I made this extract from the encyclopedia.

KING(on behalf of Charlemagne), head of a monarchical state, kingdom

TSAR(from Latin caesar - Caesar), in Russia in 1547-1721 the official title of the head of state. The first Tsar was Ivan IV the Terrible. Under Peter I, the title Emperor was replaced, but unofficially existed on a par with him.

ARCHDUKE(German: Erzherzog), title of the Austrian monarchs of the Habsburg dynasty.
The title appeared in 1453 and is based on the privilege received by the Austrian dukes in the 12th century from the Holy Roman Emperor, which made them equal to the electors. For some time, the Austrian dukes were also called Erzfuersts. When the Habsburgs themselves took possession of the imperial throne, they began to own two titles - Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and the Austrian Archduke directly. In 1806, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II of Habsburg was forced to resign as emperor. In return, he proclaimed himself Emperor Francis I of Austria, and the title of Archduke passed to his children. From then until 1918, the princes of the House of Habsburg were called archdukes.

PRINCE(German Prinz, from Latin princeps - first), the title of a non-reigning member of a royal or other ruling house.

THE HIGHEST PRINCE, in Russia 18-19 centuries. a noble title given for special personal merit (the first His Serene Highness Prince - A.D. Menshikov, from 1707).

PRINCE,
1) leader of a tribe, ruler of a state or state entity. In medieval Germany, a prince (German Furst) was a representative of the highest imperial aristocracy who had special privileges. In the countries of Romance languages, the title of prince is denoted by the word prince (from the Latin princeps - first, see Art. Prince). In Rus', the eldest of the princes was called the Grand Duke, the rest - appanage princes.
2) Honorary hereditary noble title; from the 18th century complained to the king for special merits.

GRAPH(German Graf), in the early Middle Ages in the West. In Europe, an official who represented the king's authority in the county. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the counts turned into independent large feudal lords. In the future, count is a noble title (in Russia from the time of Peter I until 1917

Marquis(French marquis, Novolat. marchisus or marchio, from German Markgraf, in Italy marchese) - a Western European noble title, standing in the middle between count and duke; in England, besides M. in the proper sense, this title (Marquess) is given to the eldest sons of dukes.

DUKE(German: Herzog), among the ancient Germans, the military leader of the tribe; in the Middle Ages in the West. In Europe, a major feudal ruler, since the end of the Middle Ages - one of the highest noble titles.

BARON(from the Middle Ages. Lat. baro, gen. p. baronis), in Western. In Europe in the Middle Ages, a direct vassal of the king, later a title of nobility (in Russia introduced by Peter I for the highest Baltic nobility of German origin).

BARONET(English baronet), hereditary title of nobility in England.
VISCOUNT(French vicomte), title of nobility in Western countries. Europe.

LORD(English lord),
1) in medieval England, initially a feudal landowner (lord of the manor, landlord), then a collective title of the English high nobility; assigned to the peers of the kingdom, forming the House of Lords of the British Parliament. Since the 19th century The title lord is granted for the merits of scientists and cultural figures.
2) An integral part of the names of some positions in the UK (for example, Lord Chancellor - chairman of the House of Lords, Lord Mayor - head of local authorities in London and other large cities).

SIR(English sir),
1) in Great Britain, a title preceding the name of a baronet (originally a knight).
2) In English-speaking countries, respectful address to a man.

ESQ(squire) (English esquire, from Latin scutarius - shield-bearer), in early Middle Ages England, a knight's squire, then a fief holder who did not have knightly dignity. In the late Middle Ages and in modern times - an honorary title of nobility. In everyday life, the term is often used as equivalent to the word “gentleman”.

----------
It is not clear how titles were distributed at a time when they ceased to have a specific meaning. For what reason was Porthos given a baron and not a marquis? Which one is cooler? Why did the son of Athos become a viscount and not a count, who called him that?

Titles Great Britain . There is a fairly strict order of protocol seniority - 129 points.
Basic:

The Sovereign and his family members .

Dukes (of England, then Scotland, Great Britain, Ireland, the United Kingdom and Ireland)
Eldest sons of dukes of royal blood
Marquises (same seniority)
Eldest sons of dukes
Graphs
Younger sons of dukes of royal blood
Eldest sons of the marquises
Younger sons of dukes
Viscounts
Earls' eldest sons
Younger sons of the marquises
Bishops
Barons
Eldest sons of viscounts
Younger sons of counts
Eldest sons of the barons
Younger sons of the barons
Sons of life barons
Baronets
Knights of the Orders (except for the Order of the Garter - it is higher)
Knights who are not members of the Orders
Exquires
Squires

In Great Britain, only the head of a family has a noble title. The eldest son and the son of the eldest son (among dukes and marquises) may, by right of courtesy, also bear the title, but below the title of the head by one or more points. The title of Lord is borne by the sons of dukes and marquises. The younger sons of earls and all sons of barons and viscounts are called Honorable (abbreviated to The Hon in letters)
Ladies are the daughters of dukes, marquises and counts. Daughters of Viscounts and Barons - The Hon. Only the Duke and Duchess are invariably referred to by their full title.
Marquises, earls and viscounts are titled only on ceremonial occasions, but on other occasions they should be called Lord or Lady, the same for barons and baronesses.

France.

Sovereign
Princes
Dukes
Awnings
Graphs
Viscounts
Barons
The family title is inherited by the eldest son, the others receive the next in rank.
The title of knight is not inherited.
Appeal:
Mister Duke- Monseigneur le Duc
Madame Duchess- Madame la Duchesse
Common address in aristocratic circles: Duke + first name, Baron/Earl + last name, Sir + first and last name

Church. Appeals.

Protestant.
Archbishop - Your Grace
Bishop - Lord
Clergymen up to the rank of prebendary - Sir
Others - Reverence + first and last name

Catholic .
Pope - Holy Father or Your Holiness in the third person
Cardinal - Eminence or Your Lordship
Archbishops and bishops - Excellency or Your Lordship in the second person
others - according to rank

LORD (English lord),
1) in medieval England, initially a feudal landowner (lord of the manor, landlord), then a collective title of the English high nobility; assigned to the peers of the kingdom, forming the House of Lords of the British Parliament. Since the 19th century The title lord is granted for the merits of scientists and cultural figures.
2) An integral part of the names of some positions in the UK (for example, Lord Chancellor - chairman of the House of Lords, Lord Mayor - head of local authorities in London and other large cities).

Prince Regent
A Prince Regent (or Regent) is a prince who rules as a monarch. Regent instead of Monarch, for example due to the Sovereign's incapacity (due to age or illness) or absence (the monarch's distance from his state, such as exile or a long trip). At the same time, the title may have a generic meaning and refers to any prince who served as a regent; historically, the title was primarily used to distinguish the small number of those princes who ruled as Regents.

In England, the use of the title Prince with the prefix Regent is usually associated with George IV, who used the title (HRH) during the inability of his father, George III, to govern. This period in British history is known as the English Regency, or simply the Regency. The title was awarded by the Regency Act of 5 February 1811. With certain restrictions during the regency period, the Prince Regent was able to exercise the powers of the King.

In Germany, the title Prinzregent (literally Prince Regent) is usually associated with Prince Lutpold of Bavaria, who served as Regent under two of his nephews, King Ludwig II of Bavaria, who was declared feeble-minded in 1886, and King Otto of Bavaria (who was declared insane in 1875). , from 1886 to 1912. The years of Lutpold's regency were marked by enormous artistic and cultural activity in Bavaria, these years were later known as Prinzregentenjahre or Prinzregentenzeit. Numerous streets in Bavarian towns and cities are called Prinzregentenstrasse. Many institutions are named after Lutpold, for example the Prinzregententheater in Munich. Prinzregententorte – a layered chocolate cream cake named after Lutpold. After Lutpold's death, in 1912, his son Prince Ludwig III of Bavaria became Prince Regent. Ludwig retained this title for a short period of less than a year, as the Bavarian Legislature decided to recognize him as king.

Kaiser
Kaiser is a German name meaning "Emperor", Kaiserin - the female equivalent - "Empress". This title is directly derived from the Latin title Caesar, which in turn was derived from the name Julius Caesar.

The style of existence (foundation of institutions, political institutions, regulation of public life) of the Roman Empire was restored in the Kingdom of the Franks by Emperor Charlemagne in 800. When his empire was divided, the title of emperor went to the ruler who ruled the Roman kingdom. Through a system of succession, this kingdom became part of the Eastern ("German") kingdom. The Holy Roman Emperors (962-1806) called themselves Kaiser, combining the imperial title with the title of King of Rome; they perceived their reign as a prototype of the reign of the Roman Emperors and used a title whose pronunciation was derived from the title "Caesar" to reflect their imagined heritage.

The rulers of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (1804-1918) were from the Habsburg dynasty, which represented all the Holy Roman Emperors since 1440. The Austrian-Hungarian rulers adopted the title Kaiser.

In English (untranslated), the word "Kaiser" is primarily associated with the emperors of the unified German Empire (1871-1918) and especially Kaiser Wilhelm II.

In 1871, a debate was held regarding the exact title for the monarch of a united Germany. Deutscher Kaiser ("German Emperor") was chosen among others such as Kaiser von Deutschland ("Emperor of Germany"), or Kaiser der Deutschen ("Emperor of the Germans"); since the selected title expressed the least degree of superiority over the rulers of other principalities. There were only three Kaisers of the (second) German Empire. All of them belonged to the Hohenzollern dynasty, which was the informal leader among the rulers of Germany - the Kings of Prussia, the largest power among the German principalities. German Kaisers:

Wilhelm I (1871-1888);
Frederick III (1888), who ruled for 99 days;
Wilhelm II (1888-1918), during his reign, the monarchy in Germany ended after the end of the First World War.

Infant
In the Spanish and former Portuguese monarchies, the (male) Infante or (female) Infanta was given to the son or daughter of the reigning King, who is not the direct heir to the throne. Also, the Princes of the Blood of the Spanish and Portuguese royal families most often received this title by inheritance (the children of aristocrats also bore the title of Infants, but in their case the title was associated with the definition of “child”, without reference to the royal family). Note that infante is also used for a hereditary title of the aristocracy, such as Los infantas de Carrión (heirs of Carrión).

The name comes from the same root as "baby", "child" in the Romance languages ​​(French, Enfants de France), and in this case indicates that the Infante or Infanta is the child of the monarch.

The modern Infantas of Spain are Leonor and Sofia (daughters of Prince Felipe and Princess Letizia), Elena and Cristina (daughters of King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofia), Pilar and Margarita (daughters of Juan de Bourbon, Count of Barcelona). Carlos de Bourbon, Duke of Calabria and cousin of King Juan Carlos, also holds the title of Infante of Spain. Prince Felipe, son of King Juan Carlos, is heir apparent to the Spanish throne and therefore bears the title Prince of Asturias.

The modern Infantes of Portugal (now a republic) are Enrique, Duke of Coimbra and Miguel, Duke of Visi (brothers of the Dukes of Duarte Braganza, claimants to the Portuguese royal throne), Infante Afonso, Prince of Beira, Infanta Maria Francisca Isabel of Portugal and Infante Dinis, Duke of Porto (sons of the above Duke of Braganza).

Prince
The title "prince" has a long history. At the time when Emperor Augustus accepted the title of Emperor from the Roman Senate, it (the title) meant "one who is among equals, or equal." This title remained one of the titles of the Roman Emperor. The English word "leader" retains some of this meaning. In German the idea was translated by the title "Fürst".

In most general terms, unless referring to the children of a king, "prince" refers to the supreme or one of the paramount men, that is, the person who has direct personal rule over a relatively small territory, such as modern Monaco and Liechtenstein.

Since the German lands were ruled by a large number of princes, the people were more loyal to the Princes than other European nations outside the Empire (meaning the Holy Roman Empire, it did not occupy all of Europe), and therefore the German language has an additional title to define a prince in the common European sense of the title - this is "Furst". "Prince" in German does not have a royal imprint on an aristocrat's title, and sometimes this title may be classified as a lesser title than Duke, or "Gro?herzog" depending on the history of the particular titular family. "Fürst" is a uniquely German title that is best translated as "prince" and should be regarded as a title above "prince". This title identifies the head of a royal house, or the head of the ruling branch of such a house. For example, the German form of Prince Rainier's name is "Fürst von Monaco".

The electors of the Holy Roman Empire were called "Electors". "Gro?furst" is the word used in German for the Russian Grand Duke (son of the Tsar).

From the above examples it is clear that in the German system (and in other continental systems), a prince sometimes represents something more than a mere nobleman, but not necessarily of royal blood, and it is this difference that makes comparison of this title with the British system difficult.

In the Russian system, "prince" (translated into European languages ​​as prince, e.g. Prince Potemkin) is the highest degree of nobility, and sometimes, represents the average title for the senior branch of the dynasty by birth (for example, the Bagrations), who passed into the Russian nobility under Russian imperial dynasty (previously the Bagrations were a royal dynasty that ruled the Georgian state); this term was also used originally by the Rurik dynasty.

"Prince" is also the term used to translate the highest level of old Gaelic nobility.

Graph
Earl or Jarl was an Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian title meaning "chief" and referring primarily to the chiefs ruling over territory on land owned by the king (a detached manor or castle). In Scandinavia the title became obsolete and fell out of use in the Middle Ages, being replaced by the title of Duke (hertig/hertug), while in Great Britain the title became synonymous with the continental title of Earl.

Today, an earl is a member of the British nobility, and in the aristocratic ranks is ranked below the Marquess and above the Viscount.

The word "earl" comes from the Middle English word "erl" meaning warrior, nobleman, and is the equivalent of jarl in Old Norse. It remains unclear whether there is a real etymological connection with the Anglo-Saxon concept of "Ealdorman", which translates literally as "Elder", and denotes a title that was subsequently replaced by Earl during the eleventh century.

Earls were originally the king's "governors" (that is, appointed administrators). Although the title of Earl was nominally equivalent to the continental sense of a similar title, unlike in continental Europe, counts were not the actual rulers of their own domains. After the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror attempted to rule England using the traditional system, but ultimately changed it to his own system of government and division of lands. Counties became the largest secular divisions in England.

There was only one person in Iceland who ever held the title of Earl (or Jarl). It was Gissur Borvaldsson who was made Count of Iceland by King Haakon IV of Norway for his efforts in bringing Iceland under Norwegian royal rule.

Khan
Khan is a sovereign (from sovereign, independent ruler) and military title to designate a ruler in Altaic languages. The title originally came from the Turkish language, meaning the tribal leaders of the Mongols and Turks. This title now has many equivalent meanings, such as commander, leader, or ruler. Now the Khans exist mainly in South Asia, Central Asia and Iran. Female alternative titles are Khatun, Khatan and Khanum.

The Khan rules the Khanate (sometimes written as Khanate). The Khan heads the ruling dynasty, and is the ruler in a monarchical state. The Khan is also sometimes perceived in the European sense as a king or prince, but this is wrong. Initially, the khans only headed relatively minor tribal domains, in the vast Eurasian steppe, where the tribes led a largely nomadic lifestyle.
.

The title Khan of Khans was among the numerous titles used by the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, as well as by the rulers of the Golden Horde and its descendant states. The title Khan was also used in the Seljuk Turkish dynasties of the Middle East to designate the head of a variety of tribes, clans, or nations.

Baron
Baron is a specific aristocratic title. The word Baron itself comes from the old French word baron, and directly from the Frankish word baro, which meant "honorary citizen, warrior"; this word later merged with the related Old English beorn to mean "nobleman".

In the British system of titles of nobility, barons rank below viscounts, being the lowest rank in the peerage (a peer is the name given to aristocrats of all titles). A woman from a family with a baronial title has her own equivalent - a baroness. A baron can hold a barony (multiple baronies) if the title has an original relationship to a feudal barony.

William the First introduced the title of "baron" as a title of nobility in England to distinguish nobles who pledged their loyalty to him. Previously, in the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Britain, the king's companions held the title of earls, and in Scotland, the title of Thane.

In Scotland, the title of Baron is an aristocratic title associated with the feudal nobility of Scotland, and refers to the holder of a feudal barony having its own holdings.

In the twentieth century, Great Britain introduced the concept of non-hereditary life peers. All appointees accept the title of baron, but cannot pass it on to their children.

During the Ancien Regime, the French baronies were very similar to the Scottish ones. Feudal tenants had the right to call themselves barons if they were nobles.

In pre-Republican Germany, all noble families (sometimes distinguished by the prefix "von") were eventually recognized as barons. Families who always held this status were called Original Aristocrats. Today there are no legal privileges associated with hereditary titles. The offspring of those who possessed aristocratic titles may want to distinguish themselves from later "ennobled" families, however, many Baron surnames do not contain any such prefix (von). In general, all male members of a baronial family inherited the title of Baron from birth.

In Spain the title is one of the lowest. The Baron's wife takes the title of "Baronese". The term Baronesa was also used for a woman who was granted a title based on her merits. In general, the title of "Baron" until the nineteenth century corresponded to a title of nobility, derived from the "Crown of Aragon". The title lost territorial jurisdiction around the mid-nineteenth century, and since then it has been used only as an honorific.

The title was very common in most European countries; in various languages ​​the title was pronounced with virtually no changes in sound.

Like other major Western noble titles, Baron is sometimes used to designate a similar title outside the Western world.

In some republics of continental Europe, the unofficial title of "Baron" is retained as a socially prestigious title, without specific political privileges.

In the Polynesian monarchy of the island of Tonga, in contrast to Europe, barons are given power, and barons usually carry out certain political activities while vested with power.

Viscount
A viscount is a member of the European nobility, a title usually ranked equivalent to the British peerage, above baron, below earl (in Britain) or duke (its continental equivalent).

The word Viscount has been used in English since 1387, and comes from the Old French word visconte (Modern French: vicomte), which in turn comes from the Medieval Latin term vicecomitem (originally meaning companion; later Roman imperial courtier).

As a rank in the British peerage, this title was first registered in 1440, when John Beaumont, 1st Viscount Beaumont, became King Henry VI. According to early sources, early viscounts were not initially granted titles or honors by the monarch, and the title was not hereditary.

A viscount is said to hold a "viscountcy" or area belonging to the viscount. The female equivalent of a viscount is a viscountess.

In British practice, the title of Viscount can be either a place name or a surname, or sometimes a combination of both.
It is certainly British custom to use the title Viscount as an expression of respect for the heir to an earl or marquess. The heir apparent to a peer is sometimes also referred to as a viscount. More often than not, it is not the eldest son of a British duke who receives the title of marquis; with exceptions such as the Duchy of Norfolk, which does not have the title of Marquess, thus the heir receives the next title below Duke, namely that of Earl.
The son of a marquis or earl may be referred to as a viscount when the title of viscount is not the second-highest title in the family. For example, the second most "senior" title of the Marquess of Salisbury is Earl of Salisbury. The eldest son of a Marquess does not use the title Earl of Salisbury, but the eldest title, Viscount Granborne.
Sometimes the son of a peer may be referred to as a viscount, even when he may use a more senior title. In this case, family tradition plays a role. For example, the eldest son of the Marquess of Londonderry is Viscount Castlereagh, even though the Marquess is also the Earl of Vane.
The title of viscount is less common in Italy ("visconte"), although the noble Visconti family, the rulers of Milan, are among the most prominent representatives of the modernization of this title.
In the former kingdom of Portugal, the visconde ranks above the baron, and below the conde.
In the Kingdom of Spain, this title began to be awarded from the time of Felipe IV (1621-65; Habsburg dynasty) until 1846.

There are non-etymological equivalents to the title Viscount in several languages, including German. For example, in Dutch, Burggraaf is a title above Baron but below Earl in the kingdoms of the Netherlands and Belgium. In Welsh this title is rendered as Isiarll.

There are also non-Western copies of this title:

Korean jajak or Pansoh
Chinese Tzu or Zi, fourth class hereditary title
Japanese Shishaku or Shi, the fourth and lowest, but one of the five ranks of noble titles

Duke
The Latin Duke was a military title that could be equivalent to "field marshal". The historical core of the title is found in the stories of King Arthur, and most likely relates to Duke Bellorus, who was responsible for the forces holding back the barbarian attack on early post-Roman Britain. English kings introduced the French ducal structure into the British system, and it was initially primarily a royal title. In France especially after 1600, however, as in Great Britain, the title no longer meant royalty.

However, the perception of the title Duke as a royal one was strong in Germany, perhaps more so than ever in Great Britain and other parts of Europe, where all children of the head of the ruling house automatically received the title Duke, and descendants of the Imperial Family were Archdukes or Archduchesses.

A duchy (or grand duchy) is a territory ruled by a duke (or grand duke). There are properly only two duchies in Great Britain, Lancaster and Cornwall; they are essentially "corporations" that provide income to the Queen (who is the "Duchess" of Lancaster) and the Prince of Wales (who also holds the title Duke of Cornwall).

A Duke is a nobleman, historically the highest rank below a King or Queen, and usually rules a Duchy. The word itself comes from the Latin word meaning chief, which was understood as a "military commander" and was used by the Germanic peoples themselves, as well as by Roman authors.

In the Modern era, the title became a nominal title without an actual principality. Duke is still the highest nominal aristocratic title in France, Portugal, Spain, Great Britain, and Italy.

During the Middle Ages, after the collapse of Roman power in Western Europe, the title was still used in the Germanic kingdoms, most often by the rulers of old Roman regions and colonies.

In the 19th century, the supreme dukes of Parma and Modena in Italy, and Anhalt, Brunswick-Lüneburg, Nassau (state), Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Main and Saxe-Altenburg in Germany survived Napoleon's restructuring. Since the unification of Italy in 1870 and the end of the monarchy in Germany in 1918, there have been no more ruling dukes in Europe; only the Grand Duke remains, who rules Luxembourg.

Spanish infantas were usually given a dukedom upon marriage. This title is currently not hereditary. Modern royal duchesses: HRH Duchess of Badajoz (Infanta Maria del Pilar), HRH Duchess of Soria (Infanta Margherita) (although she inherited the title of Duchess of Hernani from her cousin and is the second holder of that title), HRH Duchess of Lugo (Infanta Elena) and HRH Duchess of Palma de Mallorca (Infanta Cristina).

Emperor
An emperor is a (male) monarch, usually the supreme ruler of an empire or other type of "imperial" kingdom. Empress is the feminine form of the title. As a title, "empress" can refer to either the wife of the emperor (empress consort) or the woman who is the reigning monarch (empress regnant). Emperors are generally recognized to be superior to kings in the aristocratic hierarchy. Today, the Emperor of Japan is the only reigning emperor in the world.

Both kings and emperors are monarchs. Within the European context of monarchical titles, "emperor" is considered the highest of monarchical titles. Emperors were once given primacy over kings in international diplomatic relations; Currently, such primacy is limited to the duration of the period on the throne of the head of state.

Whenever we watch historical English films or read books about the life of the English, we constantly come across all sorts of sirs, lords, princes, dukes and other titles. It is quite difficult to understand the purpose of all these appeals to certain segments of the population from books or films. We will try to consider what titles there are in England, what their hierarchy is, how they are received and whether the title can be passed on by inheritance, etc.

Peerage in England

Peerage is a system of noble titles in England. Peers are all English people who hold a title. All other people who do not have any titles are considered commoners. The main difference between peers and other people is that the title of nobility in England gives certain privileges, and these privileges differ for peers of different ranks.

There are also differences in privileges between different parts of the peerage system:

The Peerage of England is all titled Englishmen whose title was created by the Queens and Kings of England before 1707 (the signing of the Act of Union).

The Peerage of Scotland is a title of nobility created by the monarchs of Scotland before 1707.

Peerage of Ireland - titles of the Kingdom of Ireland created before 1800 (the signing of the Act of Union) and some of them created later.

Peerage of Great Britain - all titles created in the Kingdom of Great Britain from 1707 to 1800.

Peerage of the United Kingdom - almost all titles created after 1800.

Older ranks are considered higher in the hierarchy. In addition, the determining factor in the hierarchy is the ownership of the title:

English,

Scottish,

Irish.

For example, an Irish earl with a title created before 1707 is lower in the hierarchy than an English earl with a title received at the same time. But the same Irish Earl will be higher in the hierarchy than the Earl of Great Britain with a title assigned after 1707.

Emergence of the peerage

The history of the creation of the English peerage system began with the conquest of England by the illegitimate son of the ruler of Normandy, William the Conqueror. He created a single Kingdom of England and divided the entire territory into manors. Those Englishmen who owned manors were called barons; Depending on the amount of land, “greater barons” and “lesser barons” were distinguished.

The king assembled the greater barons for royal councils, and the lesser ones were assembled by the sheriffs. Then they stopped convening lesser barons. It was the meetings of the great barons that were then transformed into the House of Lords, which still exists today. Most titles of nobility, like the Crown of England, are hereditary.

Times changed and various ranks began to form among the nobles, the privileges of which differed significantly.

Hierarchy of titles

At the top of the hierarchy is, naturally, the royal family, which has its own hierarchy. The British royal family includes the monarch himself and a group of his close relatives. Members of the royal family are: the monarch, the monarch's consort or the widowed spouse of the monarch, the children of the monarch, his grandchildren in the male line, the spouses or widowed spouses of the heirs of the monarch in the male line.

The next most important among the English are:

Duke and Duchess (began to assign this title in 1337). Duke (derived from the Latin for "chief") is the highest-ranking English title of nobility after the King and Queen. Usually dukes rule the Duchy. Dukes constitute the second rank of princes after the princes of the royal family.

Marquis and Marquise (first awarded in 1385). Marquess is an English title of nobility, located between a duke and an earl. It comes from the designation of the boundaries of certain territories (from the French "marque" or border territory). In addition to the marquises themselves, this title is awarded to the eldest son of the duke and the daughter of the duke.

Earl (earl) and countess (used from 800-1000). Earls are members of the English nobility who previously owned and administered their own lands - counties, tried cases in provincial courts on behalf of the King, and collected fines and taxes from the local population. Also awarded earldoms were the eldest son of the marquis, the daughters of the marquis and the youngest son of the duke.

Viscount and Viscountess (the first such title was awarded in 1440). The word comes from the Latin "vice-count", "deputy of the count". During the father's lifetime, the eldest son of an earl or the younger sons of a marquess became viscounts as a courtesy title.

Baron and Baroness (first appeared in 1066). The word comes from the Old German "free master". Baron is the lowest rank of nobility in England. If the title is historically related to feudal baronies, then the baron holds that barony. In addition to the barons themselves, the following persons were endowed with this title in the form of a courtesy title: the eldest son of a viscount, the youngest son of an earl, the eldest son of a baron, then the younger sons of viscounts and the younger sons of barons followed in the hierarchy.

Another title, although heritable, but not one of English titled aristocratic persons, is baronet (there is no female equivalent). Baronets do not sit in the House of Lords and do not enjoy the privileges of the nobility. The eldest children of the younger sons of peers of various ranks, the eldest and youngest sons of baronets, became baronets.

All other Englishmen are untitled persons.

Appeal to titled persons

The treatment of titled Englishmen is a rather complex issue. Everyone knows that addressing the King and Queen involves the combination “Your Majesty.”

For dukes, the address "Your Grace" is used, as for duchesses, or the address duke-duchess along with the use of a title (for example, Duke of Wellington). Dukes rarely use surnames, but duchesses never use them.

Marquises, viscounts, earls, barons and their wives are addressed as My Lord (My Lord) or Milady (My Lady), or simply Lord and Lady. You can also use the title directly in the form of rank and title (for example, Marquess of Queensbury).

Former wives of peers of any rank are addressed as follows: the woman's name, then rank and title, without using the definite article "the" before the rank (for example, Diana, Princess of Wales).

Baronets and untitled persons are addressed using the words "sir" and "lady".

Receiving the title

The real title of Lord in England can be awarded by the Queen for special services to the country. But you can also get it in roundabout ways, for example, purchasing a medieval estate for a huge price along with a title, for example, baron. At the same time, they receive a certificate of belonging to a certain noble rank.

Title Features

Most often, the holder of any title is a man. Sometimes the title could belong to a woman if it was intended to be inherited. In other cases, the woman was awarded the title of courtesy as the wife of her husband. At the same time, the woman did not have the privileges that the husband had.

A woman's title was inherited in two cases:

If the woman was only the custodian of the title, in order to pass it on to a male heir in the future;

When a woman rightfully received a title, but could not sit in the House of Lords and hold certain positions.

Moreover, if a titled woman got married, her husband did not receive her title.

If a woman who received a title thanks to her husband turned out to be a widow, she kept it, and the word “dowager” could be added before addressing her. If a woman remarried, she acquired a new title corresponding to the title of her new husband, or even turned out to be an untitled person if the new husband did not belong to the nobility of England.

Another feature is that illegitimate sons did not receive titles under any circumstances. Therefore, titled persons often sought to marry pregnant women in order to ensure their son the right to inherit his title. Otherwise, only the youngest son had the right to receive nobility if he was already born in marriage, and in the absence of other sons, a distant relative.

Privileges of titled persons

Previously, the privileges of peers were very broad, but now titled Englishmen have very few rights left:

The right to sit in parliament,

Access to the Queen and King, although this right has not been used for a long time,

Right not to be subject to civil arrest (used only twice since 1945).

In addition, all peers have special crowns used at coronations, and distinctive robes for sitting in the House of Lords (if they are members of it) and coronations.

EASTERN TITLES (Noble titles). Shah (Persian شاه‎ - the title of the monarch in some countries of the Near and Middle East, the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal state (in the form of “padishah”)). Shahinshah (ancient Persian xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām, Persian شاهنشاه‎ - king of kings) - ancient Persian (of Median origin, adopted by the Achaemenids), later an Iranian monarchical title. The title was first adopted by the Sassanid rulers of Iran, but it dates back to the Achaemenid era title "xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām", therefore the first Shahanshah in Iran is called the Achaemenid king Cyrus II the Great. used intermittently for 2,500 years. The last Shahanshah of Iran was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, overthrown in 1979 during the Islamic Revolution. Mohammed Reza's son Reza Kir Pahlavi is considered by Iranian monarchists to be the legitimate Shahanshah. In Russian-language literature, the title Shahinshah is usually translated as "king of kings", when referring to ancient Persia, and is not translated when referring to modern Iran.A similar Greek title, Basileos Basileon, was adopted by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius after his victory over the Sassanids. The title of Shah existed in some countries of the Near and Middle East. The last Shahs of the 20th century were overthrown in Afghanistan in 1973 and in Iran in 1979. For the first time (in the form “shahanshah”) it began to be used in the Sassanid state. Goes back to the Achaemenid title “xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām” - “king of kings” (similar titles are known from earlier times; the first known “king of kings” (šar šarrāni) was the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I, reigned c. 1244-1207 BC. e.). Khan is a sovereign (from sovereign, independent ruler) and military title to designate a ruler in Altaic languages. The title originally came from the Turkish language, meaning the tribal leaders of the Mongols and Turks. This title now has many equivalent meanings, such as commander, leader, or ruler. Now the Khans exist mainly in South Asia, Central Asia and Iran. Female alternative titles are Khatun, Khatan and Khanum. The Khan rules the Khanate (sometimes written as Khanate). The Khan heads the ruling dynasty, and is the ruler in a monarchical state. The Khan is also sometimes perceived in the European sense as a king or prince, but this is wrong. Initially, the khans only headed relatively minor tribal domains, in the vast Eurasian steppe, where the tribes led a largely nomadic lifestyle. Some khans managed to establish small principalities because their armed forces could and, repeatedly, proved that they posed a serious threat to empires such as China, Rome and Byzantium. One of the earliest known examples of such principalities in Europe was Danube Bulgaria, ruled by a khan or khan from at least the 7th to the 9th century AD. It should be noted that the use of the title "khan" by the rulers of this state is not directly attested in inscriptions and texts; the only such name, Kanasubidi, was found exclusively in the inscriptions of three successive Bulgarian rulers, namely Krum, Omurtag and Malamir. The title Khan came into use when the Mongol tribal leader, Temuijin, proved himself to be a military genius by creating the Mongol Empire, the largest empire on earth ever to exist. He bore the title of khagan "Khan of Khans" (as in the Persian Shahanshah meaning King of Kings). After the death of the last Mongol emperor, the empire began a process of gradual disintegration, and his successors initially retained the title "khan". Khan was also the name of the rulers of various breakaway states later reunited into Iran, for example 1747 – 1808. Khanate of Ardabil (in northwestern eastern Iran and west of the southwestern Caspian Sea), 1747 – 1813. Khanate of Khoy (northwestern Iran, north of Lake Urmia), 1747 – 1829. Khanate of Maku (in northwestern Iran, northwest of Khoy, and 60 miles south of Yerevan, Armenia), 1747 – 1790. Khanate of Sarab (northwest east of Iran), 1747 - 1800 Khanate of Tabriz (capital of Iranian Azerbaijan). There were various small khanates in and around the Caucasus. In modern Armenia there was the Khanate of Yerevan. Various khanates existed in Azerbaijan, including Baku (the modern capital of the state), Ganja, Javad, Quba, Salyan, Shakki and Shirvan, Talish (1747-1814); Nakhchivan and Karabakh. The title Khan of Khans was among the numerous titles used by the Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, as well as by the rulers of the Golden Horde and its descendant states. The title Khan was also used in the Seljuk Turkish dynasties of the Middle East to designate the head of a variety of tribes, clans, or nations. Padishah, (Padshah, Padeshah, Badishah or Badshah) is a very prestigious title, which is composed of the Persian words Pati "owner" and the famous title Shah "King", which was adopted by several Islamic monarchies, being the highest title of a ruler, roughly equivalent to the Christian Emperor or the Ancient Concept of the Great King. The rulers of the following major Muslim empires bore the title of Padishah: Shahanshah of Iran (King of the Kings of Persia), also recognized by some Shia Muslims as the rightful Caliph (a claim for universal Aryan rule, as their Zoroastrian and Sasanian predecessors often expressed their state as "Iran"). The Grand Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, also holding the title of Caliph (the highest religious title, signifying the successor of the Prophet Mohammed), was recognized by the majority of Sunni Muslims; his Persian main rival was a Shiite)). Throughout most of the Indian subcontinent, Sultan Mungal of Delhi as the head of the vast Mongal Empire. This title was also used by Muslim rulers throughout smaller parts of the subcontinent. In Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Duranni founded the Duranni Empire in 1747, taking the title of Padishah. After Sadozai's overthrow in 1823, there was a brief restoration of the title by Shah Shoja in 1839. The title was not used after his assassination in 1842 until 1926, when Khan Amanullah revived the title of Padishah from 1937, but in 1973 the Afghan monarchy used the title of Emir or Malik. The last Basha Bey of Tunisia, Muhammad (VIII) Al-Amin (ruled from May 15, 1943), assumed the supreme title of Padshah on March 20, 1956, and held it until July 25, 1957. The major prestige of this title in the Islamic world, and even beyond it, is clearly evident from the Ottoman Empire's dealings with (predominantly Christian) European states. As the Europeans and Russians gradually drove the Turks out of the Balkans, Central Asia, and the Caucasus, they even insisted on using the title "Padishah" for themselves in the Turkish versions of agreements with the High Ottoman Porte, as confirmation that their Christian emperors were in all diplomatic and protocol traditions equal to the Turkish ruler. The compound title Padshah-i-Ghazi or "Victory Emperor" was used by only two individual rulers: H.M. Shah Ahmad, bore the title Padishah-i-Ghazi, Dur-i-Durran Padshah of Khorasan (modern Afghanistan) (Padshah-i-Ghazi, Dur-i-Durran (“pearl of pearls”)) 1747 – 1772 H.H. Rustam-i- Dauran Aristu-i-Zaman, Asaf Jan IV, Muzaffar ul-Mamalyuk, Nizam ul-Malk, Nizam ud-Daula, Nawab Mir Farkhunda Ruler Ali Khan, Sipah Salar, Faz Yang, Ain Waffadar Fidvi-i-Senlina, Iqtidar-i -Kishwarsitan Muhammad Akbar Shah Padshah-i-Ghazi, Nizam of Hyderabad 1829 – 1857 MALIK - melik (Arabic ruler, ruler, king, king, monarch), before the emergence of Islam, the ruler in the Arab states of the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, head of the confederation tribes in Central Arabia and some tribes in South-East Arabia, a representative of the tribal nobility. Ilkhan is the title of the highest rulers among the Turkic and Mongolian peoples. First found in sources as the title of Bumyn, the founder of the Turkic Khaganate (552). The most famous carriers are the Mongolian rulers of the Hulaguid state in the Middle East (XIII-XIV centuries). The title is formed from the Turkic words el/il (“people”) + khan and literally means “ruler of nations.” The more precise meaning depends on the understanding of the term el/il, which is interpreted differently by different researchers. Vizier (also wazir, vezer, vizier, vizier; Arabic وزير‎‎ - “minister”) is the title of the first (chief) ministers and senior dignitaries in many eastern states, the head of the entire administration, both military and civil. The word “vizier” comes from Pahlavi - vih’r (arbiter/one who decides). Traditionally, the term “vizier” is used to refer to similar positions, for which some eastern countries had (or still have) their own original names, for example, “chati” in Ancient Egypt. In the Khazar Kaganate, the title of vizier (wazir) was held by the commander of the Khorezm mercenary guard Al-larisiya. In the Ottoman Empire, the great, or supreme, Vezir (vezir-i azam, sadr-azam) headed the government (Porto) and the state council (Diwan); promulgated the sultan's decrees (fermana), issued decrees (irade) on behalf of the sultan, signed peace treaties; with the liquidation of the Sultanate in Turkey (1922), this position was abolished. Atabek, or atabey (a composite of two Turkic words “ata” - father and “bey”, or “bek” - leader) - a hereditary title among the Seljuks, which meant that the person who wore it was the governor of a country or province, accountable to the monarch - and often - performing the duties of a regent for a minor heir, or the heirs of the late sovereign. Sometimes atabeks married widowed mothers of the master’s sons entrusted to their care. Sometimes atabeks became independent rulers, and even entire dynasties of atabeks emerged. As an example of such an autocratic atabek, one can take Imad-ed-Din Zangi. Beylerbey (beglerbeg or beklerbek) (from Tur. Beylerbeyi, lit. bek of all begs) - a governor in the Safavid state and in the Ottoman Empire, subordinate only to the monarch (shah and sultan, respectively), combining civil and military power in his hands. He headed an administrative-territorial unit (beylerbey or beylerbey). Elected from the khans. This title and governance structure existed later, under the Afshar, Zend and Qajar dynasties, as well as in Ottoman Turkey and the Golden Horde. In the territory of Transcaucasia under the Safavids there were 4 beylerbeys - Tabriz (Azerbaijan), Chukhur-Saad (Erivan), Karabakh and Shirvan. On the territory of the Ottoman Empire there were 2 beylerbeys (eyalets) - Rumelia (European) and Anatolia (Asian). Murza is an aristocratic title in Tatar states such as the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean Khanates. After the capture of Kazan by Russian troops in 1552, some Murzas went into Russian service, and some were executed. Some Murzas lost their land holdings and became merchants. During the reign of Catherine the Great, the Murzas were given equal rights with the Russian nobility. After the October Revolution, most of the Murzas emigrated. Murza is the highest layer of the Turkic nobility. In Russia these were princes. It is known that many of the largest noble families of Russia, including princely ones, were proud of the fact that they descended from the noble Tatar families of the Golden Horde and its heirs - various Tatar khanates and principalities. Such nobles, descended from Tatar princes and princes, were called both princes and murzas. If we talk about the Kazan Khanate, then we can say the following that the princes in the Kazan Khanate comprised 4 groups - emirs, biks, murzas and foreign sovereign princes. The emirs, whose number was limited to a few individuals - one member each of the noblest families, occupied hereditary positions in Karachi. A peculiarity of the nobility among the Kazan Tatars, as well as among other Turkish peoples, was that the father's title was inherited only to the eldest son, while the younger sons did not inherit either the title or the privileges of the father. After the emirs, the biks came in order of nobility: the younger sons of the biks had the title “Murza” or “Mirza” - a word made up of the Persian “emir” (prince) and “zade” (son), i.e. son of a prince. The composition of the titled aristocracy in the Kazan Khanate was quite diverse. This included, first of all, local Bulgarian princes, representatives of the old native aristocracy, which included the famous biks Altun, Galim and Ali. Then a number of princely Crimean families joined, who came from Crimea along with Ulu Muhammad, for example, the Shirin family of emirs. Subsequently, the composition of the princes was constantly replenished and updated - the Siberian princes (Rast with his sons, Kebek, etc.), Nogai (Zenket), Kasimov (Murza Nyr-Ali Gorodetsky), Crimean (Murza Begadur, Prince Chelbak, etc.) and others joined here. etc. Such a title, Murza, was completely obsolete in a short time, because its purpose did not correspond to anything in this society. Bek, run, bik, bai, biy, bi, bey (Turkic bәy, bəy) - a noble title among some peoples of the Middle East and Central Asia, a category of the privileged population. A synonym for the Arabic “emir”, it corresponds to the titles prince, ruler, master. The title bek initially, in tribal relations among the ancient Turks, was the head of the clan and headed the clan militia as part of the general tribal army, headed by the khan. The title was first mentioned in the 14th century, when the Khan of the Golden Horde, Uzbek Khan, awarded the title “beg” to the Mongolian feudal lords, the Noyons, who converted to Islam. Later it acquired other meanings (see below), and also spread among other peoples. Title of nobility in the countries of the Near and Middle East. The Turkic peoples of Central Asia and Transcaucasia in the Middle Ages and Modern times had the title of landowner. In Turkey, from the second half of the 19th century and in Azerbaijan, a respectful form of address is used. In Tunisia in 1705-1957 hereditary ruler. In Dagestan, the bek is higher in rank than the chanka: the latter are children from an unequal marriage, when the father is a khan or bek (prince), and the mother is an uzdenka (noblewoman), or the father is an uzden (nobleman), and the mother is a biyke (princess). Often the title "bek" was added to the name as an example; Alburi-bek, Aselder-bek. In some areas of Iran, the title of tribal rulers. In the Armenian melikdoms of Karabakh, the youngest sons of meliks (princes) were called beks. In Bashkortostan, Bashkirs-patrimonial people who owned large livestock, land or capital became bays. Some bai had hereditary titles (biy, prince, murza, tarkhan, khan). The bai had preferential rights in land ownership and use and used the labor of the poorest segments of the population. The bai led tribes, clans and clan divisions, organized kurultai, yiyyns, etc. Beklyarbek was the manager of the region, the internal ulus. One of the two main administrative positions in the Golden Horde. Beklyarbek was Nogai under Khan Mengu-Timur and Mamai under Khan Berdibek. His functions included leadership of the army, foreign affairs and the supreme court. Vali is a position in the administration of Islamic countries, corresponding to the position of governor of a province or other administrative unit into which the country is divided. The position has been known since the 7th century, from the very beginning of the formation of the Islamic state apparatus. The wali were the governors of the caliphs in the newly conquered lands and were directly appointed by them. Subsequently, as central power weakened, the wali gained significant autonomy and some of them became the founders of independent Muslim dynasties. In the Late Middle Ages and Modern Times, the governors (governors) of the provinces of the Ottoman Empire were called wali, and the provinces themselves were called vilayets. In Egypt, Muhammad Ali and his successors used the title wali from 1805 to 1866 before accepting the title of Khedive. Currently, the term wali as a title for the position of provincial governor is used in a number of Islamic countries, including Afghanistan, Algeria, Morocco, Oman, Tunisia, Turkey and Turkmenistan. Inal (їnal/inäl) is an ancient Turkic title with two main interpretations of the term: “. 1. The son of a woman from the khan’s family and a commoner; a person of noble birth; high-born; 2. title, position. II. ...proper name" About the term inal, interesting reports from early medieval authors were given by S. M. Akhinzhanov: "Mahmud of Kashgar has information for the beginning of the 11th century. about the existence among the Kipchaks of a certain khan named Inal Uz. Inal is one of the Turkic titles and means heir to the throne.” Al-Khorezmi (10th century) reported the following: Yinal-tegin is the heir of Jabbuya, and every leader of the Turks - king or peasant - has a yinal, that is, an heir. The Inals occupied one of the highest levels in the socio-political hierarchy of Oguz-Turkmen society in the 10th-11th centuries. The term was actively used in the 13th century; in Otrar the governor was Inalchik (“Kadir Khan”). Inalami (Chinese a-zhe) were the rulers of the Yenisei Kyrgyz, which is confirmed by the corresponding testimony of Rashid ad-din: “The title of their sovereign, even if he had a different name, is inal.” L. Budagov provided information that among the “wild stone” Kyrgyz (that is, the Kyrgyz of the Tien Shan and Pamirs), this term “means king, khan.” Back in the 17th century, Abul-Ghazi reported that “The Kirghiz call their ruler Inal; They have this word, the same as the Mongols (kaan) and Tajiks, padshah.” Seyid, Sayyid (Arabic سيّد‎‎ - leader, lord, head) - an honorary title among Muslims for the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (among Shiites - Ali) through his daughter Fatima and grandson Hussein. The descendants of Hasan's grandson are sheriffs. In Islamic countries, Saids enjoyed special privileges: they had the right to intercede for criminals and were exempt from corporal punishment and the death penalty. Said's distinctive feature was his green turban. Saids are especially revered. Saids were the name in the Muslim world for the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad from his daughter Fatima and the fourth caliph and cousin Ali ibn Abu Talib. The Saids formed a separate group in the social hierarchy of Muslim society. In the minds of Muslims, Saids were often identified with saints (auliye). The Seyids were considered the main representatives of the religious ideas of Islam. Seyid names often begin with "Mir". For example: Mir Seyid Ali, Mir Musavvir, Mir-Ali Qashqai, Mir-Hossein Mousavi. From the first wife, that is, Fatima, Hassan and Hussein were born. But they are not twins. Imam Hassan was born on the 15th of Ramadan in the 3rd year of the Hijri in Medina. Imam Hussein was born: 3 Shaban in the 4th year of Hijri in Medina. Kadiasker, Kazasker (Turkish Kazasker - “military judge”) - the position of supreme judge in military and religious affairs, introduced in the Ottoman Empire in the middle of the 14th century. With the establishment of the position of Sheikh-ul-Islam in the 15th century, only military litigation became the responsibility of the cassaker. Kazasker was a member of the State Divan (Divan-i Humayun), where he examined court cases and complaints that came for consideration; The Casasker's decision was final. For the performance of their duties, the kazaskers held land grants (arpalyk estates) and received a salary. In 1481, two casasque positions were established in the empire. The European possessions of the Sultan were subject to the decisions of the Rumelian Casasker, and the Asian and African parts of the state were subject to the decisions of the Anatolian. The post of Kasasker of Anatolia was once occupied by Baki, the court poet of Suleiman the Magnificent. After the military-administrative reforms carried out by Sultan Mahmud II in the 1820-1830s, the position of kazasker lost its former significance, but as one of the highest Ottoman titles it existed until 1922, when Turkey was declared a republic. Kaymakam (Turkish kaymakam, Crimean catat. qaymaqam, Ottoman. قائم مقام‎ from Arabic. قائم مقام‎‎ “locum tenens, governor, deputy”) - in Turkey, Northern Cyprus and Lebanon, and earlier in the Ottoman Empire the head of the district administration ( Turkish ilçe, Ottoman kaza) - an administrative-territorial unit of the second level. Pasha (abbreviated Persian “padishah”; Turkish paşa, Ottoman پاشا‎ - paşa, from Persian پادشاه‎, dating back to the other Persian pāti-xšāya- - ruler) is a high title in the political system of the Ottoman Empire. Goes back to the title of infantry, applied to provincial governors back in the Assyrian and Old Persian empires and mentioned in the Bible. As a rule, governors or generals were called pashas. As an honorific title, "pasha" is roughly equivalent to "sir" or "mister". Only the Ottoman Sultan and (by delegation) the Khedive of Egypt could bestow the title of Pasha. Initially, the title was used exclusively for military leaders, but was later devalued and could be applied to any high-ranking official or general outsider who was awarded such an honor. Above the pashas stood the khedives and viziers, below - the beys. There were pashas of three degrees - beylerbey pasha, mirmiran pasha and mirliva pasha, which was marked by the number of horse tails (bunchug), peacock tails or yak tails; four tails were worn only by the sultan himself as the supreme military leader. Sanjak Bey, Sanjak Bey (Turkish Sancak Beyi) - the ruler of the sanjak, a military-administrative unit in the Ottoman Empire. The sanjak corresponds to the district, and the ruler of the sanjak was at the same time the head of its armed forces. The word "sanjak" literally meant "banner". This word defined the military formation that a given sanjak fielded. Accordingly, the ruler of the sanjak was also considered the commander of this military detachment. Sanjak Bey had the same rights as Beyler Bey, but was subordinate to Beyler Bey. His rights extended only within his district. The responsibilities of the sanjak bey also included chasing bandits, prosecuting heretics, and providing weapons and food for the army and navy. Bey, biy is a Turkic title and rank, military and administrative, originally coming from the common Turkic title bək - leader. In the original version, it meant the leader of a clan within a tribe, the head of which was the khan. He led the clan militia in the general tribal army. In the general hierarchy of ancient Turkic titles he came second after the khan. As usual in Turkic languages, this title has a direct parallel in terms defining family relationships - husband, spouse, head of the family. Initially the head of an independent clan, tribal and even political (state) territorial unit. In later Turkic languages ​​there was a concept of “beglerbegi”, which meant an administrative position. In large Turkic political associations - kaganates, sultanates, etc. - beg (bey) occupied a certain hierarchical position among titled administrators. In the Ottoman Empire, the descending sequence was as follows (although not at all times) - pasha, bey, aga, effendi. The title of bey as an individualized title could be worn by princes (lords) of Moldavia, Wallachia, Tunisia, the islands of Samos, etc. In modern Turkey and Azerbaijan, as well as among the Crimean Tatars, the word “beat” has acquired the meaning of a polite address to a respected person (analogous to the European addresses master, mister, monsieur, sir, sir, etc.). Among the Kumyks, Karachais, Balkars: biy is a prince; ullu-biy - senior prince. Among the steppe nomads of Central Asia, in particular among the Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Karakalpaks, as well as among the Altaians and Nogais, the word biy in the past was an addition to the name, for example Tole biy, Aiteke biy, Kazybek biy, Kokym-biy Karashorin, Sasyk-biy and so on. This addition to the name was awarded only to judges: for example, judges guided by the provisions of the codified steppe law of Zheta Zhargy (Seven Provisions). Among the Bashkirs, the word “biy” meant a person who was essentially the head of the tribe, for example, Muiten-biy, Mikey-biy. Naib (Arabic نائب‎‎ - deputy, authorized, governor) - in medieval Muslim states, the position of deputy or assistant to some boss or clergy, sometimes - the head of the local police, the foreman of a rural community. The word “naib” (Arabic: نائب‎‎) translated from Arabic means “deputy”. The word comes from “naba” (Arabic ناب‎‎ - “to take someone’s place”, “to replace someone”). Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj) is the duty of every Muslim man and woman. Sometimes it happens that a Muslim has the means to perform the Hajj but for some reason cannot do it (for example, due to poor health). Islam allows a person who is unable to perform the Hajj himself to authorize another person (naib) to perform it. The Naib should take money only to cover his daily, vital expenses. The goal of the naib should be to perform all the rituals of Hajj in place of the person who sent him, and under no circumstances should he go to Mecca for the purpose of trade and other matters. The Naib's expenses are borne by the person who sent the Naib on Hajj in his place.