10.3. Liberal and craft arts If in the Middle Ages the aesthetic merges with the artistic, then the idea of ​​the artistic itself is almost not developed in that period. In other words, the Middle Ages lacked the theory of the Fine Arts, the idea of

The first workshops appeared almost simultaneously with the cities themselves: in Italy - already in the 10th century. in France, England, Germany - from the 11th - early 12th centuries. Among the early workshops, for example, the Parisian workshop of candle makers, which arose in 1061, is known.

Most of all in the Middle Ages there were workshops involved in the production of food products: workshops of bakers, millers, brewers, butchers.

Many workshops were engaged in the production of clothing and shoes: workshops of tailors, furriers, shoemakers. Workshops associated with the processing of metals and wood also played an important role: workshops of blacksmiths, joiners, and carpenters. It is known that not only artisans united in unions; There were guilds of city doctors, notaries, jugglers, teachers, gardeners, and gravediggers.

A guild is a union of artisans of the same or related specialties in a medieval European city. Medieval cities were born and grew as centers of crafts and trade.

For a long time, there were few buyers of handicraft products. Attracting a buyer or customer was considered a great success.

Because of this, urban and rural craftsmen competed. The Union of Craftsmen could not only drive strangers away from the city market, it guaranteed high quality products - the main trump card in the fight against rivals. Common interests pushed the craftsmen to create unions called “guilds.”

Full members of the guilds were only masters who worked in their own workshops together with apprentices and apprentices who helped them. The main governing body of the workshop was the general meeting of craftsmen. It adopted the shop's charter and elected foremen, who monitored compliance with shop rules.

It is the shop regulations that allow us to learn a lot about the structure and life of the shops. The shop rules were particularly strict. They were aimed at maintaining the highest quality of products.

Another important concern of the guilds was maintaining the equality of their members. In order to prevent some craftsmen from enriching themselves at the expense of others, the workshop rules established the same conditions for all craftsmen in the production and sale of products. Each workshop established for its members the size of the workshop, the number of devices and machines placed in it, and the number of working apprentices and apprentices.

The guild regulations determined the volume of material that the master had the right to purchase for his workshop (for example, how many pieces of fabric a tailor could purchase). In some workshops, the production of which required expensive or rare imported materials, raw materials were purchased collectively and distributed equally among members of the union. Masters were forbidden to entice each other's apprentices and entice customers.

association of one or more related professions to protect their interests and ensure that members of the workshop have a monopoly on the sale and production of handicraft products. In Russia, the guild system was introduced in 1722 and abolished in 1917.

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

SHOP

associations based on the professions of artisans who were small economically independent producers in feudal cities. society. In the history science duration At that time, the term Ts. was used only in relation to Western history. and Center. Europe, where C. achieved its greatest development, as well as to the history of the Polish-Lithuanian state and post-Petrine Russia (see below - C. in Russia). However, in modern ist. science (especially in Soviet) the term "C." often distributed to mountain organizations. artisans of all feuds. countries (including countries of Asia and North Africa). Workshops in Western countries. Europe (German Zunft, Amt, Gilde, Handwerk, Zeche, Einung; French corps de metier, corporation; English Guild, Craftguild; Italian arte, corporazione) arose at the early stage of the formation of the Middle Ages. cities - in France, England, Germany in the 11th-12th centuries. (in Italy, perhaps even earlier); full development in most Western countries. They reached Europe in the 13th-14th centuries. At this time, in most cities (but not all), artisans of the main specialties united in the center (the center of blacksmiths, gunsmiths, weavers, fullers, bakers, butchers, carpenters, tanners, etc.); Moreover, membership in the Center did not automatically apply to all persons in a given specialty, but was acquired on an individual basis. In C. there was a certain social hierarchy: master, journeyman, student. The craftsmen independently ran their own business - they worked in their workshop, were the owners of tools, raw materials and manufactured goods; only the masters were full members of the C. Workers, who were hired by the master (apprentices), and the apprentices were not full members of the C. To become a master, it was necessary to serve a certain period of apprenticeship (in different cities and C. it ranged from 2-3 to 7 or more years) and work as an apprentice for some time. The apprentices were dependent on the masters and exploited by them. The emergence of trade, due to the common interests of artisans as small producers, was an expression of a characteristic characteristic of all societies. feudal structure society (and especially clearly expressed in the Western European version of feudalism) corporatism. Conquered by the inhabitants of Western Europe. cities of liberty and self-government facilitated both the unification of artisans in the C. and their activities. Basic C.'s functions are economic. In most cases, the C. fought for the establishment of the so-called. guild coercion (German: Zunftzwang), i.e. recognition of their members' monopoly right to the production and sale of this type of craft. products within the city or its surroundings, which was mainly caused by. the narrowness of the market characteristic of a feudal economy. society, limited demand for crafts. products. The C. also regulated the production and marketing of crafts. products in order to create more favorable conditions for households. activities of the members of the Central Committee and to eliminate competition in their environment. The guild regulations determined the time and working conditions of masters and apprentices, and the quality of raw materials from which crafts were to be made. products, production technology. process, quality, volume of finished products (for example, width, density, coloring, finishing of woolen fabrics), place and conditions for the purchase of raw materials and sales of finished goods, terms and conditions of apprenticeship, number of apprentices and machines that one could have in one’s workshop every master and other Ts. sought to protect artisans from exploitation by lords, merchants, and moneylenders. Despite the equalizing tendencies of workshop regulation, small-scale commodity production opened up certain opportunities for property. bundles. In large mountains. centers, especially in industries associated with the production of a large number of crafts. products for export (Florence, Ghent, Bruges), this stratification reached significant proportions already in the 13-14th centuries. Within the C. more and less wealthy masters stood out. There was also a stratification between the centers that united artisans of various specialties: some centers actually turned into organizations of entrepreneurs who distributed work to artisans from other centers (a particularly striking example is the C. Lana and Kalimala in Florence). Like other Middle Ages. corporations, the C. extended their influence to all aspects of the lives of their members: they monitored the adherence of artisans to certain rules of conduct, organized mutual assistance and joint celebrations, and acted as cells of the mountains. militias had their own “saint” patrons and performed jointly in religions. processions, etc. Each C. had its own emblem with the image of tools, a workshop seal, and a cash register. Ts. usually sought the right to decide their own internal affairs. affairs under the general supervision of the mountains. authorities (sometimes they also had their own court). The governing bodies in the C. were meetings of full members of the C., there were elected officials - elders and jurors. Often, elders were appointed by the lord of a city or other mountains. authorities, however, even in these cases, members of the Central Committee actively participated in the management of the Central Committee - they gathered at general meetings, approved shop regulations, etc. The Central Committee played a prominent role in the social struggle within the city. Protecting the interests of broad layers of artisans, Ts. led the fight against the mountains. patriciate and in a number of cities (usually where there was a highly developed craft, which was the predominant branch of the city economy), having overthrown the power of the patriciate, they seized control of the city into their own hands (Florence, Cologne, Ghent, etc.). However, the fruits of victory were usually enjoyed only by the most. rich and influential. C. The specific forms of C. - their organization, functions, etc. - were extremely diverse and changed in accordance with the characteristics of socio-economic. and political building individual countries; they also depended on economics. the character of the city (from the predominance of industry or trade in it), from the branch of industry in which the workshop arose. organization, etc. There were centers that did not have apprentices (for example, in Italy) and did not require apprenticeship (for example, certain Brussels centers). Great differences existed between the C. in the degree of their independence in relation to the mountains. authorities and to the state. In some cases, churches enjoyed broad autonomy and were governed by elected officials; in others, they were placed under the strict supervision of the state. organs or mountains authorities (as a rule, in centralized states the autonomy of the central government was narrower than in decentralized ones - for example, in France it was narrower than in Germany). There were significant differences in the prevalence of coloring in different countries or even in different districts and cities (for example, in Northern France, guild craft was more widespread and coloring reached greater development than in Southern France). C. at the initial stage of development played a progressive role. They strengthened the economy. and the legal status of artisans; Ts.'s instructions on compliance with certain rules of production technology, on the training of students, on the requirements for the qualifications of craftsmen, contributed to the development of technology and the improvement of professional skills. craftsmanship. The existence and widespread distribution of color in their most developed forms was one of the main conditions for rapid economic development. rise of Western countries Europe in the 12th-15th centuries. However, in the 16th-18th centuries, under the conditions of the genesis of capitalism, prices became a brake on the path of economics. development: supporting and protecting small crafts. production, they hindered the development of new capitalist. forms of farming. Leading role in technical and economical development moved to new forms of production - domestic capitalist. industry and manufacturing. During this period there was a decline and disintegration of the guild system. The organization of the centers and their functions changed significantly. The social line between masters and apprentices became more sharply defined. In conditions of competition with more advanced forms of industry, guild foremen sought to maintain their position by turning into a closed privileged class and made it increasingly difficult for apprentices to become members of the Central. , requiring them to pay large amounts. contributions, performing special complex works (the so-called masterpiece), etc., - a process of “closing” or “closing” the C took place. The exploitation of apprentices intensified. All this led to an intensification of the struggle between masters and apprentices, to the transformation of unions of apprentices into organizations of struggle against masters (see Companions). Journeymen and apprentices were effectively turned into hired workers, with very little chance of ever rising to the position of master. C. in means. degrees lost the rights of self-government and were subject to constant and petty control and fiscal exploitation by the state. With the establishment of developed capitalist relations, which entailed the recognition of the principle of free capitalism. entrepreneurship and competition, the guild system was destroyed even in those branches of industry where small crafts were still preserved. production In France, crafts were abolished in 1791, during the Great French Revolution; in Germany, all restrictions on the freedom of crafts. activities on the part of the central government were abolished by a number of laws throughout the 19th century. (finally in 1868). History of Western-European A huge literature is devoted to C. In the 19th - first decades of the 20th centuries. a large place in it was occupied by the problem of the origin of color. Agreeing in the recognition that the formation of color was associated with the development of the Middle Ages. cities and mountains crafts, historians disagreed about which legal institutions and organizations served as the starting point for the development of C., and therefore various theories of their origin developed: from Rome. collegiums, from associations of patrimonial artisans (a type of patrimonial theory - K.V. Nich, R. Eberstadt, etc.), the theory of the organization of C. mountains. authorities in order to control the craft (F. Keutgen), the theory is independent. the formation of the city as a result of the free association of artisans under the influence of the new needs of the mountains. life (G. Belov and others) (the latter theory has received wide recognition in modern historical science). Mn. historians and economists of the 19th century. (for example, K. Schoenberg) idealized the capitals of the first period of their development (before the 16th century), believing that at that time such phenomena as sharp property were alien to them. stratification among masters, cruel exploitation of apprentices, a spirit of crude exclusivity, manifested in the desire to make it difficult to admit new members to the Church, etc.; in their opinion, all these phenomena are revealed only at the next stage of development of the workshop. building, marking its decline (in the 16th-18th centuries). Historians of another direction, currently predominant, point out that in a milder form these phenomena (in particular, the desire to complicate the admission of new members, the requirement to complete a masterpiece, entrance fees, etc. ) were characteristic of C. already in the 13th-15th centuries, that the egalitarian tendencies of the guild statutes of this time only partially reflected the real history. reality. Organization of urban artisans in Asia and North Africa. Economical position of the mountains artisans of China, Japan, India, states in Central Asia, Iran, Arab countries, the Ottoman Empire, etc., in the Middle Ages and at the beginning of modern times were in many ways similar to economics. position of the mountains feudal artisans Europe: in most cases, they were also economically independent small producers, worked for a limited market, lived in a social reality that gave rise to corporate isolation of departments. social groups, etc. The result was the emergence in these countries of special sectoral mountain organizations. artisans. However, they have not reached the same level of development as Western Europe. Ts., did not have the same rights of self-government as the latter, and played a much smaller role in the history of their countries. About the organizations of the mountains. artisans of Asian and Northern countries. Africa, see articles by Dza, Esnaf, Khan. Lit.: Marx K., Capital, Marx K. and Engels F., Works, 2nd ed., vol. 23, 25 (parts 1-2) (see index); Kulisher I.M., History of economics. everyday life Western Europe, M.-L., 1931; Gratsiansky N.P., Parisian craft workshops in the XIII-XIV centuries, Kazan, 1911; Stoklitskaya-Tereshkovich V.V., Essays on the social history of a German city in the XIV-XV centuries, M.-L., 1936; her, The problem of the diversity of the medieval guild in the West and in Rus', in the collection: Middle Ages, v. 3, M., 1951; Rutenburg V.I., Essay on the history of early capitalism in Italy..., M.-L., 1951; Polyansky F. Ya., Essays on socio-economic. shop floor policies in Western cities. Europe XIII-XV centuries, M., 1952; Stam S.M., Economic. and social development of the early city (Toulouse XI-XIII centuries), Saratov, 1969; Svanidze A. A., Craft and artisans of medieval Sweden, M., 1967; Below G. Von, Die Motive der Zunfbildung im deutschen Mittelalter, "HZ", 1912; Lipson E., The economic history of England, v. 1, 8 ed., L., 1945; Valsecchi F., Comune e corporazion? nel medio evo italiano, Milano, 1949; Pirenne H., Les villes et les institutions urbaines. 2 ?d., t. 1-2, P., 1939; Coornaert E., Les corporations en France avant 1789, P., 1941; Martin Saint L?on E., Histoire des corporations de m?tiers. Depuis leurs origines Jusqu´b leur suppression en 1791, 4?d., P., 1941; Wernet W., Kurzgefa?te Geschichte des Handwerks in Deutschland, 5 Aufl., V. , 1969; The Cambridge economic history of Europe, v. 2-3, Camb., 1952-63 (bib.). Yu. A. Korkhov. Moscow. Workshops in Russia. The question of the existence of a guild organization of artisans in the Middle Ages. Rus' is controversial. Back in 1852, V.N. Leshkov put forward the opinion of the existence of crafts. corporations in Rus', but it did not receive support in literature at that time. In Sov. literary thesis about the corporate nature of the mountains. crafts in ancient and middle ages. Rus' was put forward by M. N. Tikhomirov and B. A. Rybakov, who pointed out the specialization of artisans, their joint settlements in settlements and hundreds, the specialization of trade in the ranks by type of product, the presence of patronal churches, corporate feasts-fraternities and certain others. indirect signs indicating the presence of some kind of organizations among artisans in the cities of Kievan Rus, Novgorod and Pskov in the 14th-15th centuries. Although “we do not have direct indications from sources of the existence in Russian cities ... of craft corporations with formalized charters,” but “the general situation for the development of urban crafts (degree of differentiation, technical equipment, participation of artisans in city self-government, fierce class struggle) allows compare the largest Russian cities of the 14th-15th centuries with the cities of Western Europe, which at this stage were characterized by the development of craft corporations" (Rybakov B.A., Craft of Ancient Rus', 1948, pp. 775-76). V.V. Stoklitskaya-Tereshkovich noted that “it is wrong to imagine the workshop organization of all countries, cities and industries according to the type of the German workshop organization, the most studied and well-known... Of great importance is... the nature of state power and structure, in particular degree of state centralization. In centralized states, the autonomy of the workshop, as a general rule, is narrower than in decentralized ones" ("The problem of the diversity of the medieval workshop in the West and in Rus'", see collection "Middle Ages", v. 3, 1951, p. 102). A. M. Sakharov, who studied the north-east. rus. cities of the 14th-15th centuries, came to the conclusion that “... some elements of guild organization must have taken place wherever feudalism reigned. Therefore, it is possible to assume the presence of these elements in Russian cities,” but at the same time.” ..in Russia in the 14th-15th centuries, in the specific historical situation of intense struggle with the Tatar-Mongol invaders and the continuous strengthening of the centralizing grand-ducal power, conditions were not created for the existence of guilds in their developed and complete forms" ("Cities of North-Eastern Rus' XIV- XV centuries", 1959, p. 143). With the formation of a unified Russian state during the 16th-17th centuries. feudal rule was strengthened. state over the city and remained for a long time. specific gravity of feud. possessions. Under these conditions, corporate organizations of artisans in the form of settlements and hundreds had an extremely limited scope of their development; gradations of skill among palace artisans were established by the state. power, and their privileged position artificially separated them from the mass of the mountains. artisans. Elements of the guild structure of crafts in the Middle Ages. Rus. state-ve were brutally regulated by the state. power and subordinated to the interests of the feud. state The serf spirit. relations penetrated deeply into the mountains. life, including influencing the organization of mountains. crafts. Comparisons of certain foreign Russian travelers craft associations with color are based on purely external similarities of certain elements of crafts. organizations and do not reflect the actual nature of these associations (P. I. Lyashchenko). In 1722, Peter I established a guild structure of crafts in Russia in order to more fully use guild organizations to satisfy state needs as compulsory service. The center accepted free people, as well as serfs released by their owners to earn money. The period of apprenticeship was set at 7 years, while holding the rank of journeyman - at least two years. Both entry into the workshop and assignment of the title of master required the completion of a certain qualifying task. In 1785, the creation of “apprentice boards” was prescribed, in which persons elected by the apprentices were elected to participate in decisions regarding matters concerning the apprentices, but in practice this had no significance. The position of apprentices and apprentices in serfdom. and capitalistic Russia was powerless. Under capitalism, the guild form of organization of crafts opened up scope for the arbitrariness of the master masters and the unlimited exploitation of journeymen and apprentices. The guild organization was abolished with the victory of Vel. Oct. socialist revolution. Lit.: Peshkov V.N., Essay on ancient Russian laws on craft and factory industry, "Moskvityanin", 1852, No. 23; Tikhomirov M. N., Old Russian cities, 2 ed., M., 1956; Lyashchenko P.I., History of the National Economy of the USSR, 3rd ed., vol. 1, M., 1952; Rybakov B. A., Craft of Ancient Rus', M., 1948; Pajitnov K. A., The problem of craft workshops in the legislation of Russian absolutism, M., 1952; Sakharov A. M., Cities of North-Eastern Rus' XIV-XV centuries, M., 1959; PSZ, vol. 6 (No. 3708), vol. 7 (No. 4624), St. Petersburg, 1830. A. M. Sakharov. Moscow.

Workshops (German singular Zunft, Zeche)

in the cities of feudal society there were organizations based on the professions of artisans, who were small economically independent producers.

C. in Western European countries. The most developed forms of organizations of urban artisans developed in the countries of Western Europe, where the population of medieval cities achieved broad rights of self-government (see City). The rights won by the townspeople facilitated both the unification of artisans in the center and the development of already established shops. Crafts appeared in France, Germany, and England in the 11th and 12th centuries. (in Italy, perhaps even earlier) and reached full development in the 13th-14th centuries. At this time, in most of the cities of Western Europe, artisans of various specialties united in the center (the center of weavers, cloth makers, cloth dyers, shoemakers, tanners, artisans who made various metal products, carpenters, bakers, butchers, etc. arose). . The formation of C. was associated with the tendency toward corporate isolation of individual social groups, characteristic of Western European feudal society. Not only artisans, but also other layers of the urban population were organized in Central Asia: retailers of various specialties, fishermen, gardeners, doctors, musicians, etc.; The merchants were also united into special corporations close to the C. (see Guilds).

Only artisans who independently ran their own farms (masters) were full members of the Cathedral. They were the owners of tools and a craft workshop, in which they worked together with workers (apprentices) and students. To become a master, it was necessary not only to have certain material resources (to open your own workshop), but also to undergo an apprenticeship (from 2-3 to 7 or even more years) and work for some time as an apprentice. Craftsmen (masters) united in the city usually sought the right to decide their own internal affairs under the general supervision of city authorities. The governing bodies in the city were meetings of masters and special officials elected by the members of the city, but often appointed (or approved after their election) by the city authorities.

The activity of the center was determined primarily by the production interests of urban artisans. The Ts. fought (not always successfully) for the establishment of the so-called. guild coercion (German: Zunftzwang), i.e., for the recognition of their members’ monopoly right to the production and sale of this type of handicraft product within the city and its surroundings. The C. also regulated the production and marketing of handicraft products in order to create favorable conditions for the economic activities of the members of the C. and to eliminate competition among them; the workshop regulations determined the time and conditions of work for masters and apprentices, the technology of the production process, requirements for the quality of finished products, the place and conditions for the purchase of raw materials and the sale of finished goods, the terms and conditions of apprenticeship, and sometimes the number of apprentices and machines that one could have in his workshop every master, etc. All these measures were due mainly to the narrowness of the market, limited demand for handicraft products associated with the predominance of subsistence farming in the economy of feudal society. Despite the leveling tendencies of guild regulation, small-scale commodity production opened up certain opportunities for property stratification. In large urban centers, especially in industries associated with the production of large quantities of handicrafts for export (Florence, Ghent, Bruges), this stratification reached significant proportions already in the 13-14th centuries. Within the C. more and less wealthy masters stood out. There was also a stratification between centers that united artisans of various specialties: some centers actually turned into organizations of entrepreneurs who distributed work to artisans from other centers.

Like other medieval corporations, churches extended their influence to all aspects of the lives of their members: they monitored the adherence of artisans to certain rules of behavior, organized mutual assistance and joint celebrations, acted as cells of the city militia, performed jointly in religious processions, etc. Each C. had its own emblem with the image of tools, a workshop seal, and a cash register.

Ts. played a prominent role in the social struggle within the city. Defending the interests of broad layers of artisans, the C. led the fight against the urban Patriarchate and in a number of cities (usually where there was a highly developed craft, which was the predominant branch of the urban economy) they seized control of the city (Florence, Cologne, Ghent, etc.). However, only the richest and most influential Cs usually enjoyed the fruits of victory.

Specific forms of C. - their organization, functions, etc. - were diverse and changed in accordance with the characteristics of the socio-economic and political system of individual countries; they also depended on the economic character of the city (on the predominance of industry or trade in it), on the branch of industry in which the guild organization arose, etc. Great differences existed in the degree of independence of the city in relation to the city authorities and the state. In some cases, central authorities enjoyed broad autonomy, in others they were placed under the strict supervision of city authorities or state authorities (in centralized states, the autonomy of centralized states was narrower than in decentralized ones; for example, in France it was narrower than in Germany).

At the initial stage of development, color played a progressive role. They strengthened the economic and legal position of artisans; Ts.'s instructions on compliance with certain rules of production technology, on apprenticeship, and on the requirements for the qualifications of craftsmen contributed to the development of craft techniques and the improvement of the professional skills of artisans. The wide distribution of color in its most developed forms was one of the main conditions for the rapid economic growth of the countries of Western Europe in the 12th–14th centuries. However, in the 16th–18th centuries, during the genesis of capitalism, capitals became a brake on the path of economic development: by supporting and protecting small craft production, they hindered the development of new capitalist forms of economy. The leading role in technical and economic development passed to new forms of production - domestic capitalist industry and manufacturing. During this period, the organization of the centers and their functions changed significantly. The social line between masters and apprentices became more sharply defined. In conditions of competition with more advanced forms of industry, craftsmen sought to maintain their position by turning into a closed privileged class and made it increasingly difficult for apprentices to become members of the workshop, increasing the size of entrance fees, imposing strict requirements on the products that the artisan had to make upon joining the workshop (so-called masterpiece), etc.; there was a process of “closing” or “closing” the C. The exploitation of apprentices intensified. All this led to an intensification of the struggle between masters and apprentices, to the transformation of unions of apprentices into organizations of struggle against masters (French: Compagnonages). Apprentices and apprentices actually became hired workers who had less and less real chance of becoming masters, while the guild masters who became rich became entrepreneurs of the early capitalist type. The towns largely lost their rights of self-government and were subject to constant and petty control and fiscal exploitation by the state and city authorities.

With the establishment of developed capitalist relations, which entailed the recognition of the principles of free capitalist enterprise and competition, the guild system was destroyed even in those industries where small-scale craft production was still preserved. In France, celibates were destroyed in 1791, during the Great French Revolution; in Germany, all restrictions on the freedom of craft activity on the part of tinkering were abolished by a number of laws throughout the 19th century.

In the countries of Asia and North Africa (such as China, Japan, India, Iran, Arab countries, the Ottoman Empire), where the economic situation of urban artisans in the Middle Ages and early modern times was in many ways similar to the economic situation of urban artisans in feudal Europe , there were also special sectoral organizations of artisans (see articles Dza, Esnaf) . However, they did not reach the level of development of Western European countries, did not have the same rights of self-government as the latter, and played a much smaller role in the history of their countries.

Lit.: Gratsiansky N.P., Parisian craft shops in the XIII-XIV centuries, Kazan, 1911: Stoklitskaya-Tereshkovich V.V., Essays on the social history of a German city in the XIV-XV centuries, M. - L., 1936; hers. The problem of the diversity of the medieval guild in the West and in Rus', in the collection: Middle Ages, c. 3, M., 1951; Rutenburg V.I., Essay on the history of early capitalism in Italy..., M. - L., 1951; Polyansky F. Ya., Essays on the socio-economic policy of workshops in the cities of Western Europe in the 13th-15th centuries, M., 1952; With there S.M., Economic and social development of the early city (Toulouse XI-XIII centuries), [Saratov], 1969. See also lit. at Art. Craft.

Yu. A. Korkhov.

C. in Russia. In various cities of Ancient Rus', as a result of the specialization of crafts, joint settlements of artisans arose in hundreds of townspeople (See Hundreds of townships) and Sloboda x , churches were built that bore the names of saints who were considered patrons of certain types of crafts. All this allows us to talk about the emergence of a guild organization in Rus'.

In 1722, Peter I established and regulated the guild organization of artisans in order to best meet the state needs for handicrafts. Free people and serfs who were released on quitrent were accepted into the Church. To enter the Center and be awarded the title of master, it was necessary to complete a certain qualifying task. The position of journeymen and apprentices in Russia in the 18th - early 20th centuries. was powerless. Under capitalism, the guild form of organization of crafts contributed to the arbitrariness of master craftsmen.

In Latvia and Estonia, flowers arose in the 13th–15th centuries. after the conquest of these territories by German feudal lords. Due to the fact that the urban population was predominantly German, transferring old guild traditions to new soil, the churches in the Baltics repeated the structure and character of the churches in Germany.

In Belarus, Ukraine, and Lithuania - in the territories that were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Churches were built on the basis of Magdeburg Law (See Magdeburg Law) , granted to the city magistrates. After joining the Russian Empire at the end of the 18th century. The guild organization of these territories underwent changes towards closer relations with Central Russia.

In Central Asia and Transcaucasia, the kingdoms differed significantly from the civilizations of Europe: slave labor was widely used, and the autonomy of the tribes was insignificant due to the intervention of feudal lords and the state. In the Seljuk states from the 11th century. there were closed groups of artisans who organized training, accepted students, and regulated work. From the 14th century The churches borrowed the structure and ritual of dervish communities and military-religious brotherhoods. A distinctive feature of the Church was the relatively free access of new members and the preservation of patriarchal relations.

The guild organization on the territory of the USSR ceased to exist after 1917.

Lit.: Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire, vol. 6 (No. 3708), vol. 7 (No. 4624), St. Petersburg, 1830; Leshkov V.N., Essay on ancient Russian laws on craft and factory industry, “Moskvityanin”, 1852, No. 23; Tikhomirov M.N., Old Russian cities, 2nd ed., M., 1956; Lyashchenko P.I., History of the National Economy of the USSR, 3rd ed., vol. 1, M., 1952; Rybakov B. A., Craft of Ancient Rus', M., 1948; Pajitnov K. A., The problem of craft workshops in the legislation of Russian absolutism, M., 1952; Sakharov A.M., Cities of North-Eastern Rus' XIV-XV centuries, 1959.