal and other ways to get rid of bureaucratic control over inventors and those who are ready to innovate.

Innovators always stand up to their bosses. And they always achieved results. Political protest sentiments also arise in the minds of such people - in the Soviet Union they arose in academic campuses, in closed scientific institutions. Sakharov worked in the most closed place in Russia.

In recent years, physicist Sergei Kapitsa has been working on historical demography, trying to understand history using the methods of the exact sciences. He views humanity as a single system, the development of which can be described mathematically. This helps model long-term social processes. From this approach to history a whole science has grown - cliodynamics, where demographics play an important role.

The fact is that, while studying the growth of the Earth's population, the Austrian physicist and mathematician Heinz von Foerster discovered the so-called law of hyperbolic growth, which promises humanity considerable troubles. He argues that if the world population continued to grow along the same trajectory as it grew from 1 to 1958 AD, then on November 13, 2026, it would become infinite. Förster and his co-authors titled their article about the discovery in Science in 1960: “The End of the World: Friday, November 13, 2026 AD.”

In reality this is, of course, impossible. But modern science knows that systems that find themselves in such a situation usually experience a phase transition. This is exactly what is happening to humanity right before our eyes: having reached a certain critical indicator, the growth rate of the Earth's population after the 1970s rapidly falls and then stabilizes. Kapitsa calls this a “global demographic revolution” and argues that developed countries have already experienced it, and developing countries will in the near future.

Interestingly, the starting point of Kapitza’s lecture is the same as that of Hans Rosling, but their approach and conclusions are completely different. If for Rosling a slowdown in population growth is a chance to avoid catastrophe, and we must make every effort to achieve this, then for Kapitsa it is an inevitability that we can neither bring closer nor avert. According to him, we are experiencing the most significant event in the history of mankind, and the scale of its consequences is difficult to imagine and overestimate: the global demographic revolution affects all areas of our lives and leads to a rapid change in everything - the structure of states, the world order, ideologies, values.

Only culture and science will help us cope with the ongoing changes and adapt to new living conditions - which means that those communities that understand this will be in the most advantageous position. Russia has every opportunity, but for this it is necessary to do several very important things.

“The rapid development of modern science leads to a rapid increase in the volume of scientific and technical information and to a further deepening of specialization. At the same time, a growing problem..."

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF A SCIENTIFIC NETWORK

O.S. Bartunov, V.N. Lysakov1, I.G. Nazin2, P.Yu. Plechov, E.B. Rodichev, A.V. Seliverstov

IVM, Moscow,

Nizhny Novgorod State University named after. N.I. Lobachevsky, Nizhny Novgorod

Rapid development of modern sciences

and leads to a rapid increase in the volume of scientific and technical information, and to a further deepening of specialization. At the same time, a growing problem

There is a lag in the means and methods of communication both between specialists of different sciences and between narrow specialists in different areas of the same discipline.

The gap between the current state of science and the means of education is growing even more rapidly. Highly specialized articles reflecting the current state of the issue are practically inaccessible to students, graduate students and scientists even in relatively close related fields, and even more so for those high school students who are actively interested in science and constitute the main reserve for its further development.

In addition, a number of scientific disciplines are traditionally of interest to almost the entire population, regardless of their professional orientation (examples include history, economics, etc.), and the ability to access a qualified and understandable presentation of the current state of such sciences has a significant impact on the cultural level of society as a whole.

It is important to note that the mentioned process of growing information gap between the already accumulated volume of information and what is actually accessible to everyone except narrow specialists is objective in nature, determined by the rapid development of science itself, and has a steady tendency to exacerbate such a gap, but not to smooth it out . The result is a decrease in the efficiency of the scientific research process, which occurs due to repeated duplication in the study of the same facts, repeated re-development of the same methods.

Issues of scientific information exchange are inseparable from the entire process of development of science as a whole, they arose and are developing together with it. Already, the centuries-old practice of the development of science has shown the need for a balanced development of all available methods of scientific communication, from personal communication between specialists engaged in the same task, special seminars, conferences and symposia, including a much wider range of specialists, often representing several related sciences, and to such , aimed at a much wider audience, forms such as writing textbooks and popular science books with articles by leading experts. It is especially necessary to emphasize the importance of the entire spectrum of forms of exchange and dissemination of scientific information. Any imbalances lead to significant negative effects - from the failure of individual areas of scientific knowledge to a general slowdown in scientific progress throughout the country.

The essence of the "Scientific Network" project is the use of modern Internet technologies to create a means of scientific communication and disseminate current scientific information among the widest possible range of interested parties - scientists, engineers, graduate students, students and high school students.

Purpose The project is to create a technological tool on the Internet that allows the most efficient, prompt and qualified delivery of modern scientific information to all readers interested in it - scientists, engineers, graduate students, students and high school students. For specialists, such a tool should be a partial replacement for conferences and symposiums, for graduate students - wide-ranging seminars, for undergraduates and high school students - textbooks and popular science books and articles in their chosen areas of specialization.

About the need for such a project.

The Internet, as a completely new means of communication, began to be actively used for the dissemination of scientific information about 20 years ago (in Russia - about 10 years). In recent years, there has been an extremely rapid, abrupt growth of information functions of the Internet in almost all areas of application, and in many of them the Internet has already significantly displaced classical means.

At the same time, a very serious imbalance has arisen in the sphere of dissemination and exchange of scientific information. If the Internet has long become, in fact, one of the main means for the exchange of highly specialized information, its role in such areas as interdisciplinary exchange, training and popularization remains very insignificant, especially in Russia. However, this imbalance also occurs in the global Internet as a whole, and only in the last few years have a number of countries (USA, England) begun to make noticeable efforts to eliminate this situation. The general focus of the proposed project is precisely to smooth out the noted imbalance in the Russian (more precisely, in the Russian-speaking) Internet sector.

For the successful implementation of the Scientific Network project, in addition to the actual creation of a system of Web servers and corresponding software, it is critically important to fulfill two conditions - the presence of qualified and wide information content, as well as broad information about the availability of a server on the scale of almost the entire Russian Internet. Experience shows that violation of any of these two conditions does not allow achieving the main goals formulated for this project.

Indeed, on the one hand, there are several thousand scientific servers with already presented, interesting and relevant scientific information, with traffic at the level of several dozen, or even units of visits per day. The reason is that it is almost impossible to find specific, currently needed information among these thousands of servers in the foreseeable time due to the almost complete lack of structure at the macro level (on the scale of the scientific sector of the Russian Internet as a whole, by field of science, target groups of readers) .

On the other hand, a number of sites with good traffic and containing scientific information clearly do not have the basis to maintain this information at the proper level, both in terms of volume and, often, in terms of the level of its scientific reliability.

The Russian Internet as a whole, according to the authors of the project, is quite ripe for the creation of a modern, user-friendly, well-structured means of exchange and dissemination of scientific and technical information. It is clear, however, that this problem is very large-scale, and can only be realized through the consolidation of very significant forces and means.

Ways of implementation.

The project is implemented in the form of two main interconnected functional modules - preparation of materials and their presentation. The common technological basis is the use of the WWW and a database. Let's look at these components in more detail.

The materials preparation module is, in fact, the most automated distributed editorial office. An author who wants to post his material first goes through the registration procedure using WWW tools. He then sends the materials to a fixed email address (directly or using Web interfaces). The received material is automatically registered by the central server, entered into the database, after which the corresponding editors supervising this scientific direction (there may be several of them) are automatically sent a notification about the receipt of new material.

The entire publication as a whole is fully peer-reviewed, i.e. material may appear in the public domain only after it has been approved by the appropriate editor, who, if necessary, may seek the opinion of reviewers.

The editor, having received notification of new materials, views them using his authorization (i.e., in fact, the material is already on the Web site, but is invisible to the majority of readers). If external review is required, the editor simply makes appropriate notes through its Web interface, and notifications are automatically sent to reviewers. Reviews are returned to the editor through the same automatic notification mechanism. Ultimately, the editor, having made a decision, simply notes it in his Web interface, after which the material automatically becomes available on the site, appearing in tables of contents, search results, etc. The purpose of such a structure is the desire to involve in the editing and reviewing procedure not a special exempt staff, but the maximum number of actually working scientific specialists, minimizing the cost of their time. At the same time, everyone works in their permanent places and at a time convenient for them, there is no need to visit individual editorial premises at any fixed time (i.e. the editorial board is purely virtual, and physical meetings may be necessary only if certain issues are resolved controversial or fundamental issues).

The material presentation block is the actual Web site accessible to readers. Web technology allows for multidimensional structuring (unlike conventional publications) of the information presented - by area of ​​knowledge (physics, biology, etc.), by date of receipt (analogous to a news feed), by audience (sections such as "Professionals", "Applicants" etc.), by type of publication (brief news, articles, etc.). Naturally, Network sites are equipped with a developed search system - by authors, keywords, etc. (remember that all materials are initially entered into the database).

–  –  –

Information flows on geosciences presented on the Internet can be divided by type of content into:

Descriptive (articles, monographs, lectures);

Events (monitoring, news, conferences);

Discussion (discussions, questions and answers);

Reference (databases, catalogues, libraries);

Interactive resources (modeling, specialized calculations, GIS, demo programs).

Narrative, event and discussion information flows fit well into the scheme of standard content management systems (Content Management System). Such systems work successfully on all major dynamic Internet resources, including those with scientific content (http://info.geol.msu.ru, http://www.nature.ru, etc.). These types of information flows are easily presented in a “pseudostatic” form and are integrated on the Internet using search engines of various levels (internal navigators, local search, global search engines). On the other hand, the presentation on the Internet of heterogeneous databases, current catalogs and interactive resources is still poses both technical and conceptual difficulties. The main problems include heterogeneous (often incomparable) data structure, lack of standards for representing specialized information, “diversity” of interfaces to databases and differences in the tasks of information compilers.

We have proposed a scheme for combining heterogeneous databases based on DataGen technology (an automatic builder of linear databases, based on an analysis of the structure of the data itself, developed within the framework of the RFBR project N97-07-90022) and the concept of a “general query” that allows linearization (simplification to linear table) databases of almost any complexity.

Most scientific databases are characterized by the ability to specify the most frequently used query, which we further call “general”, which allows the user to obtain the most important information for him at the lowest cost and does not require the interface to build a complex structured query.

The simplest examples: almost any mineralogical database can search by the name of the mineral, which is the most common request (according to our statistics on the WWW-Mincryst mineralogical database - more than 70% of requests), earthquake databases usually use the coordinates of the epicenter, data for publications - the name of one of the authors, etc. In this case, the user, by entering a minimum of information, usually receives a fairly standard and complete result. Having introduced the concept of a “general” query, you can easily move on to the concept of building a portal to heterogeneous WWW-oriented databases.

Such a portal is built on the basis of its own database, which stores (indexed by categories, for example by branches of science) information about databases, such as:

a description of the database (for brief reference), its classification into any category, the “general” request form issued by the portal and the general URL of the database (if the user needs, for example, to detail his request). The portal, based on a record in the database and the selection of a search category, creates one dynamic form for each database (if there are several of them), information from which, if necessary, in the form of an HTTP request will then be redirected to the appropriate database, which, in turn, having processed the request, will return its result to the user. The advantage of this approach is that the portal creator does not need to know the structure of the remote database and the method of constructing queries to it; it is enough to just have the form of a “general” query.

As a rule, most of these databases also contain one (or more) fairly easily indexed fields of unique values ​​(such as the name of the mineral above), which can also be used to build a general search system for terms across ALL databases described in the portal.

Those. By recording unique indexes for other databases in the portal’s own database (if, of course, there are any), you can organize a search using keywords and give the user access to all databases containing the term he mentioned. This differs from simple site indexing because... firstly, usually the contents of databases are not indexed by network agents (robots) due to the impossibility (in most cases) of the latter creating real queries; and secondly, the indexing of truly significant (for the user) terms occurs, and not just everything in a row.

The above method combines well with Internet resource catalogs. The basic structural unit of such a catalog is an electronic catalog record. It contains the necessary information characterizing this resource, such as URL, title, authors, short description, etc. When adding another resource to the catalog, a new record is created, which, in addition to descriptive information, contains service information about which sections of the rubricator it is linked to.

The maximum capabilities of a catalog system are achieved by integrating the catalog with a search engine. The source addresses for crawling are a list of URLs, extracted before the next crawling cycle from the corresponding field of directory entries. The crawling area is limited by inclusion/exclusion rules (essentially regular expressions) for the crawler, which are generated according to a specific algorithm based on existing URLs. In addition, it is possible to set a separate crawling policy for each resource. This is achieved by entering a list of inclusion/exclusion rules for the crawler into the service fields of the catalog record.

As a result of integrating the resource catalog with a search engine, the following is achieved:

The ability to search for the necessary information only within the resources listed in the catalog, which significantly increases the relevance of search results.

The ability to limit the area in which the search occurs (“all resources”, “in a specific section of the rubricator”, “single resource”).

The most difficult to integrate into general information flows on the Internet are interactive resources, such as Java applets, calculation systems, modeling environments, and geographic information systems (GIS). In practice, searching for these resources is currently only possible using the accompanying text information. Often, the lack of available descriptions of interactive systems leads to low traffic to such resources. One of the ways to increase the demand for such resources is to place them on large specialized portals with high traffic. In this case, even a static link in the appropriate section can dramatically increase the likelihood of the resource being discovered by interested users.

The approaches described above were implemented when creating a distributed information system for Geosciences.

The basic nodes of the system are located at the following addresses:

System for publishing scientific and educational materials http://info.geol.msu.ru

Library of Geosciences http://library.iem.ac.ru

Databases (http://database.iem.ac.ru, http://geo.web.ru/rus, etc.)

Interactive resources (http://database.iem.ac.ru/mincryst, http://info.geol.msu.ru/~kbs)

Distributed resource integration systems (catalog - http://info.geol.msu.ru/db/top_geo.html;

search engine – http://info.geol.msu.ru/db/geol_search) This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grants 00-07-90063,01-07-90052)

SCIENTIFIC NETWORK ARCHITECTURE, TECHNOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

–  –  –

The scientific network's technology platform is based on a three-tier scheme, which provides greater flexibility and scalability than the simpler and more widely used client-server scheme. The top level of such a scheme is represented by external interfaces. Their number is unlimited, they can be added to the system as needed. All communication between the system and the outside world is carried out through these interfaces - these can be Web servers, mail for receiving/issuing information, modern object protocols such as IIOP, or even very specific ones, for example, made to order for a specific client.

The middle layer is the common data and operation bus. It has a single standardized interface. All external interfaces, communicating with the outside world using their various protocols, when communicating with a common bus, transform requests and data into a single bus standard. The main task of the common bus is dispatching and routing information flows presented in a standard unified format.

The lower level consists of an arbitrary number of data stores and processors. These can be various database servers, file storages, specific search servers, etc. Having a completely different internal structure, all these servers again communicate with the bus using a single protocol, exchanging information with it, receiving and issuing processing commands, etc.

In particular, this lower level logically constitutes a single database of such a system. The most common structural unit in the system is the object, and the common bus ensures its integrity. This means, for example, that the title of an article can be physically stored in one lower-level database (for example, for quick search by titles), and the text of the article in a completely different one, say, optimal for full-text search. But when the external interface requests “show such and such an article,” it will be returned by the bus in its entirety, in its original form.

This scheme has many important advantages when constructing large projects. One of the most significant in our case is scalability. The number of servers at each of the three levels is determined not by the number of clients (there can be as many of them as desired), but only by the number of fundamentally different types of operations and the task of evenly distributing the load across the servers to ensure high load capacity of the system as a whole. In addition, adding new servers is done on the fly and does not in any way disrupt the ongoing functionality of the system.

The presence of extensive, frequently updated content and high popularity place strict demands on the load capacity of sites. In addition, additional services provided by the system, such as displaying documents on similar topics, dynamically expanding links in documents, etc.

require a performance reserve.

In this regard, the use of modern technologies for building Web servers is of great importance. The implemented system uses the following basic technological methods:

Separate servicing of static and dynamic documents - requests come to the frontend server, which forwards them, depending on the type of request, to a “light” server serving static documents, and a “heavy” backend server working with databases. In this case, an optimal resource/performance ratio is achieved through proper redistribution of resources and configuration of all system components. In addition, this scheme allows, if necessary, to dynamically distribute the load across a larger number of physical servers; The frontend server is built on the basis of a regular Apache server with support for on-the-fly transcoding (Russian Apache) with an additional module mod_proxy, which redirects requests for dynamic documents to processing by the backend server, which differs in that it has a compiled Perl language interpreter (in which applications are developed) and the necessary modules for working with databases. On the one hand, this allows you to greatly reduce the load on the system due to the fact that the interpreter is always in memory and does not require loading/unloading, but on the other hand, the size of the process (server) in memory increases to 20-30 MB. That is why separate maintenance of static and dynamic documents is used. In addition, one of the specifics of the Russian Internet is the presence of a large number of so-called “slow” clients - users working through slow communication channels (for example, modems). This leads to a significant increase in the time required to receive a document from the server, which in turn leads to the fact that (due to the specifics of the http protocol) server resources will be busy all this time and are not available to service requests from other clients. It is very easy for a situation to arise when system resources are exhausted and the server is unavailable.

This problem is greatly alleviated (although not completely solved) if direct communication with the client is carried out by an extremely light frontend server, which will receive application results from the “heavy” server and cache them in its buffer;

Using a separate server to work with static objects. At first glance, images (icons, buttons, illustrations...) are static elements and can easily be served by a “lightweight” frontend server. However, images do not need to be recoded, there can be a lot of them and they can be small in size (for example, icons), their lifetime is usually much longer than that of documents. Therefore, to display images in our system, we use a separate, even lighter and faster thttpd server, which has the required properties. In this case, the frontend server, which receives requests from the client (browser), forwards requests for images to the thttpd server, similar to how it does for dynamic resources, or documents use the full name of the server when describing graphic elements.

Using a permanent connection between the Web server and the database to reduce the costs (time and resources) of establishing a connection with the database allows you to bypass the well-known problem of the HTTP protocol, when the server-client connection is a semi-stateless connection. This becomes possible due to the fact that the language interpreter is built into the server and can thus store a link to a structure that describes a connection to the database, which is established only once during the lifetime of a given server generation.

A flexible strategy for caching dynamic documents at the server level, allowing you to eliminate identical sequential queries to the database that obviously give the same result. This significantly reduces the load on the database server and reduces the response time to client requests.

Managing document caching in browsers and on intermediate corporate and provider proxy servers by issuing the correct http headers is also an important factor in speeding up the user's response and provides significant savings in network traffic.

The tools of application developers play a significant role in the technological process. A well-known difficulty in creating and maintaining dynamic servers is the existence of programmers themselves, who develop scripts for generating content from various sources of information, and designers, who determine the external presentation of documents on the server. On the one hand, a document is a program that is difficult and even dangerous for a designer to access (it’s not hard to imagine what could happen to an application if a designer accidentally makes a mistake in its code), and on the other hand, the result of this program must meet the designer’s ideas. This problem is solved at the level of templates, which are available and developed by designers and which are available to programs written by programmers. In addition, modern programming trends require an appropriate level of granulation of software components, while achieving the possibility of reusing software components, detailing the structure of a document (blank) at the level of standard design elements, and collective work on one project. As a result of a thorough analysis of foreign experience in developing large servers, we chose a freely available module in the Perl language - Mason (http://www.masonhq.com). Note that in the three years since its inception, Mason has gained popularity among Web developers precisely because of the ability to combine the work of programmers and designers and structured server development from a programming and design point of view.

The main metadata storage is the PostgreSQL relational DBMS, which is the most developed among the freely available databases. As the technological part of our project developed, we were faced with the need to work with new types of data, fast methods of accessing them and introducing new types of queries. The project participants are members of the PostgreSQL DBMS development team, which made it possible to solve the problem in the form of the development of GiST (generalized search tree) and the construction of new data types based on it. This will be discussed in more detail in another report.

In addition to dynamic search, we have developed full-text search through static collections of documents, the distinctive feature of which is its focus on thematic collections. For example, within the framework of the project, a search system has been created and is functioning on all Russian-language astronomical sites, on all sites of Moscow State University. In addition, it supports search across a single site, across a collection of sites and documents, so that the search form can be used (which, in fact, is done) on any resource registered in our search engine. This can be seen in the example of a search on all servers of our institute (http://www.sai.msu.su). Currently, we index about 270 astronomical servers and more than 310 servers of Moscow University. Detailed statistical information is always available on the statistics pages.

ASTRONET – ASTRONOMICAL NODE OF THE "SCIENTIFIC NETWORK"

–  –  –

In recent years, the Internet has become a generally recognized tool that effectively contributes to all key factors of scientific and technological progress.

At the same time, we can highlight the following main factors that determine such an important role of the World Wide Web in solving fundamental scientific and educational problems:

Rapid access to the latest scientific and technical information in its entirety, including the technical aspects of research (such as detailed results of experiments and calculations);

Complete freedom in presenting the research results of any groups and individual researchers, not limited by the rigid boundaries of printed publications or traditional conferences;

The possibility of direct exchange of information and opinions between all interested parties, both scientists of all ranks and students (from graduate students to schoolchildren);

Huge volumes of scientific and technical information made available thanks to Internet technologies (both quantitatively and qualitatively). It is the last factor - the volume of information - that today becomes the bottleneck of the technologies used, because existing methods of searching for information that a person needs every day in each specific case are mainly based on classical methods of cataloging and categorization. These classical methods, developed in detail over the past tens and even hundreds of years, are perfectly adapted to the volumes of information that were available in the pre-network, “paper” period.

Nowadays, a real and increasingly important factor is the fact that the scientific information already obtained (and available on the Internet) does not reach those who need it. Science is becoming more and more specialized, and connections between areas are being disrupted. “Popular science magazines for scientists” appear (for example, UFN).

This situation is objectively an increasingly significant negative factor that reduces the effectiveness of both scientific research and the educational process in almost all fields of knowledge, including in the field of natural sciences, because It is here that the volume of accumulated diverse information is maximum.

On the other hand, a number of natural sciences, including Astronomy, are experiencing another boom today, associated with new space and ground-based experiments, the launch of new satellites and instruments. Because of this, a huge amount of fundamentally new information appears. Newly published textbooks instantly become outdated (especially for sections related to observational data and scientific instruments). This is despite the fact that in Russia the latest educational literature was created 10-15 years ago. [The break in publication was primarily due to the economic crisis. In the last few years, scientific book publishing has resumed (personal and sincere thanks to the Russian Foundation for Basic Research here), but most of the books published today are reprints (most often stereotypical) of publications 15 years ago or earlier.] The Internet significantly facilitates and speeds up access to scientific information, in primarily through the creation of electronic libraries of journals and electronic preprints, but does not address the problem of narrow specialization.

In Russia, the problem of language is added to this - most materials in the world are published in English. This is not important for specialists, but is a problem for most other readers.

Concept.

When the idea of ​​​​creating the astronet website was expressed several years ago, two types of websites already existed in the World and in the Russian segment of the network:

Digital libraries, mainly based on journal publishing houses. Examples include the Russian electronic library eLibrary.ru and the astronomical bibliographic database adsabs.harvard.edu. They stored and provided access to a large number of journal articles and books. Additionally, a classic catalog search or, at a maximum, full-text search was provided.

Popular science sites. Today there are quite a lot of them. The best among Russian-speaking ones are the sites of the magazine “Zvezdochet” (http://www.astronomy.ru) and “StarLab” (http://www.starlab.ru). Western sites include the “astronomical picture of the day” (http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/) and a whole series of NASA sites (http://www.nasa.gov).

1) Both mentioned types of sites have a common drawback, namely the lack of structural and semantic connections of materials (i.e., mutual links are extremely incomplete, and the explanation of terms and concepts is limited and very heterogeneous).

2) For some popular science sites, in addition, the problem is the low level of publications.

Clause 1 contains the main idea of ​​astronet - the creation of an information resource on astronomy containing mutually linked commentary materials.

Thus, the center of astronet was to become an astronomical dictionary (glossary) with brief explanations of terms, names and titles, and an encyclopedic dictionary. Since astronet contains both scientific and popular science materials, several dictionaries and glossaries can exist in parallel, varying in level of popularity. It is advisable to supplement these basic resources with a reference book on formulas and constants, which can gradually be transformed into an “astronomer’s workplace.” All other materials must intensively refer to the listed resources. Such links can be immediately included in materials specially created for astronet, in others they are added on top of the existing text (like comments by an editor or translator).

In addition, the rapid change in the situation in astronomy requires the ability to quickly make corrections to already published materials. For this purpose, the astronet.ru system provides interactive access to materials for authors and editors, as well as the ability for readers to comment on materials.

P.2 predetermines the editorial policy of astronet - it is desirable that publications for the site are written by professionals, but only professional astronomers should carry out scientific editing and comment on texts.

Why did this project start at the SAI MSU

The question may arise: “Why did such a project arise specifically at the SAI MSU?” (http://www.sai.msu.su/) Look: the largest astronomical organizations in Russia are: In Moscow: IKI, FIAN, INASAN, SAI MSU In St. Petersburg: Pulkovo (GAO RAS), Institute of Applied Astronomy, Physicotechnical Institute im. Ioffe, St. Petersburg. University Other: SAO RAS (Kabardino-Balkaria), Kazan University, Ural University Of the 9 most famous organizations (first on the list), only 2 (MSU and St. Petersburg State University) are directly related to education. Historically, this work began in SAI (where there are many astronomical resources and specialists), but now on astronet there are publications from almost all of the organizations listed above.

The fact that the first information site was dedicated to astronomy is due to the fact that this is one of the most popular areas today, as well as some subjective predilections of the system developers.

Current state and immediate plans astronet

The popularity of a site is usually assessed in the number of unique IP addresses and the number of pages viewed. According to statistics obtained from server logs, traffic has been continuously growing throughout the entire period, with rare exceptions. For the period July 2001 – May 2002. traffic increased from 7,384 to 22,394 unique visitors per month, with, on average, each visitor viewing at least 7 pages (search robots are not taken into account).

Currently on astronet there are:

2) News project “Astronomical Picture of the Day” (http://www.astronet.ru/db/apod.html).

3) Dictionary for ~ 1000 terms (http://www.astronet.ru/db/glossary/).

4) 65 books and lecture courses (http://www.astronet.ru/db/books/).

5) Interactive map of the sky (http://www.astronet.ru/db/map/).

6) A search system for astronomical resources in Russia and neighboring countries with the ability to select a group of sites to search through the resource catalog (http://www.astronet.ru/db/astrosearch/).

In the near future it is expected:

1) Encyclopedia on planets (translation of "9 Planets" by B. Arnett)

2) Two astronomical encyclopedias "Physics of Space" (a joint project with the publishing house "Russian Encyclopedia")

More distant projects:

1) Astronomical reference book

2) Interactive astronomical calendar.

Other forms of work:

1) Participation in conferences, publication of their works or theses (“SETI on the threshold of the 21st century”:

http://www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1177012, Student conference "Space Physics":

http://www.astronet.ru:8100/db/msg/1176762).

2) Conducting student competitions (2001: http://www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1174725, 2002:

http://www.astronet.ru/db/msg/1177158).

Astronet and "Scientific Network".

Astronet is part of the interdisciplinary (multidisciplinary) project "Scientific Network" (http://www.nature.ru/) and is its astronomical node.

Work within the framework of this association involves the exchange of the most interesting publications that do not fit into one science, the creation of a single distributed encyclopedic reference book, etc. In addition, such a network better satisfies the needs of readers and increases traffic to each node. More details about the concept of the “Scientific Network” and the technical aspects of these projects are discussed in other articles in this collection (see.

Bartunov and others).

Acknowledgments

The development and development of the site was supported by RFBR grants 99-07-90069 and 02-07-90222.

In the competition "Stars of Astrorunet 2001", held by the site "AstroTop100" (http://www.sai.msu.su/top100/), astronet.ru took 1st place in the "Site of the Year" nomination and shared 1st place in the "Best" nomination news project."

We express our gratitude to all the numerous authors for their publications, the Russian Foundation for Basic Research for financial assistance, the directorate of the SAI for understanding the importance of the project for Russian astronomy, the RPO "World of Science and Culture" for supporting the "Scientific Network" project, as well as our colleagues in the "Scientific Network" for friendly assistance and useful discussions.

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRONIC USER INTERFACE DEVELOPMENT

TRAINING COMPLEX FOR THE INTERNET NETWORK

–  –  –

One of the important directions in the field of creating new information technologies for distance and open education systems is the creation of electronic educational complexes.

Within the framework of this direction, a project is currently underway at Chelyabinsk State University to create an integrated environment for the development and use of electronic educational complexes (EEC). EUCs created using this environment can work as a local application from a CD, or on the Internet.

As a basic didactic model, a new didactic model of EUK is used, which is based on the principle of structuring educational material according to content and didactic principles. This paper discusses the principles of user interface design. When designing an interface, there are three levels of abstraction: conceptual, logical and physical.

Definitions of frame, slot, vertical and horizontal navigation are given. The general structure of the interface is described. A description of the navigation slot and vertical layer slot is provided.

General principles of interface development

One of the basic principles of interface development is functional structuring.

The structure of the interface should reflect the structure of the EUC. As a basic unit of functional structuring, we introduce the concept of a frame.

A frame is a structure consisting of a set of cells called slots. Each slot consists of a name and an associated value. Values ​​can be data or references to other frames.

Thus, frames can be networked through slots.

We impose a constraint on this network, which must be a tree. The interface structure built using this approach represents a hierarchy of frames.

When designing the EUK interface, we distinguish three levels of abstraction in its structure:

conceptual, logical and physical.

At a conceptual level, an interface is represented as a hierarchy of frames. We will call this representation the conceptual diagram of the EUC interface.

The logical level specifies the mapping of a conceptual diagram into standard GUI (Graphical User Interface) elements. We will call this representation the logical diagram of the EUC interface.

At the physical level, the logical circuit is implemented by means of a specific instrumental environment.

We will agree to call this implementation the physical circuit of the EUC interface.

The EUC interface should take into account the individual preferences of the user to the maximum extent possible. An inconvenient interface may be an obstacle to the successful development of electronic computer systems.

Therefore, we must provide maximum flexibility in customizing the user interface of the EUC.

The structure of the educational curriculum should provide for the possibility of control on the part of the student over the breadth and depth of the material being studied. This is achieved by introducing a horizontal layering of course modules.

The EUK interface should provide the user with the ability to navigate through the hierarchy of modules and horizontal layers of the EUK with the ability to visually mark the material covered. Marking can be carried out automatically and manually. We will call support for horizontal layering vertical navigation with labeling capabilities.

In accordance with the structure of the EUK, each module is divided into vertical layers. The following didactic components are used as vertical layers: theory, theory tests, tasks, practice tests, bibliography and glossary of terms. The EUC interface must provide the user with the ability to access any vertical layer of the current module. Let's call the transition from one vertical layer to another horizontal navigation.

Thus, we can formulate the following requirements for the EUC user interface:

1. Interface personalization: The EUC interface should provide maximum customization flexibility for the end user.

2. Support for horizontal layering of EUCs: the interface should provide vertical navigation with the possibility of marking.

3. Support for vertical layering of EUCs: the interface must provide horizontal navigation.

Conceptual interface diagram

The conceptual diagram of the EUC interface should reflect the hierarchy of frames. The root of the hierarchy tree is the head frame. The conceptual diagram is depicted in Fig. 1.

Head frame includes:

1. Navigation slot

2. Vertical layer slot

3. Menu slot

4. Status Bar Slot The navigation slot is responsible for vertical navigation with labeling capabilities. The vertical layers slot performs the function of horizontal navigation through the current EUC module. The menu slot provides the user with a list of possible commands in the EUC and their execution. The status line slot displays EUC information messages to the user.

The navigation slot contains the navigation bar.

The navigation bar performs the following functions:

Vertical navigation through EUK modules

Marking the completeness of the material covered

Reflections of the user's current position Each module in the navigation panel is associated with a module representation node, consisting of a marker for the completeness of the module and its descendant modules, the name of the module, and an icon for expanding/collapsing descendant modules. The structure of the module view node is shown in Fig. 2.

The module completion marker performs the functions of marking and displaying the completeness of the material passage of the module and its descendant modules. The marker is divided into a modular segment and a descendant segment. The modular segment is located above the diagonal, and the descendant segment is below.

A modular segment can be in three states:

1. The modular segment is displayed in black – the module material has been passed.

2. The modular segment is displayed in white – the module material has not been passed.

3. The modular segment is not displayed - the completeness of the module is not recorded.

A descendant segment can be in four states:

1. The descendant segment is displayed in black – the material of the descendant modules has been completed.

2. The descendant segment is displayed in white – the material of the descendant modules has not been completed.

3. The descendant segment is displayed with black and white shading - the descendant modules have not been completely passed.

4. The descendant segment is not displayed - there are no descendant modules.

The passage of the module is recorded in manual and automatic mode. Manual fixation is done through the context menu. Automatic fixation is set by the module passing criterion. The criterion for passing the module is set by the developer of the EUC and may be different for different modules. An example of a passing criterion could be the time spent viewing a given module or the percentage of correct answers in tests or tasks.

The expand/collapse descendant modules icon is responsible for expanding and collapsing the list of descendant modules. "+" sign

corresponds to a collapsed list of child modules.

The "-" sign corresponds to an expanded list. If a module does not have this icon, then it does not have descendant modules. In Fig.3. An example of a navigation bar is shown.

Modules 1.2.

1 and 1.2.2 are completely completed and do not contain descendant modules. Module 1.2 failed and contains passed descendant modules 1.2.1 and 1.2.2.

Modules 1 and 1.1 are passed, but not all descendant modules are passed.

The vertical layers slot contains a frame of vertical layers. The vertical layers frame performs the functions of horizontal navigation and presentation to the user of the vertical layers of the current EUC module.

Interface logic diagram

The logical scheme of the EUK interface is specified by mapping the conceptual scheme into standard elements of the graphical user interface.

The head frame is mapped to the application window, the menu slot to the application window menu, the status bar slot to the application window status bar, the navigation slot to the docking window, the vertical layers slot to the MDI Child window.

The vertical layers slot can display various types of documents: graphs, tables, texts, multimedia. When displaying these documents, mobile structured objects are used, allowing you to work with heterogeneous documents of complex structure.

Currently, at Chelyabinsk State University, a prototype of the educational curriculum has been created for the following courses:

"Parallel database systems", "Parallel computer architecture", "Parallel programming".

This EUC prototype has a local implementation on a CD and an implementation on the Internet.

The work was carried out with financial support from the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project 00-07-90077).

LITERATURE:

1. Ovchinnikova K.R., Sokolinsky L.B. Electronic training course in the open education system // Telematics"2002: Proceedings of the All-Russian scientific and methodological conference (June 3-6, 2002, St. Petersburg).

2. The Windows User Experience. Official Guidelines for User Interface Developers and Designers. Microsoft Corporation, 2000.

3. Mandel T. User interface development. M.: "DMK Press", 2001. 416 p.

4. Sergeev D.V., Sokolinsky L.B. Using mobile structured objects to present articles in electronic scientific reference books // Scientific service on the Internet: Proceedings of the All-Russian. scientific conf. (September 24-29, 2001, Novorossiysk). -M.: Moscow State University Publishing House. 2001. pp. 157-160.

TECHNOLOGY FOR BUILDING A CLIENT-SERVER EXPERT SYSTEM

FOR INTERNET/INTRANET NETWORKS IN TELEMEDICINE APPLICATIONS

–  –  –

The term telemedicine came into use in the 70s of the last century. This term refers to the application of telecommunications and information technologies in medicine, providing the ability to carry out therapeutic interventions at a distance. Initially, telemedicine meant medical consultations via interactive video. Currently, the meaning of the term telemedicine has expanded and also includes the transmission and processing of static images, and the use of World Wide Web information resources.

To solve problems of diagnosis and prognosis of disease development, computer expert systems (ES) have been widely used. However, most of these systems were local and did not support network (client-server) mode of operation.

As is known, a client-server information system consists of at least three main components:

A server that manages data storage, access and protection, backup, monitors data integrity and fulfills client requests;

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