Evolutionary teaching Evolutionary teaching provides answers to questions that explain the diversity of species, the emergence of complex organisms and the development of adaptive properties in them. Evolutionary doctrine is the science of the causes, driving forces and general patterns of the historical development of living nature.

Evolutionary theories 1. Carl Linnaeus is the founder of systematization. Invented the binary nomenclature 2. Jean Baptiste Lamarck - the first evolutionary theory, the main position of which was the influence of the external environment on the formation of new species. 3. Charles Darwin - publishes the work “The Origin of Species”, in which he sets out an evolutionary theory, the main provisions of which are: Hereditary variability The struggle for existence The desire to reproduce Natural selection

Microevolution Microevolution is a change in the gene pool of a population with the formation of new species under the influence of natural selection. Species is a group of individuals that are similar externally and internally, living in a certain territory, having the ability to interbreed and having fertile offspring. A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in separate territories, between which there is a divergence in a number of genetic characteristics, as a result of which the individuals of the populations acquire noticeable differences from the original population.

The most important concepts of evolution: 1. elementary phenomena of evolution - changes occurring in a population through recombinations, mutations and natural selection, separating this population from others. 2. the elementary material of evolution is hereditary variability in individuals of a population, which leads to the emergence of both qualitative and quantitative phenotypic differences. 3. elementary factors of evolution - natural selection, mutation, population waves and isolation isolation, mutation and population waves influence the evolution of the species, and natural selection directs it.

Species criteria: 1. morphological – difference in external and internal characteristics 2. physiological-biochemical – records the dissimilarity in the chemical properties of different species 3. geographical – indicates that each species has its own habitat. 4. ecological - allows you to distinguish species according to the complex of abiotic and biotic conditions in which they were formed, adapting to life. 5. reproductive – genetic isolation of one species from others, even closely related ones.

Processes of speciation: Allopatric (geographic) speciation occurs as a result of the spatial-territorial isolation of one population or group of populations of a species. Such speciation always proceeds rather slowly. Sympatric (biological) speciation occurs within the range of the original species as a result of biological isolation. The emergence of new species during sympathetic speciation can occur in various ways (rapid change in genotype, hybridization followed by chromosome duplication, or environmental events)

Macroevolution is the formation of large systematic groups: types, classes, orders. The integrity of groups of superspecies rank is determined not by the genetic properties of the population (as in a species), but by the unity of structure and properties, emphasizing the relatedness of these groups and the general similarity in a set of characteristics. The entire process of macroevolution is carried out through elementary processes of microevolution.

The main directions of evolution: 1. Biological progress is achieved by: Arogenesis - change (complication) of the structure of the body (aromorphosis) Allogenesis - acquisition of adaptations for survival (idioadaptation or allomorphosis) 2. Biological regression is achieved by: Catagenesis - simplification of the structure of the body (degeneration)

Basic laws of biological evolution 1. Divergence - the disintegration of a class into orders for better adaptation to the environment 2. Convergence - the acquisition by animals of different systematic groups of the same characteristics for survival in similar conditions 3. Parallelism - the acquisition by animals of adaptations for survival in the environment independently of each other .

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synthetic theory of evolution
Synthetic theory of evolution (STE) –
modern evolutionary theory,
which is a synthesis of various
disciplines, primarily genetics and
Darwinism and is based on
paleontology, taxonomy,
molecular biology.
All supporters of the synthetic theory
acknowledge participation in the evolution of three
factors:
Mutational
Recombination
Selective
Generating new
gene variants
Defining
correspondence
these conditions
a habitat
Creator
new phenotypes
individuals

Origin of STE
Synthetic theory in its present form
form was formed:
as a result of transformation
Weisman's views in Morgan's
chromosomal genetics:
adaptive differences
transmitted from parents to offspring with
chromosomes in the form of new genes
Due to natural selection.

Development of STE
The impetus for the development of synthetic theory was given by
hypothesis about the recessivity of new genes. This
the hypothesis assumed that in each
reproducing group of organisms during
maturation of gametes as a result of errors in
During DNA replication, mutations occur constantly
new gene variants.

in development
contribution
Russianste
scientists
S.S. Chetverikov
I.I. Schmalhausen
N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky
G.F. Gause
N.P.Dubinin
A.L. Takhtajyan
N.K.Koltsov
F.G.Dobzhansky

Contribution of foreign scientists to the development of STE
E. Mayr
E. Baur
V. Zimmerman
J. Simpson
V. Ludwig
R. Fisher

basic
PROVISIONS
SYNTHETIC
THEORIES
EVOLUTION
1. ELEMENTARY UNIT
EVOLUTION IS CONSIDERED LOCAL
POPULATION;
2. MATERIAL FOR EVOLUTION
CONSIDERED MUTATIONAL AND
RECOMBINATIONAL VARIABILITY;
3. NATURAL SELECTION
CONSIDERED AS MAIN
REASON FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADAPTATIONS,
SPECIATION AND
ORIGIN OF SUPER-SPECIES
TAXONS;
4. GENE DRIFT AND PRINCIPLE
THE FOUNDERS ARE THE REASONS
FORMATION OF NEUTRAL
SIGNS;
5. A SPECIES IS A SYSTEM OF POPULATIONS,
REPRODUCTIVELY ISOLATED FROM
POPULATIONS OF OTHER SPECIES, AND EACH
THE SPECIES ARE ECOLOGICALLY SEPARATE;
6. SPECIATION IS IN
THE APPEARANCE OF GENETIC
ISOLATING MECHANISMS AND
IN PROGRESS
MAINLY IN CONDITIONS
GEOGRAPHIC ISOLATION.

comparative characteristics of theories
"Pure Darwinism"
(L.S. Berg)
1.All organisms
developed from one or
few primary forms.
2. Development was underway
divergent
3. Development was based on
random variations.
4.Factors of progress
serve the fight for
existence and
natural selection.
5. Process of evolution
is about education
new signs
6. Extinction of organisms
comes from external
Synthetic theory (
N.I.Vorontsov)
1. The smallest unit of evolution is a population.
2.
The main driving factor
evolution is served by natural
selection of random and small
mutations.
3.
Evolution is divergent
character.
4.
Evolution is gradual and
long lasting character.
5. Each systematic unit
must have one
root. This is a prerequisite
for the very right to
existence. Evolutionary
taxonomy builds
classification based on
kinship.

criticism of the synthetic theory of evolution
The synthetic theory of evolution is not in doubt among most
biologists. Evolution as a whole is thought to be satisfactorily explained
this theory. However, over the past two decades there has been an increase in the number
publications that note that STE is inadequate to modern
knowledge about the course of the evolutionary process.
As one of the most frequently criticized provisions of the STE, one can
lead her approach to explain secondary similarity.
1. According to neo-Darwinism, all signs of living beings are completely determined
the composition of the genotype and the nature of selection. Therefore the parallelism is explained
the fact that organisms have inherited a large number of identical genes from
his ancestor, and the origin of convergent characters entirely
attributed to the action of selection. At the same time, it is well known that the features
similarities developing in fairly distant lines are often
non-adaptive and therefore cannot be plausibly explained either
natural selection, nor common inheritance. Independent
inheritance of identical genes and their combination is obviously excluded,
since mutations and recombinations are random processes.

Evolutionary theory
C. Darwin
The mechanisms of evolution are based on three main factors:
Variability
Struggle for existence
Natural selection
Basic provisions of the theory:
1. Organisms are changeable
2. Differences between organisms are at least partially transmitted through
inheritance.
3. The endless increase in organisms on the planet as a result of their
reproduction is limited by a small amount of vital
resources, which leads to a struggle for existence in which
Not everyone survives.
4. As a result of the struggle for existence, natural
selection - those individuals that have useful properties survive
properties under given conditions.

Speciation is a qualitative stage of the evolutionary process.

education is
fair stage
olution process.
It means that
formation of species
ends
microevolution and
begins
macroevolution.

Each species is a closed
genetic system.
Representatives of different species
do not interbreed, and if they do
interbreed, then either they don’t
give offspring, or this
the offspring are infertile.
Hence,
divergent
speciation should
precede
emergence
isolated populations
within the ancestral species.

Evolution is a historical change in form,
organization and behavior of living beings in
a number of generations.
Evolution
macroevolution
microevolution

Microevolution
elementary evolutionary factors
guides
1. struggle for existence
2. natural selection
non-guide
1. genetic drift
2. waves of life
3. mutation
4. insulation
elementary structure –
a population saturated with elementary evolutionary material –
mutations
elementary evolutionary phenomena –
change in the gene pool
finetic evolution
(leads to the emergence
devices)
speciation
(formation of new populations,
species, subspecies, etc.)

The most important concepts of evolution:
1.
2.
3.
elementary phenomena of evolution - changes,
occurring in a population through recombinations, mutations
and natural selection, separating this population from
others.
the elementary material of evolution is hereditary
variability among individuals in a population that leads to
the emergence of both qualitative and quantitative
phenotypic differences.
elementary factors of evolution - natural selection,
mutations, population waves and isolation
isolation, mutation and population waves affect
evolution of the species, and natural selection directs it.

Basic rules of evolution:
1.
2.
3.
Irreversibility
Progressive
specialization
Alternation of main
directions
evolution: allogenesis
and arogenesis

Patterns of Evolution:
1. The first and main pattern is the irreversible nature of evolution:
Organisms, populations and species.
Arose during evolution
can go back to how they were before
the state of their ancestors
Evolution is an irreversible process
historical development of the organic world

2. The second pattern is general
direction (trend) of evolutionary
processProgressive complication of life forms:
Consists of continuous adaptation
living world to the ever-changing
environmental conditions. IN
transformation of species and separation of some
species from others.
Evolution is a process of unprogrammed
wildlife development

3. The third pattern of evolution: Development of fitness (adaptation)
species to habitat
adaptation
Are common
(presence of limbs
terrestrial animals)
private
(different types of limbs due to
with place and way of life)

Thus, the evolution that began at
our planet since its appearance on
her life is unpredictable and
irreversible process of development of living things
world, going unprogrammed,
occurring in conjunction with species
and environment.
Thank you for your attention

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Darwinism

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Charles Darwin's father Robert Waring Darwin Charles Darwin's mother Susanna Darwin House in Shrewsbury (England) where Charles Darwin was born

Prerequisites for the emergence of the theory of Charles Darwin Discoveries in biology the cellular structure of organisms - R. Hooke, A. Leeuwenhoek the similarity of animal embryos - K. Baer discoveries in the field of comparative anatomy and paleontology - J. Cuvier Works of the geologist Charles Lyell on the evolution of the Earth's surface under the influence of natural reasons (t, wind, precipitation, etc.) Development of capitalism, agriculture, selection Creation of animal breeds and plant varieties 1831-1836 - trip around the world on the Beagle

Voyage around the world on the ship "Beagle" 1831-1836 Darwin returns from a trip around the world a convinced supporter of the views on the variability of species

The importance of artificial selection for the creation of Darwin's theory Artificial selection is the process of creating new breeds (varieties) through systematic selection and reproduction of individuals with traits valuable to humans. From the analysis of vast material on the creation of breeds and varieties, Darwin extracted the principle of artificial selection and on its basis created his evolutionary doctrine

The creative role of artificial selection: individuals selected by humans for reproduction will pass on their characteristics to their descendants (heredity); the diversity of descendants is explained by different combinations of characteristics from their parents and mutations (hereditary (indefinite according to Darwin) variability)

The creative role of artificial selection Artificial selection leads to a change in an organ or trait of interest to a person Artificial selection leads to divergence of characters: members of a breed (variety) become more and more different from the wild species Artificial selection and hereditary variability are the main driving force in the formation of breeds and varieties

Forms of artificial selection Unconscious selection is selection in which the goal is not to create a new variety or breed. People preserve the best, in their opinion, individuals and destroy (cull) the worst (more milk-producing cows, better horses). Methodical selection is a selection carried out by a person according to a specific plan, with a specific goal - creating a breed or variety

Creation of evolutionary theory 1842 - beginning of work on the book “The Origin of Species” 1858 - A. Wallace, while traveling in the Malay Archipelago, wrote an article “On the tendency of varieties to deviate unlimitedly from the original type,” which contained theoretical principles similar to Darwin's. 1858 - Charles Darwin received his article from A.R. Wallace. Alfred Wallace (1823-1913, England) Charles Darwin (1809-1882, England)

Creation of evolutionary theory 1858 – On July 1, at a special Meeting of the Linnean Society, the concepts of Charles Darwin and A. Wallace on the emergence of species through natural selection were presented. 1859 – the first edition of the book “The Origin of Species”, 1250 copies

Darwin's concept of natural selection All creatures have a certain level of individual variability Traits from parents are inherited by offspring Each type of organism is capable of unlimited reproduction (there are 3000 seeds in a poppy pod, a female elephant brings up to 6 calves in her entire life, but the offspring of 1 pair in 750 years = 19 million individuals) Lack of vital resources leads to the struggle for existence. In the struggle for existence, the individuals most adapted to given conditions survive

Darwin's concept of natural selection The material for evolution is indefinite variability Natural selection is a consequence of the struggle for existence Forms of the struggle for existence Intraspecific (between individuals of the same species) Interspecific (between individuals of different species) Fight against unfavorable conditions (t, lack of water and food, etc. .)

Driving forces of evolution according to Darwin Hereditary variability Struggle for existence Natural selection

Natural selection is the main guiding factor of evolution Adaptation that ensures the survival and reproduction of offspring Divergence is the gradual divergence of groups of individuals according to individual characteristics and the formation of new species The result of natural selection

Comparison of artificial and natural selection Questions for comparison Artificial selection Natural selection Material for selection Diversity of descendants Diversity of descendants Who selects Human Environmental conditions Who is left Individuals with traits valuable to humans The most adapted individuals Result New varieties and breeds New adaptations, new species

Modern (synthetic)

evolution theory

Teacher Smirnova Z. M.

Modern evolutionary teaching is a synthesis of genetics, Darwinism and other sciences,

that's why it got the name “synthetic” theory of evolution (STE).

The connection between genetics and evolution was established in 1926 by the Soviet geneticist Sergei Sergeevich Chetverikov.

He showed that the first elementary evolutionary processes begin in populations.

S. S. Chetverikov

(1880 – 1959)

Modern evolutionary teaching

In STE, the principles of Charles Darwin are taken as a basis, but significantly deepened and supplemented.

If according to Darwin the process of evolution is the evolution of individuals, then according to STE:

• the basic elementary unit of evolution is the population;

• a factor that can influence the gene pool of a population - an elementary evolutionary factor .

Modern evolutionary teaching

STE studies micro- and macroevolutionary processes

Macroevolution – evolutionary process leading to formation of supraspecific taxa (genus, orders, classes and even types).

The result of macroevolution is the gradual complication and increase in the organization of living beings.

Microevolution – evolutionary processes occurring at the population level and leading to formation of new species.

Microevolutionary process is adaptive in nature .

Microevolution.

Population is an elementary unit of evolution and species

Selection begins within the population, because its individuals have different genotypes and, consequently, different characteristics and properties.

The collection of genes in a population is called the gene pool.

According to G. Hardy and V. Weinberg, in large populations, where there are no mutations, selection and mixing with other populations, constancy of allele frequencies, homo- and heterozygotes, is observed, which is expressed by the formula:

p 2 (AA) + 2pq (Aa) +q 2 (aa) = 1

Populations that satisfy these conditions are stable and do not evolve.

Speciation

(microevolution)

All facts that cause deviations from the Hardy-Weinberg law lead to a change in allele frequencies in the population, which entails an evolutionary process.

Changes in gene frequencies in a population are an elementary evolutionary phenomenon.

Elementary factors of evolution

(processes that change the genetic composition of a population):

Population waves

Mutational

process

Insulation

Genetic drift

or (genetic-automatic processes)

Recombination of genetic material

Factors supplying

material for the action of natural selection –

the main guiding factor of evolution

Mutations as a factor of evolution

Mutation process - leads to the transition of a gene from one allelic state to another (A a)

or to a change in a gene (A C), is the direct cause of a change in the frequency of a given gene in a population.

• Most mutations are recessive;
• More than 90% of mutations reduce the survival of homozygotes or lethal;
• Some mutations increase the survival rate of homozygotes or heterozygotes under certain conditions. For example, antibiotic-resistant microorganisms (hospital strains).

Mutations as a factor of evolution.

Conclusions:

• The set of alleles resulting from mutations constitutes the original elementary evolutionary material.

• In the process of speciation it is used as the basis of the action of other elementary evolutionary factors.

• The mutation process occurs constantly throughout the entire period of life.

• Gene pools of populations experience continuous

pressure of the mutation process.

Factors of evolution - population

waves (waves of life) –

are called periodic fluctuations in the number of organisms in natural populations.

A population that has sharply decreased in size is then restored at the expense of surviving individuals, and since these separately surviving individuals cannot be the custodian of the population’s gene pool, the population that has recovered in numerical composition will have a different gene pool, as a result, the appearance of the population changes.

Factors of evolution - population waves

Common squirrel ( Sciuris vulgaris ) (solid line) and the yield of spruce seeds ( Picea excelsa ) (dotted line)

1930

1935

1940

At the bottom of the population curve, a “bottleneck effect” is observed. Few individuals pass through it, and in the new population the ratio of alleles will be different.

Factors of evolution – genetic drift –

change in the frequency of genes in populations as a result of any random reasons:

• migrations;
• natural disasters;
• waves of life.

Genetic drift leads to the fact that over a long series of generations the population becomes homozygous, this is how 100% fixation of one of the gene alleles occurs and

loss of others.

Isolation as a factor of evolution

Isolation – restriction of freedom of crossing (panmixia) of organisms

Forms of insulation

Reproductive

(biological)

Geographical

(spatial)

Ecological

Genetic

Seasonal

Ethological

Morphological

Geographical (spatial) isolation

Geographical – spatial separation of populations, leading to the impossibility or difficulty of crossing between them, due to the features of the landscape within the species’ range - the presence of water barriers for “land” organisms, land areas for aquatic species.

For example, the various species of finches that inhabit the Galapagos Islands.

Galapagos

finches

Buds/fruit

Leaves

Seeds

Insects

Larvae

Uses thorn

Reproductive

(biological) isolation –

arises due to intraspecific differences organisms and has several forms:

• Ecological – associated with the habitat of populations in different biotopes ;
• Genetic – determined by the death of zygotes after fertilization, sterility of hybrids or reduced viability;
• Seasonal - reproduce at different times;
• Morphological – different structure of copulatory organs;
• Morphological – different structure of copulatory organs.

Natural selection is the main guiding factor of evolution

Elementary factors of evolution are characterized

not direction, because they introduce random changes in the ratios of allele frequencies in populations. Those. elementary factors create the material for the action of natural selection. Selection picks up randomly occurring mutations that are useful for given environmental conditions and saturates the gene pool with them, while harmful mutations are eliminated.

This is the guiding role of selection in evolution.

Natural selection is the only creative factor of evolution that directs random hereditary changes along the path of formation of adaptations (adaptations).

Speciation is the final stage of microevolution

Speciation is the process of the emergence of new species on the basis of hereditary variability under the influence of natural selection.

In the process of speciation, the transformation of genetically open intraspecific systems (populations) occurs

into genetically closed systems (new species).

Main modes of speciation

Sympatric (ecological)

Allopatric (geographic) speciation

Allopatric (geographic) Speciation is based on spatial isolation. It occurs in cases where a new species arises from populations that find themselves territorially separated.

When species meet again in the same territory, they do not interbreed.

the formation of a new species as a result of the development by a population of a new habitat within the range of a given species or as a result of the emergence of differences in lifestyle.

Mechanisms:

• Separation of ecological niches
• Separation of ecological niches (temporal, spatial);

• Genetic
• Genetic – polyploidy (instant speciation) or interspecific hybridization in plants.

Sympatric (ecological) speciation –

Sympatric speciation is related as a result of ecological (e.g. food) specialization.

It is believed that this is how five species of tits were formed: by the choice of feeding places and by the composition of the food they eat.

Blue tit

Moskovka

Great tit

Tufted tit

Gaichka

Food: Small Butterflies, seeds Large Insects; Seeds

insects; wood plants; insects; conifers;

Place End branches of trees; Branches and trunks Bark, buds Terminals

feeding: park trees; trees; branches

Sympatric speciation –

often associated with genomic and chromosomal mutations and, as a consequence, genetic isolation. For example, many plant species arose through polyploidy based on the original forms.

Haploid Diploid

Triploid Tetraploid

Teosinte plant -

descendant of the wild ancestor of corn

Cultivated corn

The nature of the evolutionary process

Parallel development – when exposed to similar conditions closely related organisms they experience independent development of similar characteristics.

Divergence – process of divergence of characteristics in related organisms observed when conditions of existence change

Convergence – development process in a similar direction unrelated groups, living in similar environmental conditions

Analogues:

different origins;

one function

Homologues:

one origin;

different functions

One origin;

one function

Related species

Unrelated species

Related species

Divergence

Charles Darwin's doctrine of divergence is based on the principle of monophyly, according to which all species belonging to the same genus are descendants of one original species and genera of the same family descended from a common trunk.

The only illustration for Charles Darwin's book On the Origin of Species... (1859): a diagram of the divergence of species.

Divergence

The most divergent forms have greater opportunities to leave offspring and survive due to less competition among themselves. Intermediate forms most often die out.

Brown

White

Panda

Grizzly

Convergence

Due to convergence, organs that perform the same function in different organisms acquire a similar structure.

For example, in the swimming fossil reptiles ichthyosaurs and in the mammals dolphins, the shape of the body and forelimbs in the process of evolution acquired a convergent resemblance to the body shape and fins of fish.

dolphin

ichthyosaur

shark

Parallelism

Through parallelism, adaptations to the aquatic lifestyle developed in various pinnipeds (walruses, eared and true seals).

The group is believed to be polyphyletic: walruses and sea lions descended from bears, and seals from mustelids.

Pinnipeds: 1 – sea hare;

2 – tevyak;

3 – common seal;

4 – ringed seal;

5 – white-bellied seal;

6 – lionfish;

7 – crested cat (male);

8 – crested cat (female);

9 – Weddell seal;

10 – crabeater seal;

11 – leopard seal;

12 – southern sea lion;

13 – sea lion;

14 – walrus; 15 – elephant seal.

Macroevolution –

an evolutionary process leading to the formation of taxa of supraspecific rank (genera, orders, classes, etc.).

It is carried out on the basis of microevolution processes.

The subject of the study of macroevolution is interspecific relations as a factor of natural selection, conditions for the emergence, paths and patterns of historical development of systematic groups at the supraspecific level (genera, families, orders, etc.).

Lobe-finned fish -

coelacanth

Main directions and paths of evolution

A.N. Severtsov and I.I. Schmalhausen developed a doctrine about the main directions of evolution - biological progress and regression and the ways of their implementation - aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration

Directions of the evolutionary process

Biological regression

Biological progress

• characterized by a decrease

level of adaptability to

living conditions, in

resulting in:

• numbers are decreasing

individuals of a species;

• its range is shrinking;
• the number decreases and

the diversity of its populations.

Biological regression leads to the extinction of a species.

• characterized by increasing

fitness of organisms

to the environment,

as a result:

• numbers are increasing

individuals of a species;

• its range is expanding;
• new populations are formed,

kinds.

Ways to achieve biological progress

Arogenesis –

characterized by the occurrence of aromorphoses - complication of the structure and functions of the body, increasing the general level of organization and expanding the habitat of this group of organisms. Aromorphoses. increasing the vital activity of organisms, they determine their relative independence from environmental conditions.

Allogenesis –

development path without increasing the overall level of the organization. associated with the appearance of idioadaptations - particular adaptations to certain environmental conditions.

Catagenesis –