Already in Moscow, this war would not turn into a brilliant victory for him, but a shameful flight from Russia the distraught soldiers of his once great army, which conquered all of Europe? In 1807, after the defeat of the Russian army in the battle with the French near Friedland, Emperor Alexander I was forced to sign the unfavorable and humiliating Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon. At that moment, no one thought that in a few years Russian troops would drive Napoleon’s army to Paris, and Russia would take a leading position in European politics.

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Causes and course of the Patriotic War of 1812

Main reasons

1. Violation by both Russia and France of the terms of the Tilsit Treaty. Russia sabotaged the continental blockade of England, which was disadvantageous for itself. France, in violation of the treaty, stationed troops in Prussia, annexing the Duchy of Oldenburg.
2. The policy towards European states pursued by Napoleon without taking into account the interests of Russia.
3. An indirect reason can also be considered that Bonaparte twice made attempts to marry the sisters of Alexander the First, but both times he was refused.

Since 1810, both sides have been actively pursuing preparation to war, accumulating military forces.

Beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812

Who, if not Bonaparte, who conquered Europe, could be confident in his blitzkrieg? Napoleon hoped to defeat the Russian army in border battles. Early in the morning of June 24, 1812, the Grand Army of the French crossed the Russian border in four places.

The northern flank under the command of Marshal MacDonald set out in the direction of Riga - St. Petersburg. Main a group of troops under the command of Napoleon himself advanced towards Smolensk. To the south of the main forces, the offensive was developed by the corps of Napoleon's stepson, Eugene Beauharnais. The corps of the Austrian general Karl Schwarzenberg was advancing in the Kiev direction.

After crossing the border, Napoleon failed to maintain the high tempo of the offensive. It was not only the vast Russian distances and the famous Russian roads that were to blame. The local population gave the French army a slightly different reception than in Europe. Sabotage food supplies from the occupied territories became the most massive form of resistance to the invaders, but, of course, only a regular army could provide serious resistance to them.

Before joining Moscow The French army had to participate in nine major battles. In a large number of battles and armed skirmishes. Even before the occupation of Smolensk, the Great Army lost 100 thousand soldiers, but, in general, the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812 was extremely unsuccessful for the Russian army.

On the eve of the invasion of Napoleonic army, Russian troops were dispersed in three places. Barclay de Tolly's first army was near Vilna, Bagration's second army was near Volokovysk, and Tormasov's third army was in Volyn. Strategy Napoleon's goal was to break up the Russian armies separately. Russian troops begin to retreat.

Through the efforts of the so-called Russian party, instead of Barclay de Tolly, M.I. Kutuzov was appointed to the post of commander-in-chief, with whom many generals with Russian surnames sympathized. The retreat strategy was not popular in Russian society.

However, Kutuzov continued to adhere to tactics retreat chosen by Barclay de Tolly. Napoleon sought to impose a main, general battle on the Russian army as soon as possible.

The main battles of the Patriotic War of 1812

Bloody battle for Smolensk became a rehearsal for a general battle. Bonaparte, hoping that the Russians will concentrate all their forces here, is preparing the main blow, and pulls up an army of 185 thousand to the city. Despite Bagration's objections, Baclay de Tolly decides to leave Smolensk. The French, having lost more than 20 thousand people in battle, entered the burning and destroyed city. The Russian army, despite the surrender of Smolensk, retained its combat effectiveness.

The news about surrender of Smolensk overtook Kutuzov near Vyazma. Meanwhile, Napoleon advanced his army towards Moscow. Kutuzov found himself in a very serious situation. He continued his retreat, but before leaving Moscow, Kutuzov had to fight a general battle. The protracted retreat left a depressing impression on the Russian soldiers. Everyone was full of desire to give a decisive battle. When a little more than a hundred miles remained to Moscow, on a field near the village of Borodino the Great Army collided, as Bonaparte himself later admitted, with the Invincible Army.

Before the start of the battle, the Russian troops numbered 120 thousand, the French numbered 135 thousand. On the left flank of the formation of Russian troops were Semyonov’s flashes and units of the second army Bagration. On the right are the battle formations of the first army of Barclay de Tolly, and the old Smolensk road was covered by the third infantry corps of General Tuchkov.

At dawn, September 7, Napoleon inspected the positions. At seven o'clock in the morning the French batteries gave the signal to begin the battle.

The grenadiers of Major General took the brunt of the first blow Vorontsova and 27th Infantry Division Nemerovsky near the village of Semenovskaya. The French broke into Semyonov's flushes several times, but abandoned them under the pressure of Russian counterattacks. During the main counterattack here, Bagration was mortally wounded. As a result, the French managed to capture the flushes, but they did not gain any advantages. They failed to break through the left flank, and the Russians retreated in an organized manner to the Semyonov ravines, taking up a position there.

A difficult situation developed in the center, where Bonaparte’s main attack was directed, where the battery fought desperately Raevsky. To break the resistance of the battery defenders, Napoleon was already ready to bring his main reserve into battle. But this was prevented by Platov’s Cossacks and Uvarov’s cavalrymen, who, on Kutuzov’s orders, carried out a swift raid into the rear of the French left flank. This stopped the French advance on Raevsky's battery for about two hours, which allowed the Russians to bring up some reserves.

After bloody battles, the Russians retreated from Raevsky’s battery in an organized manner and again took up defensive positions. The battle, which had already lasted twelve hours, gradually subsided.

During Battle of Borodino The Russians lost almost half of their personnel, but continued to hold their positions. The Russian army lost twenty-seven of its best generals, four of them were killed, and twenty-three were wounded. The French lost about thirty thousand soldiers. Of the thirty French generals who were incapacitated, eight died.

Brief results of the Battle of Borodino:

1. Napoleon was unable to defeat the Russian army and achieve the complete surrender of Russia.
2. Kutuzov, although he greatly weakened Bonaparte’s army, was unable to defend Moscow.

Despite the fact that the Russians were formally unable to win, the Borodino field forever remained in Russian history as a field of Russian glory.

Having received information about losses near Borodino, Kutuzov I realized that the second battle would be disastrous for the Russian army, and Moscow would have to be abandoned. At the military council in Fili, Kutuzov insisted on the surrender of Moscow without a fight, although many generals were against it.

September 14 Russian army left Moscow. The Emperor of Europe, observing the majestic panorama of Moscow from Poklonnaya Hill, was waiting for the city delegation with the keys to the city. After the hardships and hardships of war, Bonaparte’s soldiers found long-awaited warm apartments, food and valuables in the abandoned city, which the Muscovites, who had mostly left the city with the army, did not have time to take out.

After widespread looting and looting Fires started in Moscow. Due to the dry and windy weather, the entire city was on fire. For safety reasons, Napoleon was forced to move from the Kremlin to the suburban Petrovsky Palace; on the way, he got lost and almost burned himself to death.

Bonaparte allowed the soldiers of his army to plunder what was not yet burned. The French army was distinguished by its defiant disdain for the local population. Marshal Davout built his bedroom in the altar of the Archangel Church. Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin The French used it as a stable, and in Arkhangelskoye they organized an army kitchen. The oldest monastery in Moscow, St. Daniel's Monastery, was equipped for cattle slaughter.

This behavior of the French outraged the entire Russian people to the core. Everyone burned with vengeance for the desecrated shrines and the desecration of the Russian land. Now the war has finally acquired the character and content domestic.

The expulsion of the French from Russia and the end of the war

Kutuzov, withdrawing troops from Moscow, committed maneuver, thanks to which the French army had already lost the initiative before the end of the war. The Russians, retreating along the Ryazan road, were able to march onto the old Kaluga road, and entrenched themselves near the village of Tarutino, from where they were able to control all directions leading from Moscow to the south, through Kaluga.

Kutuzov foresaw that precisely Kaluga land unaffected by the war, Bonaparte will begin to retreat. The entire time Napoleon was in Moscow, the Russian army was replenished with fresh reserves. On October 18, near the village of Tarutino, Kutuzov attacked the French units of Marshal Murat. As a result of the battle, the French lost more than four thousand people and retreated. Russian losses amounted to about one and a half thousand.

Bonaparte realized the futility of his expectations of a peace treaty, and the very next day after the Tarutino battle he hastily left Moscow. The Grand Army now resembled a barbarian horde with plundered property. Having completed complex maneuvers on the march to Kaluga, the French entered Maloyaroslavets. On October 24, Russian troops decided to drive the French out of the city. Maloyaroslavets as a result of a stubborn battle, it changed hands eight times.

This battle became a turning point in the history of the Patriotic War of 1812. The French had to retreat along the old Smolensk road they had destroyed. Now the once Great Army considered its successful retreats as victories. Russian troops used parallel pursuit tactics. After the battle of Vyazma, and especially after the battle near the village of Krasnoye, where the losses of Bonaparte’s army were comparable to its losses at Borodino, the effectiveness of such tactics became obvious.

In the territories occupied by the French they were active partisans. Bearded peasants, armed with pitchforks and axes, suddenly appeared from the forest, which numbed the French. The element of people's war captured not only the peasants, but also all classes of Russian society. Kutuzov himself sent his son-in-law, Prince Kudashev, to the partisans, who led one of the detachments.

The last and decisive blow was dealt to Napoleon's army at the crossing Berezina River. Many Western historians consider the Berezina operation almost a triumph of Napoleon, who managed to preserve the Great Army, or rather its remnants. About 9 thousand French soldiers were able to cross the Berezina.

Napoleon, who did not lose, in fact, a single battle in Russia, lost campaign. The Great Army ceased to exist.

Results of the Patriotic War of 1812

1. In the vastness of Russia, the French army was almost completely destroyed, which affected the balance of power in Europe.
2. The self-awareness of all layers of Russian society has increased unusually.
3. Russia, having emerged victorious from the war, strengthened its position in the geopolitical arena.
4. The national liberation movement intensified in European countries conquered by Napoleon.

On June 24 (June 12, old style), 1812, the Patriotic War began - the liberation war of Russia against Napoleonic aggression.

The invasion of the troops of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte into the Russian Empire was caused by the aggravation of Russian-French economic and political contradictions, the actual refusal of Russia to participate in the continental blockade (a system of economic and political measures applied by Napoleon I in the war with England), etc.

Napoleon strove for world domination, Russia interfered with the implementation of his plans. He hoped, having delivered the main blow to the right flank of the Russian army in the general direction of Vilno (Vilnius), to defeat it in one or two general battles, capture Moscow, force Russia to capitulate and dictate a peace treaty to it on terms favorable to himself.

On June 24 (June 12, old style), 1812, Napoleon’s “Great Army”, without declaring war, crossed the Neman and invaded the Russian Empire. It numbered over 440 thousand people and had a second echelon, which included 170 thousand people. The “Grand Army” included troops from all Western European countries conquered by Napoleon (French troops made up only half of its strength). It was opposed by three Russian armies, far apart from each other, with a total number of 220-240 thousand people. Initially, only two of them acted against Napoleon - the first, under the command of infantry general Mikhail Barclay de Tolly, covering the St. Petersburg direction, and the second, under the command of infantry general Peter Bagration, concentrated in the Moscow direction. The Third Army of cavalry general Alexander Tormasov covered the southwestern borders of Russia and began military operations at the end of the war. At the beginning of hostilities, the general leadership of the Russian forces was carried out by Emperor Alexander I; in July 1812, he transferred the main command to Barclay de Tolly.

Four days after the invasion of Russia, French troops occupied Vilna. On July 8 (June 26, old style) they entered Minsk.

Having unraveled Napoleon's plan to separate the Russian first and second armies and defeat them one by one, the Russian command began a systematic withdrawal of them to unite. Instead of gradually dismembering the enemy, French troops were forced to move behind the escaping Russian armies, stretching communications and losing superiority in forces. While retreating, the Russian troops fought rearguard battles (a battle undertaken with the aim of delaying the advancing enemy and thereby ensuring the retreat of the main forces), inflicting significant losses on the enemy.

To help the active army to repel the invasion of the Napoleonic army on Russia, on the basis of the manifesto of Alexander I of July 18 (July 6, old style) 1812 and his appeal to the residents of the “Mother See of our Moscow” with a call to act as initiators, temporary armed formations began to form - popular militia. This allowed the Russian government to mobilize large human and material resources for the war in a short time.

Napoleon sought to prevent the connection of Russian armies. On July 20 (July 8, old style), the French occupied Mogilev and did not allow the Russian armies to unite in the Orsha region. Only thanks to stubborn rearguard battles and the high art of maneuver of the Russian armies, which managed to frustrate the enemy’s plans, did they unite near Smolensk on August 3 (July 22, old style), keeping their main forces combat-ready. The first big battle of the Patriotic War of 1812 took place here. The battle of Smolensk lasted three days: from August 16 to 18 (from August 4 to 6, old style). The Russian regiments repelled all French attacks and retreated only on orders, leaving the enemy a burning city. Almost all the inhabitants left it with the troops. After the battles for Smolensk, the united Russian armies continued to retreat towards Moscow.

The retreat strategy of Barclay de Tolly, unpopular neither in the army nor in Russian society, leaving significant territory to the enemy forced Emperor Alexander I to establish the post of commander-in-chief of all Russian armies and on August 20 (August 8, old style) to appoint infantry general Mikhail Golenishchev to it. Kutuzov, who had extensive combat experience and was popular both among the Russian army and among the nobility. The emperor not only placed him at the head of the active army, but also subordinated to him the militias, reserves and civil authorities in the war-affected provinces.

Based on the demands of Emperor Alexander I, the mood of the army, which was eager to give battle to the enemy, Commander-in-Chief Kutuzov decided, based on a pre-selected position, 124 kilometers from Moscow, near the village of Borodino near Mozhaisk, to give the French army a general battle in order to inflict as much damage as possible on it and stop the attack on Moscow.

By the beginning of the Battle of Borodino, the Russian army had 132 (according to other sources 120) thousand people, the French - approximately 130-135 thousand people.

It was preceded by the battle for the Shevardinsky redoubt, which began on September 5 (August 24, old style), in which Napoleon’s troops, despite more than three times superiority in strength, managed to capture the redoubt only by the end of the day with great difficulty. This battle allowed Kutuzov to unravel the plan of Napoleon I and timely strengthen his left wing.

The Battle of Borodino began at five o'clock in the morning on September 7 (August 26, old style) and lasted until 20 o'clock in the evening. During the entire day, Napoleon failed to either break through the Russian position in the center or bypass it from the flanks. The partial tactical successes of the French army - the Russians retreated from their original position by about one kilometer - did not become victorious for it. Late in the evening, the frustrated and bloodless French troops were withdrawn to their original positions. The Russian field fortifications they took were so destroyed that there was no longer any point in holding them. Napoleon never managed to defeat the Russian army. In the Battle of Borodino, the French lost up to 50 thousand people, the Russians - over 44 thousand people.

Since the losses in the battle were enormous and their reserves exhausted, the Russian army withdrew from the Borodino field, retreating to Moscow, while fighting a rearguard action. On September 13 (September 1, old style) at the military council in Fili, a majority of votes supported the decision of the commander-in-chief “for the sake of preserving the army and Russia” to leave Moscow to the enemy without a fight. The next day, Russian troops left the capital. Most of the population left the city with them. On the very first day of the entry of French troops into Moscow, fires began that devastated the city. For 36 days, Napoleon languished in the burnt-out city, waiting in vain for an answer to his proposal to Alexander I for peace, on terms favorable to him.

The main Russian army, leaving Moscow, made a march maneuver and settled in the Tarutino camp, reliably covering the south of the country. From here, Kutuzov launched a small war using army partisan detachments. During this time, the peasantry of the war-torn Great Russian provinces rose up in a large-scale people's war.

Napoleon's attempts to enter into negotiations were rejected.

On October 18 (October 6, old style) after the battle on the Chernishna River (near the village of Tarutino), in which the vanguard of the “Great Army” under the command of Marshal Murat was defeated, Napoleon left Moscow and sent his troops towards Kaluga to break into the southern Russian provinces rich in food resources. Four days after the French left, advanced detachments of the Russian army entered the capital.

After the battle of Maloyaroslavets on October 24 (October 12, old style), when the Russian army blocked the enemy’s path, Napoleon’s troops were forced to begin a retreat along the devastated old Smolensk road. Kutuzov organized the pursuit of the French along the roads south of the Smolensk highway, acting with strong vanguards. Napoleon's troops lost people not only in clashes with their pursuers, but also from partisan attacks, from hunger and cold.

Kutuzov brought troops from the south and north-west of the country to the flanks of the retreating French army, which began to actively act and inflict defeat on the enemy. Napoleon's troops actually found themselves surrounded on the Berezina River near the city of Borisov (Belarus), where on November 26-29 (November 14-17, old style) they fought with Russian troops who were trying to cut off their escape routes. The French emperor, having misled the Russian command by constructing a false crossing, was able to transfer the remaining troops across two hastily built bridges across the river. On November 28 (November 16, old style), Russian troops attacked the enemy on both banks of the Berezina, but, despite superior forces, were unsuccessful due to indecision and incoherence of actions. On the morning of November 29 (November 17, old style), by order of Napoleon, the bridges were burned. On the left bank there were convoys and crowds of stragglers of French soldiers (about 40 thousand people), most of whom drowned during the crossing or were captured, and the total losses of the French army in the battle of the Berezina amounted to 50 thousand people. But Napoleon managed to avoid complete defeat in this battle and retreat to Vilna.

The liberation of the territory of the Russian Empire from the enemy ended on December 26 (December 14, old style), when Russian troops occupied the border cities of Bialystok and Brest-Litovsk. The enemy lost up to 570 thousand people on the battlefields. The losses of Russian troops amounted to about 300 thousand people.

The official end of the Patriotic War of 1812 is considered to be the manifesto signed by Emperor Alexander I on January 6, 1813 (December 25, 1812, old style), in which he announced that he had kept his word not to stop the war until the enemy was completely expelled from Russian territory. empires.

The defeat and death of the "Great Army" in Russia created the conditions for the liberation of the peoples of Western Europe from Napoleonic tyranny and predetermined the collapse of Napoleon's empire. The Patriotic War of 1812 showed the complete superiority of Russian military art over the military art of Napoleon and caused a nationwide patriotic upsurge in Russia.

(Additional

The Patriotic War of 1812 began on June 12 - on this day Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman River, unleashing wars between the two crowns of France and Russia. This war lasted until December 14, 1812, ending with the complete and unconditional victory of the Russian and allied forces. This is a glorious page of Russian history, which we will consider with reference to the official history textbooks of Russia and France, as well as to the books of bibliographers Napoleon, Alexander 1 and Kutuzov, who describe in great detail the events taking place at that moment.

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Beginning of the war

Causes of the War of 1812

The causes of the Patriotic War of 1812, like all other wars in the history of mankind, must be considered in two aspects - the causes on the part of France and the causes on the part of Russia.

Reasons from France

In just a few years, Napoleon radically changed his own ideas about Russia. If, upon coming to power, he wrote that Russia was his only ally, then by 1812 Russia had become a threat to France (consider the emperor) a threat. In many ways, this was provoked by Alexander 1 himself. So, this is why France attacked Russia in June 1812:

1. Violation of the Tilsit agreements: easing of the continental blockade. As you know, the main enemy of France at that time was England, against which the blockade was organized. Russia also participated in this, but in 1810 the government passed a law allowing trade with England through intermediaries. This effectively rendered the entire blockade ineffective, which completely undermined France's plans.
2. Refusals in dynastic marriage. Napoleon sought to marry into the Russian imperial court in order to become “God’s anointed.” However, in 1808 he was denied marriage to Princess Catherine. In 1810 he was denied marriage to Princess Anna. As a result, in 1811 the French emperor married an Austrian princess.
3. Transfer of Russian troops to the border with Poland in 1811. In the first half of 1811, Alexander 1 ordered the transfer of 3 divisions to the Polish borders, fearing an uprising of Poland, which could spread to Russian lands. This step was regarded by Napoleon as aggression and preparation for war for Polish territories, which by that time were already subordinate to France.

Soldiers! A new, second Polish war begins! The first ended in Tilsit. There, Russia promised to be an eternal ally for France in the war with England, but broke its promise. The Russian emperor does not want to give explanations for his actions until the French eagles cross the Rhine. Do they really think that we have become different? Are we really not the winners of Austerlitz? Russia presented France with a choice - shame or war. The choice is obvious! Let's go ahead, let's cross the Neman! The second Polish howl will be glorious for French arms. She will bring a messenger to the destructive influence of Russia on European affairs.

Thus began a war of conquest for France.

Reasons from Russia

Russia also had compelling reasons for participating in the war, which turned out to be a liberation war for the state. The main reasons include the following:

1. Large losses for all segments of the population from the break in trade with England. The opinions of historians on this point differ, since it is believed that the blockade did not affect the state as a whole, but exclusively its elite, who, as a result of the lack of opportunity to trade with England, lost money.
2. France's intention to recreate the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1807, Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw and sought to recreate the ancient state in its true size. Perhaps this was only in the event of the seizure of its western lands from Russia.
3. Napoleon's violation of the Peace of Tilsit. One of the main criteria for signing this agreement was that Prussia should be cleared of French troops, but this was never done, although Alexander 1 constantly reminded about this.

For a long time, France has been trying to encroach on Russia's independence. We always tried to be meek, hoping to deflect her attempts to seize us. With all our desire to maintain peace, we are forced to gather troops to defend our Motherland. There are no possibilities for a peaceful resolution of the conflict with France, which means there is only one thing left - to defend the truth, to defend Russia from invaders. I don't need to remind commanders and soldiers about courage, it's in our hearts. The blood of the victors, the blood of the Slavs, flows in our veins. Soldiers! You defend the country, defend the religion, defend the fatherland. I'm with you. God is with us.

Balance of forces and means at the beginning of the war

Napoleon's crossing of the Neman occurred on June 12, with 450 thousand people at his disposal. Around the end of the month, another 200 thousand people joined him. If we take into account that by that time there were no large losses on both sides, then the total number of the French army at the start of hostilities in 1812 was 650 thousand soldiers. It is impossible to say that the French made up 100% of the army, since the combined army of almost all European countries fought on the side of France (France, Austria, Poland, Switzerland, Italy, Prussia, Spain, Holland). However, it was the French who formed the basis of the army. These were proven soldiers who had won many victories with their emperor.

Russia after mobilization had 590 thousand soldiers. Initially, the army numbered 227 thousand people, and they were divided on three fronts:

• Northern - First Army. Commander: Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly. Number of people: 120 thousand people. They were located in the north of Lithuania and covered St. Petersburg.
• Central - Second Army. Commander - Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration. Number of people: 49 thousand people. They were located in the south of Lithuania, covering Moscow.
• Southern - Third Army. Commander - Alexander Petrovich Tormasov. Number of people: 58 thousand people. They were located in Volyn, covering the attack on Kyiv.

Also in Russia, partisan detachments were active, the number of which reached 400 thousand people.

The first stage of the war - The offensive of Napoleon's troops (June-September)

At 6 o'clock in the morning on June 12, 1812, the Patriotic War with Napoleonic France began for Russia. Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman and headed inland. The main direction of the attack was supposed to be on Moscow. The commander himself said that “if I capture Kyiv, I will lift the Russians by the feet, if I capture St. Petersburg, I will take them by the throat, if I take Moscow, I will strike the heart of Russia.”

The French army, commanded by brilliant commanders, was looking for a general battle, and the fact that Alexander 1 divided the army into 3 fronts was very beneficial to the aggressors. However, at the initial stage, Barclay de Tolly played a decisive role, who gave the order not to engage in battle with the enemy and to retreat deeper into the country. This was necessary to combine forces, as well as to strengthen reserves. Retreating, the Russians destroyed everything - they killed livestock, poisoned water, burned fields. In the literal sense of the word, the French moved forward through the ashes. Later, Napoleon complained that the Russian people were carrying out a vile war and did not behave according to the rules.

Northern direction

Napoleon sent 32 thousand people led by General MacDonald to St. Petersburg. The first city on this route was Riga. According to the French plan, MacDonald was supposed to capture the city. Connect with General Oudinot (he had 28 thousand people at his disposal) and move on.

The defense of Riga was commanded by General Essen with 18 thousand soldiers. He burned everything around the city, and the city itself was very well fortified. By this time, MacDonald had captured Dinaburg (the Russians abandoned the city at the beginning of the war) and did not take further active action. He understood the absurdity of the assault on Riga and waited for the arrival of artillery.

General Oudinot occupied Polotsk and from there tried to separate Wittgenstein's corps from the army of Barclay de Tolly. However, on July 18, Wittgenstein launched an unexpected blow on Oudinot, who was saved from defeat only by the arrival of Saint-Cyr's corps. As a result, balance came and no more active offensive operations were carried out in the northern direction.

South direction

General Ranier with an army of 22 thousand people was supposed to act in the southern direction, blocking the army of General Tormasov, preventing it from connecting with the rest of the Russian army.

On July 27, Tormasov surrounded the city of Kobrin, where Ranier’s main forces gathered. The French suffered a terrible defeat - in 1 day 5 thousand people were killed in the battle, which forced the French to retreat. Napoleon realized that the southern direction in the Patriotic War of 1812 was in danger of failure. Therefore, he transferred General Schwarzenberg’s troops there, numbering 30 thousand people. As a result of this, on August 12, Tormasov was forced to retreat to Lutsk and take up defense there. Subsequently, the French did not undertake active offensive actions in the southern direction. The main events took place in the Moscow direction.

The course of events of the offensive company

On June 26, the army of General Bagration advanced from Vitebsk, whose task Alexander 1 set to engage in battle with the main forces of the enemy in order to wear them down. Everyone realized the absurdity of this idea, but only by July 17 was it possible to finally dissuade the emperor from this idea. The troops began to retreat to Smolensk.

On July 6, the large number of Napoleon's troops became clear. To prevent the Patriotic War from dragging on for a long time, Alexander 1 signed a decree on the creation of a militia. Literally all residents of the country are enrolled in it - there are about 400 thousand volunteers in total.

On July 22, the armies of Bagration and Barclay de Tolly united near Smolensk. The command of the united army was taken over by Barclay de Tolly, who had 130 thousand soldiers at his disposal, while the front line of the French army numbered 150 thousand soldiers.

On July 25, a military council was held in Smolensk, at which the issue of accepting the battle was discussed in order to launch a counteroffensive and defeat Napoleon with one blow. But Barclay spoke out against this idea, realizing that an open battle with an enemy, a brilliant strategist and tactician, could lead to a monumental failure. As a result, the offensive idea was not implemented. It was decided to retreat further - to Moscow.

On July 26, the retreat of the troops began, which General Neverovsky was supposed to cover by occupying the village of Krasnoye, thereby closing the bypass of Smolensk for Napoleon.

On August 2, Murat with a cavalry corps tried to break through the defenses of Neverovsky, but to no avail. In total, more than 40 attacks were launched with the help of cavalry, but it was not possible to achieve the desired result.

August 5 is one of the important dates in the Patriotic War of 1812. Napoleon began the assault on Smolensk, capturing the suburbs by evening. However, at night he was driven out of the city, and the Russian army continued its massive retreat from the city. This caused a storm of discontent among the soldiers. They believed that if they managed to drive the French out of Smolensk, then it was necessary to destroy it there. They accused Barclay of cowardice, but the general implemented only one plan - to wear down the enemy and take a decisive battle when the balance of forces was on the side of Russia. By this time, the French had all the advantage.

On August 17, Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov arrived in the army and took command. This candidacy did not raise any questions, since Kutuzov (a student of Suvorov) was highly respected and was considered the best Russian commander after the death of Suvorov. Having arrived in the army, the new commander-in-chief wrote that he had not yet decided what to do next: “The question has not yet been resolved - either lose the army, or give up Moscow.”

On August 26, the Battle of Borodino took place. Its outcome still raises many questions and disputes, but there were no losers then. Each commander solved his own problems: Napoleon opened his way to Moscow (the heart of Russia, as the Emperor of France himself wrote), and Kutuzov was able to inflict heavy damage on the enemy, thereby making the initial turning point in the battle of 1812.

September 1 is a significant day, which is described in all history textbooks. A military council was held in Fili, near Moscow. Kutuzov gathered his generals to decide what to do next. There were only two options: retreat and surrender Moscow, or organize a second general battle after Borodino. Most of the generals, on the wave of success, demanded a battle in order to defeat Napoleon as soon as possible. Kutuzov himself and Barclay de Tolly opposed this development of events. The military council in Fili ended with Kutuzov’s phrase “As long as there is an army, there is hope. If we lose the army near Moscow, we will lose not only the ancient capital, but also all of Russia.”

September 2 - following the results of the military council of generals, which took place in Fili, it was decided that it was necessary to leave the ancient capital. The Russian army retreated, and Moscow itself, before the arrival of Napoleon, according to many sources, was subjected to terrible looting. However, this is not even the main thing. Retreating, the Russian army set the city on fire. Wooden Moscow burned down almost three-quarters. The most important thing is that literally all food warehouses were destroyed. The reasons for the Moscow fire lie in the fact that the French would not get anything that could be used by the enemies for food, movement or in other aspects. As a result, the aggressor troops found themselves in a very precarious position.

The second stage of the war - Napoleon's retreat (October - December)

Having occupied Moscow, Napoleon considered the mission completed. The commander's bibliographers later wrote that he was faithful - the loss of the historical center of Rus' would break the victorious spirit, and the country's leaders had to come to him asking for peace. But this did not happen. Kutuzov settled down with his army 80 kilometers from Moscow near Tarutin and waited until the enemy army, deprived of normal supplies, weakened and itself made a radical change in the Patriotic War. Without waiting for a peace offer from Russia, the French emperor himself took the initiative.

Napoleon's quest for peace

According to Napoleon's original plan, the capture of Moscow was to be decisive. Here it was possible to establish a convenient bridgehead, including for a campaign against St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia. However, the delay in moving around Russia and the heroism of the people, who fought for literally every piece of land, practically thwarted this plan. After all, a trip to the north of Russia in winter for the French army with irregular food supplies actually amounted to death. This became clearly clear towards the end of September, when it began to get colder. Subsequently, Napoleon wrote in his autobiography that his biggest mistake was the campaign against Moscow and the month spent there.

Realizing the gravity of his situation, the French emperor and commander decided to end the Patriotic War of Russia by signing a peace treaty with it. Three such attempts were made:

1. September 18. A message was sent through General Tutolmin to Alexander 1, which stated that Napoleon revered the Russian emperor and offered him peace. All he demands from Russia is to give up the territory of Lithuania and return to the continental blockade again.
2. September 20. Alexander 1 received a second letter from Napoleon with a peace proposal. The conditions offered were the same as before. The Russian emperor did not respond to these messages.
3. The 4th of October. The hopelessness of the situation led to Napoleon literally begging for peace. This is what he writes to Alexander 1 (according to the major French historian F. Segur): “I need peace, I need it, at all costs, just save your honor.” This proposal was delivered to Kutuzov, but the Emperor of France never received a response.

Retreat of the French army in the autumn-winter of 1812

It became obvious to Napoleon that he would not be able to sign a peace treaty with Russia, and that staying for the winter in Moscow, which the Russians had burned while retreating, was reckless. Moreover, it was impossible to stay here, since constant raids by militias caused great damage to the army. So, during the month that the French army was in Moscow, its strength decreased by 30 thousand people. As a result, the decision was made to retreat.

On October 7, preparations began for the retreat of the French army. One of the orders on this occasion was to blow up the Kremlin. Fortunately, this idea did not work out for him. Russian historians attribute this to the fact that due to high humidity, the wicks got wet and failed.

On October 19, the retreat of Napoleon's army from Moscow began. The purpose of this retreat was to reach Smolensk, since it was the only major nearby city that had significant food supplies. The road went through Kaluga, but Kutuzov blocked this direction. Now the advantage was on the side of the Russian army, so Napoleon decided to bypass. However, Kutuzov foresaw this maneuver and met the enemy army at Maloyaroslavets.

On October 24, the battle of Maloyaroslavets took place. During the day, this small town passed from one side to the other 8 times. In the final stage of the battle, Kutuzov managed to take fortified positions, and Napoleon did not dare to storm them, since the numerical superiority was already on the side of the Russian army. As a result, the French plans were thwarted, and they had to retreat to Smolensk along the same road along which they went to Moscow. It was already a scorched land - without food and without water.

Napoleon's retreat was accompanied by heavy losses. Indeed, in addition to clashes with Kutuzov’s army, we also had to deal with partisan detachments that daily attacked the enemy, especially his rear units. Napoleon's losses were terrible. On November 9, he managed to capture Smolensk, but this did not bring a fundamental change in the course of the war. There was practically no food in the city, and it was not possible to organize a reliable defense. As a result, the army was subjected to almost continuous attacks by militias and local patriots. Therefore, Napoleon stayed in Smolensk for 4 days and decided to retreat further.

Crossing the Berezina River

The French were heading to the Berezina River (in modern Belarus) to cross the river and cross to the Neman. But on November 16, General Chichagov captured the city of Borisov, which is located on the Berezina. Napoleon's situation became catastrophic - for the first time, the possibility of being captured was actively looming for him, since he was surrounded.

On November 25, by order of Napoleon, the French army began to imitate a crossing south of Borisov. Chichagov bought into this maneuver and began transferring troops. At this point, the French built two bridges across the Berezina and began crossing on November 26-27. Only on November 28, Chichagov realized his mistake and tried to give battle to the French army, but it was too late - the crossing was completed, albeit at the loss of a huge number of human lives. 21 thousand French died while crossing the Berezina! The “Grand Army” now consisted of only 9 thousand soldiers, most of whom were no longer capable of combat.

It was during this crossing that unusually severe frosts occurred, to which the French emperor referred, justifying huge losses. The 29th bulletin, which was published in one of the newspapers in France, said that until November 10 the weather was normal, but after that very severe cold came, for which no one was prepared.

Crossing the Neman (from Russia to France)

The crossing of the Berezina showed that Napoleon's Russian campaign was over - he lost the Patriotic War in Russia in 1812. Then the emperor decided that his further stay with the army did not make sense and on December 5 he left his troops and headed to Paris.

On December 16, in Kovno, the French army crossed the Neman and left Russian territory. Its strength was only 1,600 people. The invincible army, which terrified all of Europe, was almost completely destroyed by Kutuzov's army in less than 6 months.

Below is a graphical representation of Napoleon's retreat on the map.

Results of the Patriotic War of 1812

The Patriotic War between Russia and Napoleon was of great importance for all countries involved in the conflict. Largely thanks to these events, England's undivided dominance in Europe became possible. This development was foreseen by Kutuzov, who, after the flight of the French army in December, sent a report to Alexander 1, where he explained to the ruler that the war needed to be ended immediately, and the pursuit of the enemy and the liberation of Europe would be beneficial to strengthening the power of England. But Alexander did not listen to the advice of his commander and soon began a campaign abroad.

Reasons for Napoleon's defeat in the war

When determining the main reasons for the defeat of Napoleonic army, it is necessary to dwell on the most important ones, which are most often used by historians:

• A strategic mistake by the Emperor of France, who sat in Moscow for 30 days and waited for representatives of Alexander 1 with pleas for peace. As a result, it began to get colder and provisions ran out, and constant raids by partisan movements brought a turning point in the war.
• Unity of the Russian people. As usual, in the face of great danger, the Slavs unite. It was the same this time. For example, the historian Lieven writes that the main reason for the defeat of France lies in the massive nature of the war. Everyone fought for the Russians - women and children. And all this was ideologically justified, which made the morale of the army very strong. The Emperor of France did not break him.
• The reluctance of Russian generals to accept a decisive battle. Most historians forget about this, but what would have happened to Bagration’s army if he had accepted a general battle at the beginning of the war, as Alexander 1 really wanted? 60 thousand of Bagration's army against 400 thousand of the aggressor army. It would have been an unconditional victory, and they would hardly have had time to recover from it. Therefore, the Russian people must express words of gratitude to Barclay de Tolly, who, by his decision, gave the order for the retreat and unification of the armies.
• The genius of Kutuzov. The Russian general, who received excellent training from Suvorov, did not make a single tactical miscalculation. It is noteworthy that Kutuzov never managed to defeat his enemy, but managed to tactically and strategically win the Patriotic War.
• General Frost is used as an excuse. To be fair, it must be said that the frost did not have any significant impact on the final result, since at the time the abnormal frosts began (mid-November), the outcome of the confrontation was decided - the great army was destroyed.

The War of 1812, in short, became the most difficult and important event of the 19th century for the Russian Empire. In Russian historiography it was called the Patriotic War of 1812.

How did it happen that France and Russia, which had friendly relations and were allies for many years, became adversaries and began military operations against each other?

The main reason for all the military conflicts of that time involving France, including the Patriotic War of 1812, in short, was associated with the imperial ambitions of Napoleon Bonaparte. Having come to power thanks to the Great French Revolution, he did not hide his desire to extend the influence of the French Empire to as many countries as possible. Enormous ambition and excellent qualities as a commander and diplomat made Napoleon in a short time the ruler of almost all of Europe. Dissatisfied with this state of affairs, Russia left the alliance with France and joined England. So former allies became enemies.

Then, during the unsuccessful wars of the Allies with Napoleon's troops, the Russian Empire was forced to agree to a peace agreement with France. This is how the Peace of Tilsit was signed. His main condition was that Russia maintain the continental blockade of England, which Napoleon wanted to weaken in this way. The authorities of the Russian Empire wanted to use this truce as an opportunity to accumulate forces, since everyone understood the need to further fight Napoleon.

But the blockade threatened the Russian economy, and then the Russian authorities resorted to a trick. They began to trade with neutral countries, through which they continued to trade with England, using them as intermediaries. At the same time, Russia did not formally violate the terms of peace with France. She was indignant, but could not do anything.

War of 1812, briefly about the reasons

There were many reasons why it became possible to conduct military operations directly between France and Russia:
1. Failure by Russia to fulfill the terms of the Tilsit Peace Treaty;
2. Refusal to marry first Alexander I’s sister Catherine, and then Anna, to the Emperor of France;
3. France violated the agreements of the Tilsit Peace by continuing the occupation of Prussia.

By 1812, war became inevitable for both countries. Both France and Russia hastily prepared for it, gathering allies around them. Austria and Prussia were on France's side. Russia's allies are Great Britain, Sweden and Spain.

Patriotic War of 1812 - The course of its military operations

The war began on June 12, 1812 with the transfer of Napoleon's army across the border river Neman. The Russian troops were divided into three parts, since the exact location of the border crossing by the enemy was not known. French troops crossed it in the area of ​​the army under the command of Barclay de Tolly. Seeing the enormous numerical superiority of the enemy and trying to preserve his strength, he ordered a retreat. The armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration managed to unite near Smolensk. The first battle of this war took place there. Russian troops failed to defend the city, and they continued their retreat deeper into the country in August.
After the failure of the Russian troops near Smolensk, the people entered the fight against Napoleon's army. Active partisan actions of the country's inhabitants against the enemy began. The partisan movement provided enormous support to the army in the fight against French troops.

In August, General M. Kutuzov became commander-in-chief of the Russian troops. He approved of the tactics of his predecessors and continued the army's orderly retreat towards Moscow.
Near Moscow, near the village of Borodino, the most significant battle of this war took place, which completely debunked the myth of Napoleon's invincibility - the Battle of Borodino. The strengths of the two armies by that time were almost identical.

Following the Battle of Borodino Neither side could call itself the winner, but the French troops were greatly exhausted.
In September, according to the decision of Kutuzov, with which Alexander I agreed, Russian troops left Moscow. Frosts began, to which the French were not accustomed. Virtually locked in Moscow, Napoleon's army was completely demoralized. Russian troops, on the contrary, rested and received support with food, weapons and volunteers.

Napoleon decides to retreat, which soon turns into flight. Russian troops force the French to retreat along the Smolensk road, which they had completely destroyed.
In December 1812, the army under the command of Napoleon finally left Russian territory, and the War of 1812 ended with the complete victory of the Russian people. Thus ended the Patriotic War of 1812

Patriotic War of 1812 - DETAILED VERSION

Patriotic War of 1812

CONTENT:

1. Background to the conflict
2. Diplomacy, intelligence
3. Armed forces of opponents
4. Strategic plans of the parties
5. Napoleon's offensive
6. From Neman to Smolensk
7. From Smolensk to Moscow
8. Attempts to achieve peace
9. People's War
10. Tarutino maneuver
11. Napoleon's retreat
12. Plans of the parties
13. From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets
14. From Maloyaroslavets to Berezina
15. From Berezina toNeman
16. Northern direction
17. South direction
18. Results of the Patriotic War
19. Causes of defeat us
20. Early consequences of war
21. Memory of the war
22. 100th anniversary of Victory
23. 200th anniversary of the Victory

BRIEFLY about the main thing

• The war was fought between Russia and France, on Russian soil. The reason for the war was that Russia refused to participate in the blockade of Great Britain. And also France’s policy towards European countries, without Russian participation.
• At first, the Russian army continuously retreated all the way to Moscow.
• Then Napoleon's army, retreating from Moscow, undertook various maneuvers, wanting to get to the apartments prepared in advance, but it had to move all the way to the border, constantly pursued by Russian troops. On the Russian side there was severe frost and famine that broke out in Napoleon's army.
• The war ended with the complete victory of the Russian army. The territory of Russia was completely liberated, military operations moved to Germany and Warsaw.
• The reasons for the defeat of the French were: the unification of the people in the face of the enemy; brave and heroic actions of Russian soldiers and officers; poor preparation of Napoleon's army for war in conditions of a vast territory and winter frosts. Kutuzov's military and strategic talent.

Background to the conflict

As a result of the Great French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power. Russia and several other large countries created anti-French coalitions. Their goal was the desire to restore the monarchy of the Bourbon dynasty. In 1807, Russia was defeated in the Fourth Coalition, and Alexander I was forced to make peace with Napoleon, pledging to participate in the blockade of Great Britain. This Tilsit peace was completely disadvantageous for Russia. The conditions were simply humiliating for the state. The Russian government began to prepare for war with France.And Napoleon was ready to conquer Europe; he moved his troops to the Russian borders.

Causes of the war

From France

Napoleon considered Great Britain his main enemy. She interfered with free trade by sea, taking over the American and Indian colonies. It was possible to create a continental blockade of England only with the help of other European countries. Russia did not want to take part in this.

The Russian government began trading through intermediaries, and significantly increased customs duties on imported goods from France.

In 1808, Napoleon first received a refusal to propose marriage to the Russian princess Catherine. The second offer to Princess Anna was also rejected. This caused the relationship to deteriorate. In 1810, Bonaparte finally married Marie-Louise, she was the daughter of the Austrian emperor.

From Russia

Participation in the continental blockade of Great Britain had a negative impact on Russia's agriculture and trade, which in turn significantly reduced the financial power of the state. Bread exports decreased and prices immediately fell. If earlier a pound of bread cost 40 kopecks, now it could be bought for 22 kopecks. Gold began to be exported from the country at a rapid pace, and the Russian ruble depreciated. Measures were taken to save the state's economy. Trade through neutral countries and increased customs duties on French wines and luxury items.

There is another opinion that merchants and peasants did not suffer large losses from the blockade of England. On the contrary, during this period they paid much more taxes, and a decrease in exports led to the development of Russian industry.

Napoleon created the Duchy of Warsaw from Polish lands in 1807. The Poles dreamed of independence; for this they needed to take part of their lands from Russia. Napoleon began to occupy Prussian territories, Alexander was categorically against this.

At the end of 1810 it became clear that war was inevitable.

Diplomacy, intelligence

In 1812, France and Austria drew up an agreement according to which an Austrian army under actual French command would be deployed against Russia. Napoleon, in case of victory, had to compensate for all military losses.

In February 1812, Prussia contributed 20,000 soldiers and supplied Napoleon's troops with everything they needed. For this she demanded Courland and Livonia.

Napoleon began an in-depth study of the political situation and economic condition of Russia. French spies infiltrated various areas of Russian life. They worked as tutors, teachers, doctors, artists, and merchants. In addition to the French, Poles and Prussians spied. Napoleon knew a lot of important information about the Russian army before the war, including the size of the army.

Russia did not lag behind in terms of intelligence activities. It was possible to find out that the Austrians do not plan to conduct active operations at the front and will not move far from their border.

Napoleon promised the Swedes, in exchange for entering the war, to give Finland. And Alexander I undertook to give up Norway for similar actions against France. The Prince of Sweden accepted Russia's offer and concluded an alliance treaty with it.

In May, Kutuzov signed a peace treaty with Turkey.
Successful reconnaissance actions bore fruit. Twice every month the French minister sent Alexander a report on changes in affairs in the army.

Armed forces of opponents

Parties to the conflict	Infantry (soldier)	Cavalry	TOTAL (soldiers)	Artillery	Cossacks
Russian army	405.000	75.000	480.000	40,000 soldiers 1.5—1.6 guns	117.000
Grand French Army	492.000	96.000	588.000	21,000—35,000 soldiers, almost 1.4 thousand guns	----

On the side of France

• By the beginning of the war, Napoleon's army numbered approximately 430 thousand people. There were 30,000 Austrians, 20,000 Prussians, 20,000 Lithuanians. And also soldiers from 16 countries. According to other sources, more than 650 thousand people were prepared for the invasion of Russia. In addition, there were about 200,000 more in reserve in Central Europe and about 100,000 in Prussia.
• Large warehouses of food and ammunition were created along the banks of the Vistula River, which could supply an army of 400 thousand for more than a month.
• The army was divided into 3 groups. Napoleon led the left.
• The advantages of Napoleon's army were:
• . huge numbers;
• . good training of soldiers;
• . fanatical belief in victory;
• . technical support.
• The downside was multinationality.

On the side of Russia

• The troops of Barclay de Toll were the first to take the French blow. The second army was commanded by Bagration and had just over 150,000 soldiers and 758 guns. The Third Army, under the command of Tormasov, stood in the south of Volyn and had 45,000 soldiers and 168 guns. Admiral Chichagov, with his troops, settled in Moldova. Essen building - in Riga.
• Weapons production in Russia was well established. Approximately 1,200 guns were produced per year. The Tula and Izhevsk factories alone could supply up to 96,000 guns annually. In France, approximately 100,000 guns were produced per year. The technical data of Russian weapons were no worse than their French counterparts. But the capacity was not enough for the entire army, so the regiments had Austrian and English guns.
• The artillery was armed with 6-pounder cannons and a small number of 12-pounder guns.
• Russia did not lag behind France in numbers and technical weapons. But theft and embezzlement of higher ranks on pay flourished in the army.

Reform in the army

• The Minister of Military Affairs, Barclay de Toll, began to carry out reform in March 1811. The experience of other countries, especially France, was studied.
• All troops were subordinate to the General Staff, headed by the commander-in-chief. Measures began to form army headquarters.
• Allies of Russia
• Great Britain signed a peace agreement with Russia, which provided for mutual assistance in the event of an attack by another country.
• Spain helped Russian troops by waging a guerrilla war with the French.

Strategic plans of the parties

Napoleon

• Napoleon's goals were:
• . strict blockade of England;
• . the revival of Poland and the expansion of its borders;
• . military campaign in India, together with Russia.
• He hoped that Russia would attack first, military operations would take place on Polish territory and the war would end with a quick victory for the French army. When the Russians began to retreat, Napoleon was very puzzled; his plans did not include a deep invasion of enemy territory.

Russian command

• Russian plans provided for both offensive and defensive tactics. To prevent heavy losses during the battles, there were plans for a long retreat. Fortified points were created as the battle progressed. A bet was placed on winter frosts.
• Based on Pfuel's plan, battles could be fought by 3 armies at once. The 1st should be part of the front, the 2nd should reliably protect the rear, the third should work on all flanks and behind enemy lines. But during the war, this plan turned out to be impossible; the military operations of the armies turned out to be too maneuverable.
• Bagration's plan was offensive, but Alexander rejected it, because the 200,000th French army was already concentrated at the border.

Napoleon's offensive

On June 22, 1812, Napoleon voiced appeals to his army. Russia was accused of violating the treaty and the need to attack it.

On June 24, using the built bridges, the French crossed to the Russian coast and entered the Kovno fortress. This was immediately reported to the emperor.

The four-day crossing ended, and 220,000 French soldiers found themselves on the Russian side near Kovno. 67,000 - near Prena, 79,000 - near Grodno.

On June 28, when Vilna fell, Alexander I sent General Balashov to Napoleon. It was proposed to make peace and withdraw the army from Russian territory. Napoleon refused.

From Neman to Smolensk

North direction

Marshal MacDonald's corps was sent to capture St. Petersburg. It was necessary to first occupy Riga and, uniting with the second corps, move on. Macdonald did not have siege weapons and, approaching a well-fortified city, the marshal stopped. The governor of Riga, having destroyed nearby villages, closed himself within the city. Prussian soldiers were afraid of direct clashes with the enemy.

Moscow direction

The First Western Army was scattered over a vast area. It was commanded by Barclay de Tolly. The French were advancing, and there was a threat of destroying it piece by piece. The retreat to Vilna began. Alexander's ineptitude in commanding the army became apparent. Confidants convinced him to leave for the capital, supposedly to create reserves.

The Second Western Army was located near Grodno. It was commanded by Bagration. He wanted to unite the two armies, but realizing that this was impossible, he retreated to the south. The rear of the army, which began to retreat, was covered by the Cossacks.

Napoleon really wanted to destroy Bagration, for this he sent 50,000 soldiers. But the rapid march allowed Bagration to break away from his pursuers. Now the armies of Bagration and Davout were separated by 60 kilometers. There was a battle near Saltanovka. The Russians headed towards Smolensk, Davout could not pursue her.

The 1st Army, under the leadership of Barclay de Tolly, was supposed to connect with the first. But as a result of the battle at Ostrovno, he had to retreat to Smolensk. And only on August 3 they managed to unite, this was the first success. The armies of both opponents needed a respite. The soldiers were tired of rapid marches and battles. Napoleon has already covered more than 400 km.

South direction

The army of General Tormasov fought with the right flank of the French. He managed to return Brest and Pinsk. Napoleon sent Schwarzenberg's corps against him. On August 12, the Russians retreated to Lutsk. Throughout September there were minor battles in the Lutsk swamps.

Ertel's reserve was located in the south. The Polish division of Dombrowski stood against him.

From Smolensk to Moscow

The Russian armies united, and the command began to demand a decisive battle from Barclay. At this time, Napoleon's troops were scattered from each other. Taking advantage of the situation, the general decided to defeat them.

Napoleon tried to gather all his strength into a fist and, going behind the Russian rear, crossed the Dnieper. Neverovsky's division stood in his way. The general's decisive actions allowed General Raevsky to arrive at Smolensk on time.

On August 16, the French, who numbered 180,000, approached the city. The defense of Smolensk was entrusted to Raevsky, who had 15,000 soldiers under his command. Early in the morning the assault on the city began. The bloody battle went on for 2 days. The city was burning, and Barclay de Toly decided to withdraw his troops to Dorogobuzh. Bagration covered the retreat.

Ney began to pursue the rapidly retreating Russian army. But in the battle at Valutina Mountain he suffered heavy losses. General Junot was sent to the Russian rear, but he did not carry out Napoleon’s orders. The Russians went to the Dorogobuzh side.

The destruction of Smolensk marked the beginning of the war of the Russian people against the French. All villages in the path of the invading army were burned, and the residents became partisans. Napoleon tried to make a peace proposal to Alexander, but as a strong party. The Russian Tsar did not answer.

Management reorganization

The king did not leave the commander-in-chief in the troops after his departure. Bagration and Barclay could not find a common language after the retreat from Smolensk. An Emergency Committee was created, at a meeting of which Field Marshal Kutuzov was elected commander-in-chief. He immediately formed the army headquarters.

Borodino

Kutuzov's political and moral principles did not allow him to avoid the decisive battle. On September 3, the Russians retreated to Borodino. It was impossible to retreat further, and Kutuzov decided to fight. In order to have time to build fortifications at the battle site, General Gorchakov was ordered to pin down the French troops near Shevardino.

On September 7, the famous Battle of Borodino took place. There was approximately the same number of troops, but the Russian militias were poorly armed. They attacked with pikes.

The French attacked Russian fortifications using artillery. At noon the eighth attack began. The battle lasted about 12 hours. Napoleon lost 30,000 killed, but he managed to break through the defenses on the left flank. The Russians had 45,000 killed. Kutuzov decided to retreat.

Council in Fili

By September 13, the army concentrated near Moscow. The front line stretched for 4 km. Poor communication between units made this position unacceptable.

A Military Council was assembled in the village of Fili. Barclay expressed the difficult decision to surrender Moscow. Bennigsen was strongly opposed to this turn of events. But Suvorov ordered the troops to begin retreating. It was decided to leave Moscow and go along the Ryazan road. Kutuzov was very worried and did not sleep at all.

Surrender of Moscow

Moscow was left without a fight. And at night a terrible fire started in the city. Napoleon could not remain in the Kremlin. The civilian population was blamed for the arson, and 400 people were shot.
The arson could have been organized by:
. people of Rostopchin;
. criminals;
. Russian spies;
. chaos in the city.

Several fires were discovered. In 5 days, a significant part of the city was destroyed. Of the 30,000 houses, less than 5,000 remain.

Attempts to achieve peace

Napoleon understood perfectly well that the capture of Moscow was more of a political victory. Next in his plans was a campaign against St. Petersburg. All French marshals were against this. They were afraid of the coming winter and deep behind enemy lines.

• On September 18, Napoleon made the first attempt at a truce with Russia.
• On September 20, he made a second attempt, but again there was no answer.
• On October 4 there was another one, but Alexander remained silent.

People's War

At first, upon learning of the French advance, rumors spread among the peasants that Napoleon wanted to free them from serfdom and give them land. There were attacks by peasants on troops. In some regions, peasants handed over their landowners to the French.

As Napoleon's army advanced, violence began against the local population, looting in populated areas, robberies, and fires in cities. This was the impetus for the start of the guerrilla war.

Army partisan units

In pursuit of the retreating Russian army, the French covered about 1,200 km in 3 months. Its divisions and communications have expanded significantly. Russian commanders decided to create mobile units to operate behind enemy lines. The task was set to destroy communications and deprive the advanced combat detachments of supplies. Such units received all kinds of help from the local population.

Peasant partisan units

Partisan detachments were formed by escaped captured soldiers and local volunteers. Such detachments acted very cruelly towards the enemy. The partisans destroyed 25,000 soldiers stationed in Moscow.

The peasants did not want to give food and fodder to the enemy. Napoleon's plan to replenish the army with everything necessary at the expense of the local population failed.

Militia

In July 1812, according to the manifesto, the nobles and their peasants were supposed to join the ranks of the militia. Muscovites also created their own militia. The first ring surrounding Moscow was the partisans, the second - the militia warriors. While Kutuzov's army was preparing for new battles, they created a ring around Napoleonic troops located in Moscow.

Tarutino maneuver

• When the French army was already entering Moscow, the last Russian convoys were just leaving it. In addition to the soldiers, the convoy included local residents. While retreating, Kutuzov maneuvered all the time, and Napoleon had no idea where the Russian army was now located.
• The Russians stopped near the village of Tarutino. The location was not chosen by chance. The Tula, Kaluga and bread-rich southern regions were under cover, and on the other hand, the army became a threat to the French rear.
• While in Moscow, Napoleon's army fell into a trap. It was impossible to stay in the burned-out city for the winter. Food and fodder were running out, communications were badly damaged by the partisans. Disobedience and sabotage began in the army. Napoleon decided to retreat. The apartments prepared for winter were very far away, near the Dnieper
• On October 18, a battle took place near Tarutino, as a result the French lost 4,000 soldiers. There was a turning point in the war.

Napoleon's retreat

Napoleon went far into Russia. On his left flank was Wittgenstein's army. The right flank is stuck in Belarus. Its rear was protected by garrisons stretched along the Smolensk road.

Plans of the parties

Napoleon

There is no reliable information about Napoleon's plans after the capture of Moscow. He said that it was impossible to stay in the city for the winter, we had to look for other acceptable positions and move to St. Petersburg.

Kutuzov

Based on the testimony of French prisoners, Kutuzov concluded that Napoleon would move along the Smolensk road. He ordered all possible escape routes from Moscow to be placed under round-the-clock surveillance. At this time, the northern borders were being strengthened. A detailed analysis of all the events taking place on the fronts was presented by Kutuzov to the Tsar. He provided a plan to expel Napoleon from Russian territory. Showing ingenuity and foresight, the commander-in-chief guessed Napoleon's intentions.

From Moscow to Maloyaroslavets

• In October, a convoy of the French army stretched along the Kaluga road to Smolensk. Napoleon was leaving Moscow. There was a large food base in Smolensk. But the path was blocked by Kutuzov’s army.
• The French had very few horses left, respectively, artillery and cavalry. Realizing that it was impossible to break through the Russians, Napoleon decided to bypass the Russians near the village of Troitsky. But Kutuzov managed to cut off this route of retreat.
• A heavy battle took place in the Maloyaroslavets area. As a result, the city was occupied by the French. Kutuzov created fortified lines outside the city. The advantage in the number of soldiers, equipment, and cavalry was on the side of Russia.
• The Cossacks continued to raid French convoys. As a result of one of them, Kutuzov himself almost suffered. He circled his positions. Realizing that there was no way to delay, the French began a meeting on the army's further actions. Murat suggested going back. Opinions differed and Napoleon, after thinking for a long time, nevertheless ordered a retreat. We had to return along the already ruined, plundered road. We walked along the road along which we had previously moved with victories.

From Maloyaroslavets to Berezina

The Russians, under the command of Miloradovich, pursued the French all the way to Krasnoye Selo. The Cossacks and partisans did not give them a break. The supply of troops has deteriorated greatly. Kutuzov at this time was moving south. The next battle took place near Vyazma. The units bringing up the rear of the retreating army suffered greatly.

On November 8, the army stopped in Smolensk for 5 days. The lagging troops were waiting. There were about 45,000 combat-ready soldiers left, and the same number of wounded and unarmed. Napoleon's hope of replenishing food supplies in Smolensk collapsed. Crowds of hungry soldiers destroyed everything that remained in the city. The army quartermaster was shot. The second quartermaster justified himself, citing the legendary Praskovya, the commander of the partisan detachment.

The partisan detachments defeated the Augereau brigade. More than 60 officers and 1,500 soldiers were captured.

The position of Napoleon's army was getting worse every day. The Danube Army was concentrated in the south, and General Wittgenstein was in the north. Vitebsk was captured, where food supplies remained.

If the vanguard of the French army left Smolensk on November 14, the rearguard left the city only on November 17. Kutuzov was able to take advantage of the greatly stretched enemy army. The battle on November 18 ended with a breakthrough of Napoleonic soldiers. But their losses were enormous.

The Danube Army, having liberated Minsk, completely deprived the French of a rear center. The crossing of the Berezina was in doubt. Admiral Chigarov with his army controlled all approaches to possible crossing points.
On November 24, the French, having broken away from the Russians, stood by the river.

From Berezina to Neman

Northern direction

As a result of the battles for Polotsk, Wittgenstein's army came dangerously close to the rear of the French. Napoleon was already retreating from Moscow. Victor's corps went to his aid from the city of Smolensk. He was just transferred from European countries as a reserve. The number of soldiers in both armies was almost equal. On October 31 a battle took place and the French were forced to retreat south.

On November 7, Wittgenstein took Vitebsk. 300 French surrendered. All food intended for the retreating troops was captured.
Marshal Victor attempted to attack Wittgenstein's soldiers, trying to drive them beyond the Dvina, but this was unsuccessful. The troops remained in their positions until Napoleon's approach. The French armies united, and Victor took up the rearguard.

MacDonald's corps was located near Riga. The Russians, being in their positions, only occasionally made forays behind enemy lines. But on November 15, MacDonald suddenly attacked and inflicted heavy damage on the Russian detachment. The corps headed to Prussia only after Napoleon had completely left Russian territory.

South direction

Chichagov's army, which numbered 38,000 people, arrived on the southern front. Teaming up with General Tormasov, they forced Schwarzenberg to retreat from Lutsk. The army, after a two-week rest, moved to Minsk. Schwarzenberg began pursuit. After conducting several successful skirmishes with the French, he managed to get behind Napoleon's rear and occupy Minsk. He approached the Berezina River, where he marked Napoleon's crossing.

Collaborationism in the War of 1812

There were cases of collaboration on Russian soil during the occupation. The Archbishop from Mogilev immediately at the end of July 1812 swore an oath of allegiance to Napoleon. Most of the clergy swore allegiance to him. In the territories where partisan detachments were created, there were also cases of betrayal. Russian officers very rarely went over to the enemy’s side. The cornet of the dragoon regiment began to collaborate with the French in the summer of 1812. When he was captured by the Russians, he was shot.

Results of the Patriotic War

The main result of the war was the absolute victory of the Russian army over Napoleon's army. Military historian Clausewitz believes that an army of 610,000 soldiers entered Russia. Only about 30,000 reached Prussia. All were in deplorable condition, many soon died from various diseases.
Those officers who remained alive in the Russian company joined the French army in 1813.

Napoleon's losses amounted to approximately 580,000 soldiers, more than 1.2 thousand guns.
Russian losses amounted to approximately 210,000 soldiers.

At the very beginning of 1913, hostilities continued in Germany. Napoleon was finally defeated near Leipzig in October.
April 1814 was marked by Napoleon's abdication of the throne.

Causes of defeat

Most often called:
. a manifestation of the heroism and steadfastness of the Russian army;
. the vast territory of Russia;
. severe frost;
. the intelligence and foresight of Kutuzov and the Russian generals.

Another very important reason for Napoleon’s defeat was the unification of the entire Russian people to defend their homeland.

The fact that the Russians abandoned the plan to give battle near their border forced Napoleon to urgently change his plans. And the offensive deep into Russian territories, beyond the borders of supply bases, was fatal for Napoleon.

Russian generals, led by Kutuzov, tried to preserve the army. Napoleon's plans for a quick victory near the Russian borders did not come true.

The further the French army moved from the Neman, the worse the supply became. The army was overstretched and the foraging teams were undisciplined. The Russian population did not want to give food to the French. Guerrilla warfare played a role in the collapse of the supply system. Famine began, which made a pitiful semblance of a combat-ready army.

Frost continued the destruction of soldiers and officers. The Russian army, retreating almost all the time, took the French to its border.

Early consequences of war

• Russia's victory over Napoleon helped the coalition defeat France. Russia's prestige in international politics has risen to a high level. It enabled Russia to influence Europe.
• But if everything was fine at the foreign policy level, the internal state left much to be desired. The socio-economic system has not been changed. But the peasants who passed through Europe saw that there was no longer serfdom anywhere. The year 1812 ended, and serfdom was still not abolished. Peasant uprisings began. The formation of an opposition began among the progressive nobility.
• After the victory, the people's desire for freedom intensified. This led to the Decembrist uprising.
• During Napoleon's invasion, culture began to develop in Russia. Pushkin might not have existed if there had not been the War of 1812.
• Many prisoners of war from Napoleon's army remained on Russian territory. They accepted citizenship and began to work for the benefit of Russia. Former captured Poles became Siberian Cossacks. They were given the opportunity to return to Poland, but many remained on Russian soil and started families. Later they were able to obtain the ranks of officers. There were also those who had a good European education. They began teaching in the cadet corps. The descendants of former prisoners of war did not stand out from the mass of the population. Only the surname could give away the origin.
• The Patriotic War remains in the memory of the Russian people. She helped during the difficult years of the Great Patriotic War, when it was hard. When they retreated and died, especially in the first years of the war.

Memory of the war

Alexander I issued a decree that Christmas, which is celebrated on December 25, will simultaneously be Victory Day.

The war was reflected in various ways in works of art, architecture, and scientific works. 15,000 books have already been written on the topic of the War of 1812. Monuments have been erected throughout the country. The Winter Palace displays portraits of more than 300 generals who took part in the war. Historical reconstructions of the battle are shown on the Borodino field. It is difficult to overestimate the novel “War and Peace” and the film of the same name by S. Bondarchuk. The Central Bank of Russia issued a silver coin in honor of the victory in the War of 1812.

100th anniversary of Victory

In 1912, the Russian government tracked down 25 eyewitnesses to the hostilities. 14 of them were direct participants in the fighting. 1 ruble was issued for the solemn date.

200th anniversary of the Victory

The grand opening of the Museum of the Patriotic War took place in Moscow. The Don Cossacks rode on horseback from Moscow to Paris, repeating the glorious campaign of their ancestors. Walking through the battlefields, they bowed to the graves of fallen Russian soldiers and officers.

More wars, battles, battles, riots and uprisings in Russia:

And invaded Russian lands. The French rushed to the offensive like a bull during a bullfight. Napoleon's army included a European hodgepodge: in addition to the French, there were also (forcedly recruited) Germans, Austrians, Spaniards, Italians, Dutch, Poles and many others, totaling up to 650 thousand people. Russia could field approximately the same number of soldiers, but some of them, along with Kutuzov was still in Moldova, in another part - in the Caucasus. During Napoleon's invasion, up to 20 thousand Lithuanians joined his army.

The Russian army was divided into two lines of defense, under the command of General Peter Bagration And Michael Barclay de Tolly. The French invasion fell on the latter's troops. Napoleon's calculation was simple - one or two victorious battles (maximum three), and Alexander I will be forced to sign peace on French terms. However, Barclay de Tolly gradually, with small skirmishes, retreated deeper into Russia, but did not enter the main battle. Near Smolensk, the Russian army almost fell into encirclement, but did not enter the battle and eluded the French, continuing to draw them deeper into its territory. Napoleon occupied the empty Smolensk and could have stopped there for now, but Kutuzov, who arrived from Moldova to replace Barclay de Tolly, knew that the French emperor would not do that, and continued his retreat to Moscow. Bagration was eager to attack, and he was supported by the majority of the country's population, but Alexander did not allow it, leaving Peter Bagration on the border in Austria in case of an attack by France's allies.

All along the way, Napoleon received only abandoned and scorched settlements - no people, no supplies. After the “demonstrative” battle for Smolensk on August 18, 1812, Napoleon’s troops began to get tired of Russian campaign of 1812, since the conquest was somehow negative: there were no large-scale battles or high-profile victories, there were no captured supplies and weapons, winter was approaching, during which the “Great Army” needed to winter somewhere, and nothing suitable for quartering was captured.

Battle of Borodino.

At the end of August, near Mozhaisk (125 kilometers from Moscow), Kutuzov stopped in a field near a village Borodino, where he decided to give a general battle. For the most part, he was forced by public opinion, since a constant retreat did not correspond to the sentiments of either the people, the nobles, or the emperor.

On August 26, 1812, the famous Battle of Borodino. Bagration approached Borodino, but still the Russians were able to field just over 110 thousand soldiers. Napoleon at that moment had up to 135 thousand people.

The course and result of the battle are known to many: the French repeatedly stormed Kutuzov’s defensive redoubts with active artillery support (“Horses and people mixed up in a heap…”). The Russians, hungry for a normal battle, heroically repelled the attacks of the French, despite the latter’s enormous superiority in weapons (from rifles to cannons). The French lost up to 35 thousand killed, and the Russians ten thousand more, but Napoleon only managed to slightly shift Kutuzov’s central positions, and in fact, Bonaparte’s attack was stopped. After a battle that lasted all day, the French emperor began to prepare for a new assault, but Kutuzov, by the morning of August 27, withdrew his troops to Mozhaisk, not wanting to lose even more people.

On September 1, 1812, a military incident took place in a nearby village. council in Fili, during which Mikhail Kutuzov with the support of Barclay de Tolly, he decided to leave Moscow to save the army. Contemporaries say that this decision was extremely difficult for the commander-in-chief.

On September 14, Napoleon entered the abandoned and devastated former capital of Russia. During his stay in Moscow, sabotage groups of the Moscow governor Rostopchin repeatedly attacked French officers and burned their captured apartments. As a result, from September 14 to 18, Moscow burned, and Napoleon did not have enough resources to cope with the fire.

At the beginning of the invasion, before the Battle of Borodino, and also three times after the occupation of Moscow, Napoleon tried to come to an agreement with Alexander and sign peace. But from the very beginning of the war, the Russian emperor adamantly prohibited any negotiations while enemy feet trampled Russian soil.

Realizing that it would not be possible to spend the winter in devastated Moscow, on October 19, 1812, the French left Moscow. Napoleon decided to return to Smolensk, but not along the scorched path, but through Kaluga, hoping to get at least some supplies along the way.

In the battle of Tarutino and a little later near Maly Yaroslavets on October 24, Kutuzov repelled the French, and they were forced to return to the devastated Smolensk road along which they had walked earlier.

On November 8, Bonaparte reached Smolensk, which was ruined (half of it by the French themselves). All the way to Smolensk, the emperor constantly lost person after person - up to hundreds of soldiers a day.

During the summer-autumn of 1812, a hitherto unprecedented partisan movement was formed in Russia, leading the war of liberation. Partisan detachments numbered up to several thousand people. They attacked Napoleon's army like Amazonian piranhas attacking a wounded jaguar, waited for convoys with supplies and weapons, and destroyed the vanguards and rearguards of the troops. The most famous leader of these detachments was Denis Davydov. Peasants, workers, and nobles joined the partisan detachments. It is believed that they destroyed more than half of Bonaparte's army. Of course, Kutuzov’s soldiers did not lag behind, they also followed Napoleon on his heels and constantly made forays.

On November 29, a major battle took place on the Berezina, when admirals Chichagov and Wittgenstein, without waiting for Kutuzov, attacked Napoleon’s army and destroyed 21 thousand of his soldiers. However, the emperor was able to escape, with only 9 thousand people left at his disposal. With them he reached Vilna (Vilnius), where his generals Ney and Murat were waiting for him.

On December 14, after Kutuzov’s attack on Vilna, the French lost 20 thousand soldiers and abandoned the city. Napoleon fled to Paris in a hurry, ahead of the remnants of his Great Army. Together with the remnants of the garrison of Vilna and other cities, a little more than 30 thousand Napoleonic warriors left Russia, while at least about 610 thousand invaded Russia.

After the defeat in Russia French Empire started to fall apart. Bonaparte continued to send envoys to Alexander, offering almost all of Poland in exchange for a peace treaty. Nevertheless, the Russian emperor decided to completely rid Europe of dictatorship and tyranny (and these are not big words, but reality) Napoleon Bonaparte.