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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Pskov State University
History department
Konstantin Andreevich Ton. Russian-Byzantine style
Completed:
3rd year student
Podlinev Nikita Sergeevich
Pskov 2015
Introduction
Biography
Cathedral of Christ the Savior
Grand Kremlin Palace
Armouries
Conclusion
- List of sources and literature
- Introduction
- Konstantin Andreevich Ton lived a long and generally happy creative life. A graduate of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, he himself headed it in the mid-19th century, taking the post of rector “for architecture.” To the highest levels of the architectural hierarchical ladder K.A. Thon was helped to rise by the well-deserved fame of the creator and leader of the officially recognized “Russian-Byzantine style” - a direction that was able to most fully express in the field of architecture during the period of eclecticism the ideological content of the government program, the essence of which was determined by the well-known triad - “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.”
- Contemporaries assessed the significance of K.A.’s creative activity differently. Tones. Most saw in this architect a reformer and innovator, who persistently sought ways to further develop the art of construction, which contributed to the “overthrow” of outdated classicism. Others, representing the democratic wing of Russian society, saw in the works of K.A. The tones are only the material embodiment of the reactionary policy of the regime of Nicholas I and they refused to recognize any significant artistic merit in them. architectural tone Byzantine
- Modern Russian researchers have done a lot to restore an objective, historically accurate creative portrait of the master. Several articles and books dedicated to K.A. have been published. I'm drowning. In 1994, a representative scientific conference was held in the Moscow Kremlin, dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of the architect.
Biography
Konstantin Thon was born on October 26, 1794 in St. Petersburg in the family of a Russified German jeweler.
In 1804, Konstantin was accepted as a student of the Imperial Academy of Arts. In 1815 he graduated from the academic course with the title of artist of the 1st degree and a small gold medal awarded to him for the project of the Senate building. In 1817, he decided to serve under the newly established committee to carry out construction and hydraulic work in St. Petersburg. In addition, at the same time, he developed a project for an entertainment establishment - the “German Tavern” on Krestovsky Island.
In 1818 he was sent for an internship to Italy. In Rome, he began studying monuments of ancient architecture and comparing early Christian churches with churches of modern times. There he came up with a design for a church in the form of an ancient basilica, but adapted for Orthodox worship, and gave it the appearance of Greek temples from the outside. Later in Rome, Ton became involved in the restoration of monuments of ancient architecture. The project of the Caesars' Palace in Rome on the Palatine Hill attracted the attention of Emperor Nicholas I, by whose order Tone, in 1828, was assigned to the Cabinet of His Majesty.
In the same year, Thon returned to St. Petersburg and soon received the title of academician and the position of 2nd degree professor in architecture. In the same year, Thon drew up the ultimately accepted project for the reconstruction of the Church of St. Catherine in St. Petersburg. The project gave the temple a shape reminiscent of Moscow five-domed cathedrals.
Even earlier, in 1829, the issue of the Moscow Cathedral of Christ the Savior was submitted to the Academy for consideration. This task was entrusted to Thon with the indispensable condition that the new majestic temple should have the ancient Russian style.
Simultaneously with the project of the Moscow temple, Ton drew up in the same taste a project for the church of the newly-minted miracle worker Mitrofan in Voronezh (1832) and, continuing to build the Church of St. Catherine and decorate the ancient galleries in the academy, designed the structure of the granite Neva embankment opposite the academy, with a pier decorated with the figures of two sphinxes.
In 1833, Thon was appointed a member of the committee on buildings and hydraulic works and received the title of professor from the academy. After that, he created projects for the cathedrals of St. Catherine in Tsarskoye Selo (Cathedral Square) and the Apostles Peter and Paul in Peterhof, which were erected under his leadership.
By the beginning of 1836, Ton, together with other professors of the academy, drew up a project for a monument to Dmitry Donskoy on the Kulikovo Field and began to build according to his design the Church of the Presentation of the Virgin Mary into the Temple in the building of the Semyonovsky regiment, in which the type of temples invented by Ton was most fully and clearly expressed, for a long time considered the revival of ancient Russian church architecture, bringing its forms into better harmony and grace.
Around the same time, on behalf of the government, he prepared standard designs for churches for 1000, 500 and 200 people, so that architects throughout the Empire would necessarily adhere to their forms and style.
In 1837, Nicholas I planned to build a new magnificent palace in the Moscow Kremlin, such that its space would contain “everything that in people’s memory is closely connected with the idea of the abode of the Sovereign.” The implementation of this task was entrusted to Ton, who in this case also used stylization in the style of ancient Russian buildings.
Having completed the construction of the cathedral in Tsarskoe Selo and the renovation of the Maly Theater in Moscow in 1842, Ton produced, by order of the Highest, standard drawings for peasant houses in state-owned villages.
In 1847, he began the construction of the Nikolaevskaya Railway station in St. Petersburg, entrusted to him. With the completion of the large Kremlin Palace, the Tsar entrusted his favorite architect with the reconstruction of the bell tower of Ivan the Great in the form it had before 1812. In 1850, a station on the Tsarskoye Selo Railway was built, and almost simultaneously the decoration of the Armory Chamber in Moscow was completed.
In 1853-54, in the Nikolaev Kremlin Palace, Ton built the main entrance and gallery connecting this building with the Chudov Monastery, corrected the main dome of the cathedral in the New Voskresensky Monastery, which was in danger of destruction, and made a design for a church at the Tivdia marble breaking, in the Olonets province.
The last years of activity of Ton, appointed in 1854, after the death of A.I. Melnikov, rector of the academy, were no less fruitful; he made projects for the installation of a statue of St. George the Victorious in the hall named after this saint in the large Kremlin palace, a gate with bars for the St. Nicholas almshouse in the village of Izmailovo, several churches in state-owned mining factories in Siberia and iconostases, including the main iconostasis for the Church of the Savior and, finally, the design metal spire of the cathedral bell tower of the Peter and Paul Fortress, in St. Petersburg. The last project was carried out by engineer D.I. Zhuravsky.
Cathedral of Christ the Savior
At the end of 1831, after a series of competitions, Nicholas I summoned Ton to Moscow and entrusted him with the design of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. How the project was approved, how the choice fell on Ton, has not yet been documented. Perhaps Tone's patron, vice-president of the Academy of Arts A.N., helped. Olenin.
The new cathedral was facing the Moscow River and stood on a bend in the high bank. Built near the Kremlin, the temple entered the historically established system of verticals of Moscow churches and the panorama of its front ensemble, facing the Moscow River. Along with the Kremlin and St. Basil's Cathedral, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior became one of the dominant features of the city center. The surrounding buildings gravitate towards its powerful volume. All buildings fit organically into the panorama of the banks of the Moscow River. The great advantage of the chosen location was the magnificent view of the Kremlin from the Cathedral of Christ the Savior with cathedrals, towers and the bell tower of Ivan the Great.
The Cathedral of Christ the Savior became the first church building of such great ideological significance and grandiose scale, where the author tried to summarize the national building traditions of Russia, different from classicism. The appearance of the cathedral indicated that Russian architecture was based on the Byzantine tradition, how it was transformed during the Middle Ages by Vladimir and Moscow masters. At the same time, he retained the rigor and symmetry born of “learned” academic classicism.
The Cathedral of Christ the Savior was designed by Ton on the model of the most majestic and at the same time traditional type of ancient Russian cathedral church, which dates back to Byzantine models. Five-domed, four-pillared, with a characteristic vaulted ceiling, each part of the temple covered with a vault received a direct expression on the facades in the form of a curvilinear completion. Along with this, Tone also reproduces a number of minor features of ancient architecture, which had important symbolic meaning and were associated with very specific prototypes. Such elements included, for example, the keel-shaped outlines of zakomars, characteristic of Moscow churches of the 15th - 16th centuries.
The shape of the main dome and side bell towers also goes back to ancient Russian prototypes. All of them have a bulbous shape, characteristic of Moscow churches of the 15th - 16th centuries.
The tone gave the Cathedral of Christ the Savior another feature characteristic of an ancient Russian cathedral-type church - a covered gallery encircling the main volume of the church. In ancient Russian churches it was arranged lower than the main volume, thereby giving the church a stepped silhouette and a pronounced verticality of the overall composition. In Ton's project the gallery is two-tiered. In it, Ton seemed to combine two elements of different periods, but equally widespread in ancient Russian architecture - galleries and choirs. The lower corridor was intended to describe the battles of the Patriotic War, and the upper one serves as a choir.
In plan, the temple represents an equal-ended cross. The cruciformity was not achieved by adding porticoes to the rectangular or square main volume of the temple, as in churches created in the style of classicism. Cruciformity is the inherent, original shape of the entire volume of the temple. It arose thanks to the design of risalits - the central part of each facade protruding forward. The building plan in the form of an equal-ended cross corresponds to facades that are identical in composition and appearance (they differ only in the theme of the sculptural compositions located on their surface).
The main features of the architectural appearance of the temple were determined already in 1832. However, during the long-term construction, changes were continuously made to the project, which boil down, to a large extent, to increasing the similarity with the most famous Moscow historical monuments. The first to appear in the 1840s was an arcature belt (arches supported on columns) encircling the facades at the window level. The arcature belt reproduced a characteristic, easily recognizable feature of the facades of the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, which, in turn, borrowed this element from the churches of ancient Vladimir. At the same time, the heads of the side bells are given a ribbed shape, partly reminiscent of the heads of the small pillars of St. Basil's Cathedral.
A particularly important addition was the decoration of the kokoshniks of the central chapter with shells. This element, in combination with others, likened the Cathedral of Christ the Savior to the group of main churches of the Kremlin Cathedral Square, symbolically equating the new cathedral with its historical predecessors, emphasizing its importance as a national monument, the connection of the new history of Russia with the ancient, its rootedness in the past and fidelity to traditions. Thus, in the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, everything is symbolic and aimed at expressing the idea of nationality, everything is subordinated to making the monument to the Patriotic War of 1812 a monument to Russian national history and the main temple of Russia.
But, at the same time, characteristic signs of classicism appear in the composition of the temple: a massive cubic volume, relative weight of proportions. In the features of the five-domed building - a dome on a wide drum and relatively small side domes - bells - specific prototypes are easily recognized, in particular, St. Isaac's Cathedral in St. Petersburg. If St. Isaac's Cathedral served as a symbol of the new Europeanized Peter's Russia, then the Cathedral of Christ the Savior becomes the antipode of St. Isaac's Cathedral. It symbolizes a different concept of Russian history, connected in its origins with ancient Russia and Byzantium.
The main content and compositional element of the interior of the temple becomes the under-dome space, the primacy of which was expressed not only by its central position, but also by its height, which was more than twice the height of the branches of the cross adjacent to the under-dome space. The lower part, octagonal in plan, under the dome (the octagonal shape arose due to the cut corners of four gigantic pillars, at the base of which niches were built) with the help of sails naturally “flowed” into the round shapes of the drum and dome. Initially, the project provided only for sculptural decoration, made in the style of classicism. During the process of recycling, the interior walls of the temple were decorated with narrative and ornamental paintings.
Opposite the main entrance, in the eastern branch of the cross, a unique composition iconostasis is being designed in the form of a white marble octagonal chapel topped with a bronze tent. The unusualness of the iconostasis, which had no analogues or predecessors in ancient Russian and post-Petrine architecture and remained the only one of its kind, was that it had the appearance of a tented temple, the type of which was widespread in Rus' in the 16th - first half of the 17th centuries. Thus, a kind of temple within a temple that appeared in the interior emphasized the uniqueness of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, its high significance as a unique Temple of Temples.
Grand Kremlin Palace
The new imperial palace was built on the initiative of Nicholas I in 1838-1850 on the site of the ancient grand-ducal palace of Ivan III and the palace of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, built on its foundation in the 18th century. Design and construction were carried out by a group of architects under the general direction of K.A. Tones.
The palace complex, in addition to the new building, included part of the surviving structures of the 15th-17th centuries, which were previously part of the ancient grand ducal and later royal residence. These are the Faceted Chamber, the Golden Tsarina Chamber, the Terem Palace and palace churches.
K.A. The tone to a certain extent reproduced the layout of the ancient ensemble and, in the design of the facades, developed the architectural theme of ancient buildings. The arcade of the first tier of the palace is a “variation” of the basement of the palace of Ivan III; the terrace on top of the arcade repeats the old walkways and connects the ensemble in space; the winter garden above the new passage is reminiscent of ancient hanging gardens; The carved figured frame of the second floor window openings, the profiled pilasters between them, and the central part with kokoshniks also echo the architecture of the Terem Palace.
However, the work of K.A. The tone was marked by innovation: long-span lightweight brick vaults, unique for Russian architecture, metal truss roof structures, the use of new building materials, in particular cement for figured castings, were highly appreciated by contemporaries.
With its main façade the palace faces the Kremlin embankment. The exterior decoration of the building uses motifs from the Terem Palace: the windows are made in the tradition of Russian architecture and decorated with carved frames with double arches and a weight in the middle. According to the plan of Nicholas I, the palace was to become a monument to the glory of the Russian army. So its five ceremonial halls - St. George's, Andreevsky, Alexandrovsky, Vladimir and Catherine - are named after the orders of the Russian Empire, and their design is designed in the appropriate style
The internal layout of the imperial palace, numbering about 700 rooms, includes the main vestibule with a staircase, five ceremonial order halls, reception rooms for the empress, living quarters of the imperial family, the so-called Own Half and service premises located on the ground floor. Luxurious interior decoration is made in different styles and is distinguished by elegance, subtle taste and high quality work. The palace is rightly called the museum of Russian palace interior.
In 1933-1934, the Alexander and St. Andrew's halls of the palace were rebuilt into the meeting hall of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, losing the splendor of their interiors for many years. In 1994-1998, the halls were restored by decision of the President of the Russian Federation. Currently, the Grand Kremlin Palace complex is the main residence of the President of the Russian Federation.
Armouries
The Armory Chamber - the Moscow treasury museum - is part of the Grand Kremlin Palace complex. It is located in a building built in 1851 by the architect Konstantin Ton.
The scale and architecture of the Armory Chamber building are close to the Grand Kremlin Palace. The two-story volume is placed according to the relief on a powerful base of variable height. As in the Kremlin Palace, the second floor is two-story. The decorative decoration of the facades also used details stylized in the 17th century, but devoid of fragmentation and dryness. The main decoration of the facades are carved white stone columns with lush floral patterns. However, the lethargy of the volumetric design of the new buildings and the monotony of the silhouette make the ensemble as a whole insufficiently expressive.
The layout of the Armory Chamber with symmetrically located exhibition halls and a main entrance with a staircase at the eastern end of the building is unexpected. The enfilade of exhibition spaces at the ends is closed by semicircular halls, and in the center there is a round hall protruding into the courtyard. An unconventional system of high vaulted ceilings supported by graceful columns creates the impression of lightness of structures and a feeling of spaciousness and splendor of the interiors.
Conclusion
The style invented by Konstantin Ton did not establish itself for a long time in Russian architecture and outlived its time after the death of Nicholas I. In developing this style, Ton tried not only to return to the general forms and details of ancient national Russian buildings, but also to give them greater correctness, harmony and compliance with the latest needs and artistic principles. This required, in addition to innate talent, imbued with a purely Russian spirit, an ardent love for Russian antiquity and close acquaintance with its monuments. A German by origin, Thon, for all his talent, was not able to solve the task he boldly took upon himself - to restore ancient Russian architecture in a new splendor, especially since the systematic study of his surviving works had barely begun at that time.
However, at the same time, Thon has the merit that he was the first to turn away from blind imitation of Western European models and pointed out to Russian architects the rich source of inspiration hidden in the monuments of their native antiquity. Style K.A. Tona revives the ancient, medieval Russian artistic tradition. Ton became the founder of a new era in Russian art, the author of the first programmatic structure of a new direction. In terms of the influence exerted on the course of development of Russian architecture, none of his contemporaries can compete with Ton. After the creation of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior, the construction of churches in the Russian style became widespread throughout Russia.
Thus, although Tonov’s “Russian-Byzantine” style itself did not become widespread after the death of Nicholas I, during the period of its popularity a very significant number of architectural monuments were created in this style, and the style itself became an important initial stage on the path
List of sources and literature
1. Borisova E.A. "Russian architecture of the second half of the 19th century." All-Russian Research Institute of Art Studies. - M.: Science, 1979.
2. Nefedov A. “Magnificent Tone: Dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the birth of the creator of the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow” Nar. gas. 1994
3. Pilyavsky V.I. History of Russian architecture. 1984
4. Grand Kremlin Palace
http://www.kreml.ru/ru/main/kremlin/buildings/BKD/
http://russia. rin.ru/guides/11176.html
5. Cathedral of Christ the Savior. Project K.A. Tones
http://www.xxc.ru/history/ton/cou15. htm;
http://www.patriarchia.ru/db/text/232770.html; http://www.spasi.ru/xrr/xxs. htm
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The scientific literature on Byzantium is immense. Twice a year, the most authoritative international journal of Byzantine studies, the Byzantinische Zeitschrift (literally, "Byzantine Journal") compiles an annotated bibliography of new works on Byzantine studies, and the typically 300-400 page issue contains between 2,500 and 3,000 items. It’s not easy to navigate such a flurry of publications. Moreover, this is literature in different languages: Byzantine studies (like, for example, classical philology) never became an English-language discipline, and every Byzantinist is required to read at least German, French, Italian, Modern Greek and Latin (Latin for Byzantinists is not only a language sources, but also a working tool: in accordance with tradition, it is on it that prefaces to critical publications are written to this day). At the beginning of the 20th century, this mandatory list also included the Russian language, but now Turkish is gaining an increasingly stronger position.
That is why even important books are very rarely translated. Paradoxically, even Karl Krumbacher’s programmatic book “Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur” (“History of Byzantine Literature”), which laid the foundations of scientific Byzantine studies at the end of the 19th century, has not been fully translated into any European language except Modern Greek. The situation with translations into Russian is even more deplorable - fundamental works cannot be read in it.
The list below includes one popular monograph, designed to explain what Byzantium was to a person who first asked this question, and five “classic” books that had a great influence on the development of Byzantine thought. These are either works of Russian-speaking scientists, or monographs of European researchers, available in translation (however, the quality of the translation is not always high, and if possible, it is always better to turn to the original). The list does not include important books dedicated to individual figures of Byzantine culture For example, Lyubarsky Y. N. “Mikhail Psell. Personality and creativity. On the history of Byzantine pre-humanism" (Moscow, 1978); Meyendorff I., protopres. “The Life and Works of St. Gregory Palamas: an introduction to the study” (2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 1997)., or deep research revealing some narrow layer of Byzantine culture Ousterhout R. “Byzantine Builders” (M., Kyiv, 2005); Taft R. F. “Byzantine Church Rite” (St. Petersburg, 2000)., since it would be wrong to recommend this kind of private research for the first acquaintance with Byzantium.
Judith Herrin. "Byzantium: The Amazing Life of a Medieval Empire"
Professor Judith Herrin (b. 1942) wrote her popular monograph on Byzantium - if, of course, the preface is to be believed and not considered a literary play - after being unable to answer a question from workers renovating her office at King's College London : “What is Byzantium?” (They noticed this mysterious word on the door of her office.) From a book that is unlikely to reveal anything new to a specialist, but will be useful to anyone who is asking the same question as the heroes of the preface, one should not expect a consistent presentation of Byzantine history - according to According to the author, these are just “assorted mezes” (this originally Persian word is used to describe snacks throughout the Mediterranean), designed not to satiate, but only to tease the reader’s appetite. The book is structured according to a chronological principle (from the founding of Constantinople to its fall), but its chapters are deliberately balanced - on the same level there may be, at first glance, the vast topics of “Greek Orthodoxy” or “Byzantine economy” and the very specific “Basily II the Bulgarian Slayer” and "Anna Komnena".
Herrin suggests looking at the history of Byzantium not as an endless series of emperors, generals and patriarchs with names unusual for European ears, but as the history of the people who created a civilization that in the 7th century protected Europe from the Arab threat,
and in the XIII-XV centuries laid the foundations of the European Renaissance - and yet the average modern European is completely unfamiliar and is reduced in his mind to stereotypes about deceit, obscurantism, flattery and pretense. Herrin masterfully deals with these stereotypes, inherited from Montesquieu and Edward Gibbon, at the same time defamiliarizing and bringing Byzantium closer. She describes Byzantium with elegant paradoxes (“Byzantium’s cultural influence grew in inverse proportion to its political power”), but at the same time shows how this seemingly infinitely distant civilization breaks into the world around us, sharing childhood impressions of the mosaics of Ravenna or analyzing a speech by Pope Benedict XVI in 2006, in which he referred (however, according to Herrin, not entirely correctly) to the anti-Islamic statements of Emperor Manuel II Comnenos.
Herrin J. Byzantium: The Surprising. Life of a Medieval Empire. Princeton, N.J., 2008.
Alternative: Herrin J. Byzantium. The amazing life of a medieval empire. M., 2015.
Alexander Kazhdan. "History of Byzantine Literature"
The unfinished project of Alexander Kazhdan (1922-1997), towards which he worked for many years, gradually moving from the socio-economic issues that occupied him in his youth to the history of Byzantine literary aesthetics. Work on the volumes began in 1993, and by the time Kazhdan passed away, none of them were completely ready for publication. The books were published only nine years later, and in Greece, which is why they practically did not end up in libraries and book networks.
The published volumes are only a small part of what was to be written. They cover the period of the Dark Ages (mid-VII - mid-VIII centuries), the era of the monastic revival (c. 775 - c. 850) and the time of Byzantine encyclopedism (850-1000). Kazhdan did not have time to write about either Michael Psellos or his beloved Niketas Choniates (however, the collection of his articles “Nicetas Choniates and His Time” (St. Petersburg, 2005) can serve as some compensation for this).
The title of Kazhdan's books is unlikely to attract the attention of a reader unfamiliar with the circumstances. Meanwhile, behind the simplicity of the title lies a polemic with the founder of Byzantine studies, Karl Krumbacher, and his vast and meticulous German reference book, “The History of Byzantine Literature” (in drafts and personal correspondence, Kazhdan even abbreviated his book as GBL, as if he had written it not in English, but German). The books that replaced Krumbacher's outdated compendium in the mid-20th century (for example, the works of Herbert Hunger on high secular literature or Hans Georg Beck on church writing and vernacular literature) were also more like reference books - detailed, complexly structured, but devoid of any aesthetic assessments, lists of texts with comprehensive source characteristics and a complete bibliography.
Kazhdan’s task was different - to return to the question of “the pleasure obtained from reading a Greek medieval literary text,” to try to evaluate Byzantine literature “by its own standards,” and to understand issues of literary style. That is why the form of the book is impressionistic - Kazhdan abandoned the attempt to cover the entire literary heritage of Byzantium and created a cycle of chronologically sequential literary sketches and essays, sometimes almost devoid of reference and bibliographic apparatus. At the center of each of them is a key figure of a writer for a particular era, and lesser authors, acting in the orbit of the main character or continuing the vector given by him, are mentioned only in passing.
Kazhdan’s “History of Byzantine Literature” finally established the rights of a literary rather than a source-study approach to the monuments of Byzantine literature and caused an avalanche-like growth in the number of works on Byzantine literary aesthetics.
Kazhdan A. A History of Byzantine Literature (650-850) (in collaboration with L. F. Sherry and Ch. Angelidi). Athens, 1999.Kazhdan A. A History of Byzantine Literature (850-1000). Ed. Ch. Angelidi. Athens, 2006 Alexander Kazhdan wrote his last books in English - since since 1979 he lived in the USA and worked at the Byzantine studies center Dumbarton Oaks..
Alternative: Kazhdan A.P. History of Byzantine literature (650-850). St. Petersburg, 2002.
Kazhdan A.P. History of Byzantine literature (850-1000). The era of Byzantine encyclopedism. St. Petersburg, 2012.
Igor Medvedev. "Byzantine humanism of the XIV-XV centuries"
The first edition of the book by the current head of the St. Petersburg school of Byzantine studies, Igor Medvedev (b. 1935), took place in 1976; for the second edition in 1997 it was expanded and revised. Medvedev's monograph raises the question of humanistic trends in the culture of Late Byzantium (XIV-XV centuries) and the typological similarity of these trends with the features of the Western European Renaissance.
The central figure of the book is the Neoplatonist philosopher George Gemistus Plithon, who, at the end of Byzantine history, proposed a program for the radical renewal of the empire based on the revival of pagan Olympian cults. Consigned to oblivion in Byzantium (his most scandalous book, “Laws,” was destroyed by the Patriarch of Constantinople Gennady Scholarius), Plytho, who was an unimaginable combination of a Byzantine intellectual and a neo-pagan, has always intrigued and continues to intrigue researchers (for example, last year The prestigious English publishing house Ashgate has published a new four-hundred-page book about Plithon with the subtitle “Between Hellenism and Orthodoxy”). The chapter “The Apotheosis of Plyphon” added by Medvedev in the second edition of the book bears the characteristic subtitle “New Historiographical Wave”.
According to Medvedev, in the 14th-15th centuries, a special environment was formed in the Byzantine elite, in which trends somewhat akin to the ideas of Italian humanism became widespread. The most prominent representatives of this environment (Plytho and the writer Theodore Metochites) were ready to offer Byzantium a “Hellenistic” future based on the ideology of “secular humanism” and open recognition of the unity of Greek culture from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. However, the possibility of this alternative history never became a reality, since the “Byzantine Church, “having approved the teachings of St. Gregory Palamas... decisively turned away from the Renaissance According to Medvedev, hesychasm, substantiated by Gregory Palamas - a monastic and ascetic practice that allows a person to unite with God - was “obscurantism”, and his victory did not leave any space for free discussions about faith: a system of “political persecution modeled on the Catholic Inquisition” arose, and now for “the beginnings of a new vision of the world, a new worldview born of the Renaissance era, people had to shed blood.”“ (quote from John Meyendorff John Meyendorff(1926-1992) - American church historian, researcher of hesychasm.), and in 1453 the Turkish blade finally interrupted the political existence of Byzantium." Today, when the church component of Byzantine culture overshadows all others in the mass consciousness, such a juxtaposition of the “merits” of the Church of Constantinople and the Turks, as well as the entire anti-hesychast pathos of the book, sounds especially relevant.
Medvedev I. P. Byzantine humanism XIV-XV centuries. 2nd edition, corrected and expanded. St. Petersburg, 1997.
Sergey Averintsev. "Poetics of Early Byzantine Literature"
The book by Sergei Averintsev (1937-2004) is perhaps the most popular publication with the word “Byzantine” in the title ever published in Russia. It has been reprinted many times and is included in the reading lists for students not only in specialized Byzantine departments.
The book is both easy and difficult to read. It is almost devoid of a reference and bibliographic framework and deliberately confuses the reader with riddle headings of sections that are not formally structured in any way: “Being as perfection - beauty as being,” “Agreement in disagreement,” “The world as a riddle and solution.” The book is not a sequential presentation of the stages of the literary process in the Mediterranean region and not a reference book on genres, but a collection of cultural essays written in bright, figurative language, in which the author tries to find the specifics of Byzantine culture through literary texts that are not yet formally related to the Byzantine period ( As a rule, Byzantine literature is spoken of in relation to monuments no earlier than the 6th or even 7th century).
Averintsev proposed to abandon the endless dispute about where the border between Antiquity and Byzantium lies, recognizing that the texts he discusses (authored by Nonnus of Panopolitan or Gregory the Theologian) can rightfully be attributed to both ancient and pre-(or early) Byzantine literature. According to him, we are talking only about focus - about looking forward or backward: “We were looking in these texts, first of all, not for echoes of the old, but for features of the new; We were interested not so much in the harmony of inertia, worked out over the centuries, as in the fruitful disharmony of shift... We tried to take the most fundamental literary principles in their mobile, self-contradictory, transitional state.<…>No era can be completely “equal to itself” - otherwise the next era would have no chance of ever coming.”
Another fundamental decision of Averintsev was to include in the range of sources texts that are not literature in the modern European understanding: theological treatises, sermons, liturgical poetry. These texts, familiar to many at least from church services, but thereby torn out of the Byzantine, and even more so the ancient context that gave birth to them, are revealed precisely as works of literature and find their place in the history of literary aesthetics.
Averintsev S. Poetics of early Byzantine literature. M., 1997.
Dmitry Obolensky. "Byzantine Commonwealth of Nations"
The book by Dmitry Obolensky (1918-2001) proposed the concept of the “Byzantine Commonwealth of Nations” (similar to the British Commonwealth). Obolensky postulates the possibility of “considering [Byzantium and the countries of Eastern Europe] a single international community,” a “supernational union of Christian states,” between the parts of which there are opposite lines of tension: centrifugal (the struggle of the peoples of Eastern Europe with Byzantium in the political, cultural, ecclesiastical and military level) and centripetal (gradual perception and recognition of the primacy of the Byzantine cultural tradition in Eastern Europe). The geographical boundaries of the world described on the pages of the book are moving. The focus of the researcher’s attention moves both along a time and geographical scale, since new peoples constantly fell into the orbit of influence of Byzantine culture: the “core” of the Byzantine world in the Balkans remained unchanged, but over time, some regions moved away from Byzantium (Moravia, Croatia, Hungary) and others were approaching (Rus, Moldavia, Wallachia). The series of chronologically organized essays gives way to discussions about the factors of cultural penetration of Byzantium.
According to Obolensky, the “Commonwealth,” which was fully formed by the beginning of the 11th century, had exceptional stability and existed until the fall of Byzantium. Insisting that this is “not an intellectual abstraction,” Obolensky acknowledges that the Byzantines themselves and their neighbors were not always fully aware of the nature of their relationship and were unable to conceptualize it themselves. However, the flexibility of the terminology that described these relations had its advantages, and modern attempts to “describe them in precise legal terms<…>oversimplify and distort their nature.” The author’s fundamental decision was to refuse to see in Byzantium’s relations with Eastern European countries and regions a simplified scheme of the struggle of Byzantine “imperialism” and “local national movements.”
The idea of the “Commonwealth” removed the contradiction that seemed insoluble to Obolensky’s predecessors between “the political independence of the medieval peoples of Eastern Europe” and “their recognition of the supreme power of the emperor.” Its bonds were the confession of Eastern Christianity and the recognition of the supremacy of the Church of Constantinople, the norms of Roman-Byzantine law, the supreme political power of the Byzantine emperor over the entire Orthodox world, as well as the standards of Byzantine literary and artistic aesthetics.
Obolensky D. The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500-1453. London, 1971.
Alternative: Obolensky D. Byzantine Commonwealth of Nations. Six Byzantine portraits. M., 1998.
Paul Lemerle. "First Byzantine humanism"
The classic monograph of the French Byzantine scholar Paul Lemerle (1903-1989), which became available in Russian only forty years after publication, is dedicated to the cultural transformation of Byzantium during the Macedonian Renaissance (IX-X centuries) - the time of the “first” humanism, which made it possible not to only the “second”, much more famous, humanism of the Palaiologan era, but also indirectly influenced the humanism of the Western European Renaissance. The knowledge base about the ancient culture of the Byzantines, who fled to Italy after 1453, was accumulated by scientists of the 14th-15th centuries, but they, in turn, relied on the intellectuals of the Macedonian era, who were the first to rescue the works of Plato, Aristotle, Aeschylus and Euripides from the oblivion of the dark ages.
The second half of the 9th - 10th centuries was the time of the Byzantines' new acquaintance with ancient culture and the accumulation and codification of knowledge in all spheres of life. Questioning the reasons for this cultural surge, Lemerle refuses to see in it an external (Carolingian western or Syro-Arab eastern) influence. In his interpretation, the possibility of such a revival was always inherent in Byzantine culture, which formally declared hatred of the pagan past, but in reality was careful about preserving its cultural heritage. Lemerle describes the relationship between Christianity and pagan antiquity in terms of “discontinuity and rupture.” Eastern Christianity condemned paganism, but was, paradoxically, a connecting element between eras. It turned the ancient tradition of education “into one of the weapons of its victory,” but (unlike the Western Church) did not follow the path of complete subordination of school education. According to Lemerle, the “first salvation of Hellenism” occurred already at the dawn of the Byzantine era, when large-scale copying of ancient papyri began in Constantinople by order of Emperor Constantius II.
In the center of each of the chapters of the main part of the book there is some important figure of the era - Leo the Mathematician, Patriarch Photius, Arethas of Caesarea, Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. Independent sections are devoted to the development of school education and the technical revolution that occurred thanks to the invention of minuscule - that is, writing in lowercase letters, which made it possible to significantly speed up the rewriting, and therefore the distribution of texts. Without formally claiming to be anything more than “notes et remarques,” Lemerle comes to important conclusions about the specificity of Byzantine civilization: it combines “imperial” or “baroque” Hellenism with the church’s decision to “adopt [pagan culture] , and not destroy it,” which gave rise to the typically Byzantine “duality or, if you like, ambiguity” of the entire Byzantine culture.
Lemerle P. Le premier humanisme byzantin: Notes et remarques sur enseignement et culture à Byzance des origines au X e siècle. Paris, 1971.
Alternative: Lemerle P. First Byzantine humanism. Remarks and notes on education and culture in Byzantium from the beginning to the 10th century. St. Petersburg, 2012.
Porphyrogenitus was born in 905. He was the son of Leo VI and came from the Macedonian dynasty. His figure is of particular interest to historians. The fact is that during his time on the throne, this ruler was not so much involved in politics as he devoted his time to science and the study of books. He was a writer and left behind a rich literary heritage.
Heir to the throne
The only son of Leo VI the Philosopher, Constantine Porphyrogenitus, was born from his marriage to his fourth wife. Because of this, according to Christian rules, he could not occupy the throne. Nevertheless, Leo wanted to see his son as emperor and therefore made him his co-ruler during his lifetime. With his death in 912, the younger brother of the deceased, Alexander, began to come to power. He removed the young Konstantin from managing affairs, and also deprived all of his nephew’s supporters of influence. It seemed that the new emperor had firmly taken power into his own hands. However, already in 913, Alexander, not yet old, died from a long illness.
Loss of real power
Now Constantine finally became emperor. However, he was only 8 years old. Because of this, a regency council was established, headed by Patriarch Nicholas the Mystic. has always been characterized by instability of power, which was passed from hand to hand through conspiracies and military coups. The precarious position of the regency council allowed naval commander Roman Lekapin to become head of state.
In 920 he declared himself emperor. At the same time, at first the new autocrat declared himself only as the defender of the legitimate child emperor. However, Lekapin managed to paralyze the will of Constantine without much difficulty, who was not at all interested in power and treated it as a burden.
Under Roman Lekapin
The new ruler did not belong to the previously reigning dynasty, so he decided to legitimize himself by marrying Constantine to his daughter Helen. The young man was removed from real power. He devoted his youth to science and reading books. At this time, Constantinople was one of the world centers of education. Thousands of unique tomes dedicated to various disciplines and cultures were stored here. It was they who captivated the young man for the rest of his life.
At this time, Roman Lekapin surrounded Constantine with people loyal to himself, who followed the legitimate monarch. As the real ruler increasingly usurped power, conspiracies began to emerge among the aristocracy against him. Almost every year new traitors were identified and dealt with without much ceremony. Any methods were used: intimidation, confiscation of property, tonsure as a monk and, of course, executions.
Return of the imperial title
Constantine Porphyrogenitus received his nickname in honor of the name of the hall in the imperial palace in which he was born. This epithet emphasized his legitimacy, which Father Leo VI so wanted.
For most of his life, Constantine Porphyrogenitus was content to only attend formal ceremonies. He was not trained to lead an army, so he was not interested in a military career. Instead, Konstantin was engaged in science. Thanks to his works, modern historians can form the most complete picture of the life of Byzantium in the 10th century.
In 944, the usurper Roman Lecapinus was overthrown by his own sons. Riots began in the capital. Ordinary residents did not like the chaos in power. Everyone wanted to see the legitimate heir of Constantine Porphyrogenitus at the head of the state, and not the children of the usurper. Finally, the son of Leo VI finally became emperor. He remained so until 959, when he died unexpectedly. Some historians are supporters of the theory that the ruler was poisoned by his son Roman.
Literary works of Constantine
The main book that Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus left behind was the treatise “On the Administration of the Empire.” This document was drawn up by the ruler for his predecessors. hoped that his advice on government would help future autocrats avoid conflicts within the country. The book was not intended for the general public. It was published after the fall of Byzantium, when several copies miraculously reached Europe. The title was also given by the German publisher (Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus did not give the title to the secret treatise).
In his book, the author examined in detail the life and foundations of the state. It has 53 chapters. Many of them are dedicated to the peoples who inhabited the empire or neighboring it. Foreign culture has always been an area in which Konstantin Porphyrogenitus was interested. He left unique essays about the Slavs, which are no longer found in any source of that era. It is curious that the emperor even described the visit of the Kyiv princess Olga to Constantinople. As you know, in Constantinople the Slavic ruler accepted Christian baptism when her people still professed the pagan faith.
In addition, the author examined the administrative and economic structure of Ancient Rus'. In different chapters there are descriptions of Slavic cities: Novgorod, Smolensk, Vyshgorod, Chernigov, as well as Kyiv. The emperor also paid attention to other neighboring peoples: Bulgarians, Hungarians, Arabs, Khazars, etc. The original treatise was written in Greek. The book was later translated into Latin, and after that into other European languages. This work mixes a variety of narrative genres, which were skillfully used by Konstantin Porphyrogenitus. “On the Administration of an Empire” is a unique example of medieval literature.
"About Ceremonies"
Another important book written by the emperor was the collection “On Ceremonies.” In it, the autocrat described all the rituals accepted in the Byzantine court. The collection also includes an interesting appendix on military tactics. According to Constantine, these notes were to become a teaching aid for future rulers of a huge state.
Philanthropist and educator
Constantine not only wrote books, but also patronized various authors and institutions. Having matured, he first of all began to process the huge literary corpus that Orthodox Byzantium had accumulated. These were various lives of saints kept in the libraries of monasteries. Many of them existed in a single copy, and rare books were damaged from antiquity and poor storage conditions.
In this enterprise, the emperor was assisted by the logothete and master Simeon Metaphrastus. It was in his processing that many Christian literary artifacts have reached our times. The master received money from the emperor, with which he purchased rare copies of books, and also maintained an office with a large staff of clerks, librarians, etc.
Encyclopedia of Constantine
The emperor became the inspirer and sponsor of other similar educational events. Thanks to him, an encyclopedia consisting of more than fifty volumes was published in Constantinople. This collection included knowledge from a wide variety of fields in both the humanities and the natural sciences. The main merit of the encyclopedia of the era of Constantine was the codification and organization of a huge array of disparate information.
Much knowledge was also necessary for practical purposes. For example, Konstantin financed the compilation of a collection of articles on agriculture. The knowledge contained in these documents helped for several generations to achieve the greatest harvest in the vast
This list contains a bibliography of several studies and publications of an encyclopedic nature, for example: Dashkov S.B. Emperors of Byzantium. M., 1997; Byzantine dictionary: in 2 volumes / [comp. General Ed. K.A. Filatov]. SPb.: Amphora. TID Amphora: RKhGA: Oleg Abyshko Publishing House, 2011, vol. 1, 2.; All the monarchs of the world. Ancient Greece. Ancient Rome. Byzantium. Konstantin Ryzhov. Moscow, 2001; Vasiliev A.A. History of Byzantium: In 3 volumes, 1923-1925. Separate lists from different books are not merged into one, but are given separately - for ease of use: among the portal materials, not all files with text fragments from the named publications contain the device; often only sample links are given to the bibliography. In this case, you should go to this list and select the number indicated in the text. For example, in a selection of materials about Emperor Andronikos IV, the following link is given at the end of one of the quotes: . This means that in the list below (namely, in the list from the book Dashkov S.B. Emperors of Byzantium. M., 1997) you need to select position 132 - History of Byzantium: In 3 volumes / Rep. ed. acad. S.D. Skazkin. M., 1967. And so on. Be careful: a number of books with this presentation of lists may appear twice.
Dashkov S.B. Emperors of Byzantium:
1. SOURCES
1. Monuments of Byzantine literature IV-IX centuries/Rep. ed. L.A. Freyberg. M., 1968.
2. Monuments of Byzantine literature of the 9th-14th centuries / Rep. ed. L.A. Freyberg. M., 1969.
3. Collection of documents on the socio-political history of Byzantium. / Rep. Ed. Academician E.A. Kosminsky. M., 1951.
4. Reader on the history of the Ancient World. T. 3. M., 1953.
5. Reader on the history of the Middle Ages: In 3 volumes/Ed. N.P. Gratsiansky and S.D. Skazkin. M., 1949-1953.
6. Reader on the history of the Middle Ages: In 2 volumes/Ed. acad. S.D. Skazkina. M., 1961-1963.
7. Agathius. About the reign of Justinian/Trans. M.V. Levchenko. L., 1953.
8. Alexey Makremvolit. Conversation between the rich and the poor/Trans. M.A.Polyakovskaya//VV. T. 33. 1972.
9. Anna Komnena. Alexiad/Trans., comm. Y.N. Lyubarsky. M., 1965.
10. Anonymous geographical treatise “Complete description of the Universe and peoples”/Trans., note, op. S.V.Polyakova and I.V.Felenkovskaya // V.V. T. 8. 1956.
11. Anonymous Syrian chronicle about the time of the Sassanids/Trans. N.V. Pigulevskaya//TIV. T. 7. 1939.
12. Antiochus Strateg. Captivity of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614/Prev. N.Ya.Marr//Texgs and research on Armenian-Georgian philology. Book VI, IX, 1909.
13. Asohik. General History/Trans. N. Emina. M., 1864.
14. Byzantine fable “The Tale of the Quadrupeds” (XIV century)/Trans., intro. Art. V.S. Shandrovskaya //VV. T. 9. 1956.
15. Byzantine book of Eparch/Trans., comm. ML. Syuzyumova. M., 1962.
16. Byzantine love prose/Prepared, trans. S.V.Polyakova. L., 1965.
17. Byzantine historians Dexippus, Eunapius, Olympiodorus, Malchus, Peter the Patrician, Menander, Nonnos and Theophanes the Byzantine/Trans. S.Destunia St. Petersburg, 1868.
18. Byzantine historians Dukas, Sfrandz Laonik Chalkokondil on the capture of Consgantinople by the Turks / Trans., preface. A.S. Stepanova and E.B. Veselago // VV. T. 7. 1953.
19. Byzantine legends/Trans. S.V.Polyakov. L., 1972.
20. Byzantine agricultural law/G E.E. Lipshits, I.P. Medvedeva, E.K. Piotrovskoy; edited by I.P.Medvedev. L., 1984.
21. Byzantine medical treatise XI-XIV centuries. /Trans., comm. G.G.Litavrina//VV. T. 31. 1971
22. Byzantine satirical dialogue/Prep. S.V.Polyakova and I.V.Felenkovskaya. L., 1986.
23. Geoponics. Byzantine Agricultural Encyclopedia of the 10th century/Trans., comm. E.E. Lipshits. L., 1960.
24. Georgy Gemist Plifon. Speeches on reforms./ Transl. B.T.Goryanova//VV. T. 6. 1953.
25. Georgy Gemist Plifon. About laws / Transl. I.P.Medvedev // Medvedev I.P. Mystra. Essays on the history and culture of the late Byzantine city. L., 1973.
26. George Acropolis. Chronicle of the Great Logothetos George Akropolitos/Trans. I. Troitsky // VIPDA. St. Petersburg, 1863.
27. George Acropolis. Epitaph of George Acropolis to Emperor John Duca [Vatatsu] / Prep. P.I.Zhavoronkova//VV. T. 48. 1987.
28. Georgy Amartol. Books temporary and figurative by George Mnich (Chronicle of George Amartol in the ancient Slavic-Russian translation) / Prep. V.M. Istrina. T. 1-3. Pg.-L., 1920-1930.
29. Georgy Pahimer. The story of Michael and Andronikos Palaiologos /Trans. edited by S.P.Karpova //VIPDA. St. Petersburg, 1868.
30. Two Byzantine chronicles of the 10th century. a) Psamthian Chronicle; b) John Camego The Capture of Thessalonica/Trans., comm. A.P.Kazhdana 1959.
31. Digenis Akrit. Byzantine epic poem/Trans., comm. A.Ya.Syrkina. M., 1960.
32. Digests of Justinian. Selected fragments / Trans., approx. I.S. Peretersky. M., 1984.
33. Evagrius Scholasticus. Church history // KhCh. No. 4, 1853; No. 4, 1854.
34. Geoffrey de Villardouin. Capture of Constantinople. Songs of the Trouvères. M., 1984. (New edition: Geoffroy de Villehardouin. The Conquest of Constantinople / Trans., commentary by M.A. Zaborov. M., 1993).
35. Selected lives of saints of the 3rd-9th centuries. T. 1. M., 1992.
36. Yeshu Stylite. Syrian chronicle//Pigulevskaya N.V. Mesopotamia at the turn of the V-VI centuries. TIV. T. 31. 1940.
37. Izbornik. Tales of Ancient Rus' / Comp. L.A. Dmitrieva and N.V. Ponyrko. M., 1987.
38. Ioann Kantakouzin//G.M.Prokhorov. Journalism of John Cantacuzene 1367-1371 // VV. T. 29. 1968.
39. John Kinnam. A brief history of the reign of John and Manuel Komnenov / Trans. edited by V.N. Karpova // VIPDA. St. Petersburg, 1859.
40. John Tzimiskes. Letter to the Armenian Tsar Ashot Sh/Per. Chr. Kuchuk-Ioannes//VV. T. 10. 1903.
41. John of Ephesus. Excerpts from the chronicle // Pigulevskaya N.V. Middle East, Byzantium, Slavs. L., 1976.
42. Jordan. On the origin and deeds of the Getae (Getica)/nep. E-Ch. Skrzhinskaya. M., 1960.
43. Kekavmen. Tips and stories from Kekavmen. Essay by a Byzantine commander of the 11th century/Trans., comm. G.G. Litavrina. M., 1972.
44. Konstantin Porphyrogenitus. About themes. About peoples/Trans. G.Laskina. M., 1899.
45. Konstantin Porphyrogenitus. On the management of an empire/Text, trans., comm., ed. G.G. Litavrina and A.P. Novoseltsev. M., 1991.
46. Konstantin Porphyrogenitus. About the ceremonies of the Byzantine court (excerpts) // Monuments of Byzantine literature of the IV-IX centuries / Rep. ed. L.A. Freyberg. M., 1968. S. 75-78.
47. Lastivertzi Aristakes. Narration of Vardapeg Aristgakes Lasgivertsi/Trans. K.N. Yuzbashyan. M., 1968.
48. Leo Deacon. Story. / Per. M.P. Kopylenko, M., 1988.
49. Libanius. Speeches: In 2 vols.//Trans. S. Shesgakova. M., 1914-1916.
50. Mauritius. Tactics and strategy. Captain Tsybyshev translated from Latin. St. Petersburg, 1903.
51. Mikhail Paleolog. Autobiography of Emperor Michael Palaiologos and an excerpt from the charter he gave to the monastery of St. Dmitry. / Ed. I. Troitsky. 1886 (or KhCh. 1885, No. 6).
52. Mikhail Panaret. Chronicle of Trebizond. / Prep. A. Khakhanova // Works on Oriental Studies of the Lazarevsky Institute of Oriental Studies. Languages. Vol. 23, M., 1905.
53. Mikhail Psell. Chronography / Transl. Ya.N. Lyubarsky. M., 1978.
54. Mikhail Psell. On the combination of parts of speech. Review of rhetorical ideas. Ipertima Pseila a word composed for the Vestarch Pothos, who asked to write about theological style. Comparison of Euripides with Pisis (asking who wrote poetry better, Pisis or Euripides) / Trans. T.A.Miller // Antiquity and Byzantium: Sat. articles /Ans. ed. L.A. Freyberg. M., 1975. S. 156-171.
55. Mikhail Psell. Indictment against Mikhail Kirullar // Bezobrazov P.V.. Materials for the history of the Byzantine Empire. JMNP. Part 265. 1889. pp. 23-84.
56. Maritime Law/Trans. ML.Syuzyumova//ADSV. Vol. 6. 1969.
57. Nestor Iskander. The story of Constantinople, its foundation and capture by the Turks in 1453 / Communication. Archimandrite Leonid. St. Petersburg, 1886.
58. Nikita Evgenian. The Tale of Drosilla and Charicles/Prep. F.A.Pegrovsky. M., 1969.
59. Nikita Choniates. Niketas Choniates history, beginning with the reign of John Komnenos / Trans. edited by V.I. Dolotsky (1 volume) and I.V. Cheltsov: 2 volumes//VIPDA. St. Petersburg, 1860-1862.
60. Nikita Choniates. A speech composed and read before Cyrus Theodore Laskar, who ruled over the eastern Roman cities, when the Latins owned Constantinople, and John of Mysia and the Scythians launched raids on the western Roman lands / Trans. P.I. Zhavoronkova // VO. M., 1991.
61. Nikifor. Nikephoros, Patriarch of Constantinople, "Brief History" / Trans. E.E. Lipshitsa//VV. T. 3. 1950.
62. Nikephoros Bryen [Caesar]. Historical notes of Nikephoros Bryennius/Trans. edited by V.N. Karpova//VIPDA. St. Petersburg, 1858.
63. Nikifor Grigora. Roman history of Nikephoros Gregoras, beginning with the capture of Constantinople by the Latins/Trans. M.L.Shalfeeva // VIPDA. St. Petersburg, 1862.
64. Olympiodor. Olympiodorus "History" in records and selections Photius/Pred. E.I. Skrzhinskaya // VV. T. 8. 1956.
65. Pallas of Alexandria. Epigrams/Publ. Yu.F. Shults//VV. T. 24. 1964.
66. Peter of Sicily. Useful story// Bartikyan P.M. Peter the Sicilian and his History of the Paulicians. BB. T. 18. 1961.
67. The Tale of Skanderbeg/Prep. N.N. Rozova, N.A. Chistyakova. M., 1957.
68. Priscus of Panius. Tales of Priscus of Panius/Trans. G.S. Destunis//Scientific notes II department. Imp. Academician Sci. Book VII, no. 1. St. Petersburg, 1861.
69. Continued by Feofan. Lives of the Byzantine kings / Prep. Ya.N. Lyubarsky. St. Petersburg, 1992.
70. Procopius of Caesarea. History of the wars of the Romans with the Persians, Vandals and Goths/Trans. S. and G. Destunisov // Zap. Historical and Philological Faculty of St. Petersburg. un-ta. T. 1-3. 1876-1891. (New edition: Procopius of Caesarea. War with the Persians. War with the Vandals. Secret history / Trans., art., comm. A.A. Chekalova. M., 1993.)
71. Procopius of Caesarea. War with the Goths/Trans. S.P.Kondratieva. M., 1950.
72. Procopius of Caesarea. About the buildings of Justinian/Trans. S.P.Kondratieva//VDI. No. 4(9). 1939.
73. Procopius of Caesarea. Secret history / Trans. S.P.Kondratieva//VDI. No. 4(5). 1938. (New edition: see.)
74. Ranovich A.B. Primary sources on the history of early Christianity. Ancient critics of early Christianity. M., 1990.
75. Robert deClari. Conquest of Constantinople [in 1204]/Trans., comm. M.A.Zaborova. M., 1968.
76. Sebeos. History of Emperor Irakl/Trans. K.P.Patkanova. St. Petersburg, 1862.
77. Synesius of Cyrene. About the kingdom/Trans. M.V.Levchenko // VV. T. 6. 1953.
78. Smetanin V.A. List of editions of late Byzantine letters from 1502 to 1917 AD SV. Vol. 6. 1969.
79. Sozomen Ermiy. Church history of Ermia Sozomen of Salamis. St. Petersburg, 1851.
80. Socrates the Scholastic. Church history. Saratov, 1911 (on title-1912).
81. Sfrandzi Georgy. Chronicle/Trans. and approx. E.D. Dzhagatspanyan // Caucasus and Byzantium. T. 5. 1987.
82. Feofan. Chronicle of the Byzantine Theophan from Diocletian to the kings Michael and his son Theophylact/Trans. V.I. Obolensky and F.A. Ternovsky. M., 1890.
83. Theophylact Simocatta. History/Trans. S.P.Kondratieva. M., 1957.
84. Philosgorgius. Abridged church history Philosgorgy, made by Patriarch Photius // KhCh, 1854. No. 4.
85. Chichurov M.S. Byzantine historical works: “Chronography” by Theophanes, “Breviary” by Nikephoros /Text, trans., comm. M., 1980. 1)
86. Eclogue. Byzantine legislative code of the 8th century. /Trans., comm. E.E. Lipshits. M., 1965.
87. Epigrams of Paul the Silentiary and Macedonian Consul//BB. T. 30. 1969.
88. Yahya of Antioch // Rosen V.R. Emperor Vasily the Bulgarian Slayer. Extracts from the chronicle of Yahya of Antioch//Zap. Imp. Academician Sci. T. 44, part 1. St. Petersburg, 1883.
89. NOMOZ ETPATIOTIKOS (Military Law) / Trans. V.V. Kuchma. BB. T. 32. 1971. Translations are given in abbreviated form according to Wed. s and vide.
2. LITERATURE
90. Averintsev S.S. Poetics of early Byzantine literature. M., 1977.
91. Azarevich D.I. History of Byzantine law. T. 1, part. 1, 2. Yaroslavl, 1876-1877.
92. Alekseev Yu.G. Sovereign of All Rus'. Novosibirsk, 1991.
93. Alexey (Dorodnitsyn), bishop. Chistopolsky. Byzantine church mystics of the 14th century (St. Gregory Palamas, Nicholas Kavasila and St. Gregory the Sinaite) // Orthodox interlocutor. Kazan, 1906.
94. Antiquity and Byzantium: Sat. articles/Ans. ed. L.AFreiberg. M., 1975.
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96. Bank A.V. Byzantine art in the collections of the Soviet Union: Album of reproductions. L.; M., 1966.
97. Barabanov N.D. Byzantium and Rus' at the beginning of the 14th century. Some aspects of relations between the patriarchate and the metropolitan //VO. M., 1991.
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99. Belyaev D.F. Review of the main parts of the Great Imperial Palace//Notes of the Emperor. Russian Archaeological Island. T. 5, issue. 1-2. St. Petersburg, 1891.
100. Bychkov V.V. Byzantine aesthetics. M., 1977.
101. Bychkov V.V. A short history of Byzantine aesthetics. Kyiv, 1991.
102. Bychkov V.V. The meaning of art in Byzantine culture. M., 1991.
103. Vasiliev A.A. Byzantium and the Arabs. Political relations between Byzantium and the Arabs during the Amorian dynasty // Zap. Historical and Philological Faculty of St. Petersburg. un-ta. T. 56. 1900.
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129. Zhavoronkov P.I. The composition and evolution of the highest nobility of the Nicene Empire: the elite//VO. M., 1991.
130. Zhavoronkov P.I. At the origins of the formation of the Nicene Empire (assessment of the activities of Constantine XI Laskar) // VV. T. 38. 1977.
131. Zaborov M.A. Crusaders in the East. M., 1980.
132. History of Byzantium: In 3 volumes/Ans. ed. acad. S.D. Skazkin. M., 1967.
133. History of the Middle Ages: In 2 vols.)/Ed. Z.V. Udaltsova and S.P. Karpov. T. 1. M., 1990.
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135. History of Italy/Ed. S.D. Skazkin et al. T. 1. M., 1970.
136. Kazhdan A.P. Armenians as part of the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire in the 11th - 12th centuries. Yerevan, 1975.
137. Kazhdan A.P. The riddle of the Komnenos (the experience of historiography)//VV. T. 25. 1964.
138. Kazhdan A.P. Book and writer in Byzantium. M., 1973.
139. Kazhdan A.P. Social composition of the ruling class of Byzantium in the 11th-12th centuries. M., 1974.
140. Karpov S.P. The Trebizond Empire and Western European states in the XIII-XV centuries. M., 1981.
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142. Korsunsky A.R. On the issue of the Byzantine conquests in Spain in the VI-VII centuries.//VV. T. 12. 1957.
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144. Kulakovsky Yu.A. History of Byzantium: In 3 volumes. Kyiv; St. Petersburg, 1910-1913.
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149. Kurbatov G.L. History of Byzantium. M., 1984.
150. Kurbatov G.L. Early Byzantine portraits (to the history of socio-political thought). L., 1991.
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164. Lipshits E.E. Essays on the history of Byzantine society and culture of the 8th-first half of the 9th century. L., 1961.
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167. Litavrin G.G. How the Byzantines lived. M., 1974.
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170. Likhachev N.P. Molivduls of the Greek East. M., 1991.
171. Likhachev N.P. Some of the oldest types of seals of the Byzantine emperors. M., 1911.
172. Likhachev N.P. Seals of the Patriarchs of Constantinople. M., 1899.
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213. Stasyulevich M.M. The siege and capture of Byzantium by the Turks. St. Petersburg, 1854.
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224. Udaltsova Z.V. Italy and Byzantium in the 6th century. M., 1959.
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232. Uspensky F.I. Essays on the history of Byzantine education. St. Petersburg, 1911.
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241. Ostrogorsky G. Geschichte der Byzantinischen Staates. Munchen, 1940.
3. ENCYCLOPEDIC LITERATURE
242. Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. 1968-1978.
243. Great Encyclopedia/Under the guidance. S.N. Yuzhakova. St. Petersburg, 1896-1909.
244. Encyclopedic Dictionary/Ed. F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron. St. Petersburg, 1890-1904.
245. Encyclopedic Dictionary. 7th ed. /Ed. "Granat", M., 1914-1940.
246. The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium/ Ed. A.P.Kazhdan. 1991.
247. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica. 15th edition, 1991.
4. MAIN SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL
248. Tolstoy I.I. Byzantine coins. Barnaul, 1991.
249. Alram M. et. at. Die Munzsammlung der Augustinerchorherrenstiftes Kosterneuburg. Wien, 1989.
250. Beckwith J. The art of Constantinopel. London, 1961.
251. Byzantinische Schatzkunst/ Red. J. Flemming. Berlin, 1979.
252. Grierson P. Byzantine coins. Los Angeles, 1982.
253. Sear D.R. Byzantine coins and their values. London, 1971.
254. Whitting P.D. Monnaies Byzantines. Friborg, 1973.
Notes
1) . Translations are given in abbreviated form according to Wed. with and in the form
2) . Much of what Mr. Pio says should be taken critically.
Byzantine dictionary in 2 volumes:
List of basic scientific and popular science literature on Byzantine studies (1970-2008)
SOURCES
1. Agathius of Mirinea. About the reign of Justinian. M., 1996. - 256 p.
2. Ammianus Marcellinus. Roman history. St. Petersburg, 2000. - 576 p.
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4. Byzantine historians about the fall of Constantinople in 1453 / Ed. Y. N. Lyubarsky, T. I. Sobol. St. Petersburg, 2006. - 192 p.
5. Byzantine legends / Trans. S. V. Polyakova. St. Petersburg, 2004. - 304 p.
6. Byzantine writings on Islam (translation texts and commentaries) / Ed. Yu. V. Maksimova. M., 2006. - 230 p.
7. Byzantine agricultural law / Trans. and comment. E. E. Lipshits, I. P. Medvedeva, E. K. Piotrovskaya; edited by I. P. Medvedeva. L., 1984. - 280 p.
8. Byzantine medical treatise XI-XIV centuries. / Transl., intro. Art., comment. and decree G. G. Litavrina. St. Petersburg, 1997. - 158 p.
9. Byzantine satirical dialogue / Trans. S. V. Polyakova and I. V. Felenkovskaya, article and notes. S. V. Polyakova. L., 1986. - 192 p.
10. George Acropolis. History / Transl., intro. Art., comment. and appl. P. I. Zhavoronkova; resp. ed. G. G. Litavrin. St. Petersburg, 2005. - 415 p.
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12. Evagrius Scholasticus. Church history. St. Petersburg, 2006. - 672 p.
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17. Life of our venerable father Theodore, Archimandrite of Sikeon, written by George, his disciple and abbot of the same monastery / Trans., intro. Art. and comment. D. E. Afinogenova. M., 2005. - 184 p.
18. Life of Saint Porphyry, Bishop of Gaza; Nile the monk, the story of the murder of the monks on Mount Sinai and the captivity of Theodulus, his son / Trans., comp., article by D. E. Afinogenov. M., 2002. - 144 p.
19. Lives of saints. Byzantine canon. M., 2004. - 480 p.
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22. Kekavmen. Tips and stories. Teachings of the Byzantine commander of the 11th century. St. Petersburg, 2003, -711 p.
23. Clavijo, Ruy Ganzalez de. Diary of a trip to Samarkand to the court of Timur (1403-1406). M., 1990. - 211 p.
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36. Relics in Byzantium and Ancient Rus': Written sources / Editor-compiler A. M. Lidov. M., 2006. - 440 p.
37. Robert de Clary. Conquest of Constantinople. M., 1986. - 175 p.
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40. Socrates the Scholastic. Church history. M., 1996. - 368 p.
41. Strategikon of Mauritius / Edition prepared by V.V. Kuchma. St. Petersburg, 2004. - 256 p.
42. Sulpicius Severus. Essays. M., 1999. - 319 p.
43. Tafur Pero. Wanderings and travels. M., 2006. - 296 p.
44. Theodoret of Cyrrhus. Church history. M., 1993. - 239 p.
45. Theophylact Simocatta. Story. M., 1996. - 272 p.
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47. Chichurov I. S. Byzantine historical works: “Chronography” of Theophanes, “Breviary” of Nikephoros / Texts, trans., commentary. M., 1980. - 214 p.
48. Church historians of the IV-V centuries / Transl. from lat. M. F. Vysokogo and V. A. Dorofeeva. M., 2007. - 624 p.
RESEARCH
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3. Averky (Taushev), archbishop. Seven Ecumenical Councils. M.; St. Petersburg, 1996.
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5. Antiquity and Byzantium. M., 1975. - 415 p.
6. Afinogenov D. E. “The Tale of the Forgiveness of Emperor Theophilus” and the Triumph of Orthodoxy. M., 2004. - 192 p.
7. Afinogenov D. £ Patriarchate of Constantinople and the iconoclastic crisis in Byzantium (784-847). M., 1997. - 221 p.
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14. Bolotov V.V. History of the Church during the period of the Ecumenical Councils: History of theological thought / Comp. D. V. Shatov, V. V. Shatokhin. M., 2007. - 720 p.
15. Borodin O. R. Ravenna Exarchate. Byzantines in Italy. St. Petersburg, 2001. - 474 p.
16. Brilliantov A.I. Emperor Constantine the Great and the Edict of Milan 313. About the place of death and burial of St. Maximus the Confessor. St. Petersburg, 2006. - 336 p.
17. Brilliantov A.I. On the question of the philosophy of Erigena. On the history of the Arian dispute. The origin of Monophysitism: Works on the history of the ancient Church. St. Petersburg, 2006, -384 p.
18. Brilliantov A.I. Lectures on the history of the ancient Church / Intro. Art. and scientific ed. A. Yu. Bratukhina. St. Petersburg, 2007. - 480 p.
19. Butyrsky M. N., Zaikin A. A. Gold and piety. M., 2006. - 160 p.
20. Bychkov V.V. Byzantine aesthetics: Theoretical problems. M., 1977. - 199 p.
21. Waldenberg V. E. State structure of Byzantium until the end of the 7th century / Prepared. ed. V. I. Zemskova. St. Petersburg, 2008. - 224 p.
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23. Weiss G. History of the culture of the peoples of the world. The rise of Byzantium; Arab conquests. M„ 2005. -144 p.
24. Velichko A. M. Political and legal essays on the history of the Byzantine Empire. 2nd ed., expanded. and corr. M., 2008. - 312 p.
25. Byzantine literature / Ed. S. S. Averintseva. M., 1974. - 264 p.
26. Byzantium between West and East. Experience of historical characterization. St. Petersburg, 2001, -544 p.
27. Guillou A. Byzantine civilization. Ekaterinburg, 2005. - 545 p.
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29. Grabar A. Emperor in Byzantine art. M., 2000.
30. Dashkov S. B. Emperors of Byzantium. M., 1996. - 369 p.
31. Dvorkin A. L. Essays on the history of the Ecumenical Orthodox Church. Nizhny Novgorod, 2003.
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33. Demus O. Mosaics of Byzantine churches. M., 2001. - 160 p.
34. Dil Sh. Byzantine portraits. M., 1994. - 446 p.
35. Zalesskaya V.N. Monuments of Byzantine applied art of the IV-VII centuries. Collection catalogue. St. Petersburg, 2006. - 272 p.
36. Zanemonets A.V. John Eugenicus and the Orthodox resistance to the Florentine Union. St. Petersburg, 2008. - 160 p.
37. Ivanov S. A. Byzantine missionary work. M., 2003. - 375 p.
38. History of Byzantium: In 3 vols. M„ 1967. - 524 e.", 472 e., 508 p.
39. Kazhdan A.P. Byzantine culture (X-XI centuries). 2nd ed. St. Petersburg, 2006. - 280 p.
40. Kazhdan A.P. Two days in the life of Constantinople. St. Petersburg, 2002. - 320 p.
41. Kazhdan A.P. History of Byzantine literature (650-850) / In collaboration with Lee F. Sherry and X. Angelidi; lane from English A. A. Belozerova, E. I. Vaneeva, V. G. Gertsik, O. V. Goncharova, E. N. Gordeeva, Z. E. Egorova, K. N. Yuzbashyan. St. Petersburg, 2002. -529 p.
42. Kazhdan A.P. Armenians as part of the ruling class of the Byzantine Empire in the 11th - 12th centuries. Yerevan, 1975.
43. Kazhdan A.P. Book and writer in Byzantium. M., 1973. - 152 p.
44. Kazhdan A.P. Nikita Choniates and his time / Prepared by. ed. Y. N. Lyubarsky, N. A. Belozerova, E. N. Gordeeva; preface Ya. N. Lyubarsky. St. Petersburg, 2005. - 544 p.
45. Kaplan M. Gold of Byzantium / Transl. from fr. Yu. Rosenberg. M., 2002. - 176 p.
46. Karpov S.P. History of the Trebizond Empire. St. Petersburg, 2006. - 634 p.
47. Karpov S.P. Trebizond Empire and Western European states in the XIII-XV centuries. M„ 1981.
48. Kartashev A.V. Ecumenical Councils. M., 2006. - 672 p.
49. Prince I. O. Byzantium and the nomads of the South Russian steppes. St. Petersburg, 2003. - 181 p.
50. Kolpakova G. S. The Art of Byzantium: In 2 volumes. St. Petersburg, 2004. - 524 e., 320 p.
51. Kondakov N.P. Byzantine churches and monuments of Constantinople. M., 2006, -424 p.
52. Krautheimer R. Three Christian capitals. Topography and politics. M.; St. Petersburg, 2000, - 192 p.
53. Krivoye M.V. Byzantium and the Arabs in the early Middle Ages. St. Petersburg, 2002. - 192 p.
54. Crowley R. Constantinople: The Last Siege. 1453 / Per. from English A. V. Korolenkova, I. A. Semenova. M., 2008. - 346 p.
55. Kulakovsky Yu. A. History of Byzantium: In 3 volumes. St. Petersburg, 2003-2004. - 492 e., 400 e., 352 p.
56. Culture of Byzantium (IV - first half of 7th centuries). M, 1984. - 723 p.
57. Culture of Byzantium (second half of the 7th - 12th centuries). M., 1989. - 678 p.
58. Culture of Byzantium (XIII - first half of the XV centuries). M., 1991. - 640 p.
59. Kurbatov G. L. History of Byzantium. M., 1984. - 207 p.
60. Kurbatov PL. The main problems of the internal development of the Byzantine city in the IV-VII centuries. (The end of the ancient city in Byzantium). L., 1970.
61. Kurbatov G. L. Early Byzantine portraits (On the history of socio-political thought). L., 1991. - 272 p.
62. Kuchma V.V. Military organization of the Byzantine Empire. St. Petersburg, 2001. - 426 p.
63. Lazarev V. N. History of Byzantine painting: In 2 volumes. M., 1986.
64. Lebedev A.P. Ecumenical Councils of the 4th and 5th centuries: Review of their dogmatic activity in connection with the directions of the schools of Alexandria and Antioch. 2nd ed., rev. and additional St. Petersburg, 2007. - 320 p.
65. Lebedev A.P. Ecumenical Councils of the VI, VII and VIII centuries: With applications to the “History of Ecumenical Councils”. 2nd ed., rev. and additional St. Petersburg, 2007. - 320 p.
66. Lebedev A.P. Historical sketches of the state of the Byzantine-Eastern Church from the end of the 11th to the middle of the 15th century: From the beginning of the Crusades to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. St. Petersburg, 1998. - 384 p.
67. Lebedev A.P. History of the Councils of Constantinople of the 9th century. St. Petersburg, 2001, -317 p.
68. Lebedev A.P. History of the division of Churches in the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries. 2nd ed., rev. and additional St. Petersburg, 2004, -352 p.
69. Lebedev A.P. Essays on the internal history of the Byzantine-Eastern Church in the 9th, 10th and 11th centuries: From the end of iconoclastic disputes in 842 to the beginning of the Crusades in 1096. St. Petersburg, 1998. - 308 p.
70. Lebedev A.P. Church historical narratives of publicly available content and presentation: From ancient times of the Christian Church. St. Petersburg, 2004. - 288 p.
71. Lebedeva G. E. Social structure of early Byzantine society (according to the codes of Theodosius and Justinian). L., 1980.
72. Leontius of Byzantium: Collection of studies / Ed. A. R. Fokina. M., 2006.
73. Lipshits E. E. Legislation and jurisprudence in Byzantium in the 9th-11th centuries. L., 1981. -247 p.
74. Lipshits E. E. Law and court in Byzantium in the IV - VIII centuries. L., 1976. - 231 p.
75. Litavrin G. G. Byzantine society and state in the X-XI centuries. Problems of the history of one century (976-1081). M., 1977. - 311 p.
76. Litavrin G. G. Byzantium, Bulgaria, Ancient Rus' (IX - early XII centuries). St. Petersburg, 2000. -416 p.
77. Litavrin G. G. How the Byzantines lived. St. Petersburg, 2000. - 256 p.
78. Likhacheva V. D. Art of Byzantium IV-XV centuries. 2nd ed., rev. L., 1986. - 310 p.
79. Lurie V. M. History of Byzantine philosophy. Formative period. St. Petersburg, 2006. -553 p.
80. Lyubarsky Ya. N. Byzantine historians and writers. St. Petersburg, 1999. - 382 p.
81. Medvedev I.P. Byzantine humanism XIV-XV centuries. St. Petersburg, 1997. - 342 p.
82. Medvedev I. P. Mistra. L., 1973. - 163 p.
83. Medvedev I.P. Legal culture of the Byzantine Empire. St. Petersburg, 2001. - 576 p.
84. At the crossroads of civilizations: Collection (Lemerle P. History of Byzantium; Kitsikis D. Ottoman Empire) / Trans. from fr. M., 2006. - 240 p.
85. Obolensky D. Byzantine Commonwealth of Nations. Six Byzantine portraits. M., 1998. - 655 p.
86. Osares F. The Byzantine army at the end of the 6th century (according to the “Strategikon” of the Emperor of Mauritius). St. Petersburg, 2007. - 142 p.
87. Ostrogorsky G. History of Byzantium / Transl. with him. A. Onishka. Lviv, 2002. - 608 p.
88. Ousterhout R. Byzantine builders / Transl. L. A. Belyaeva; ed. and comment. L. A. Belyaeva, G. Yu. Ivakina. Kyiv; Moscow, 2005. - 332 p.
89. Petrosyan Yu. A. Ancient city on the banks of the Bosphorus. Historical essays. M., 1986. - 240 e., ill.
90. Polyakovskaya M. A. Byzantium, Byzantines, Byzantinists. Ekaterinburg, 2003. -432 p.
91. Polyakovskaya M. A. Socio-political thought of Byzantium (40-60s of the 14th century). Sverdlovsk, 1981. - 80 p.
92. Polyakovskaya M. A. Portraits of Byzantine intellectuals. St. Petersburg, 1998. - 348 p.
93. Polyakovskaya M. A., Chekalova A. A. Byzantium: life and customs. Sverdlovsk, 1989, - 189 p.
94. Raie D. T. Byzantines. Heirs of Rome / Trans. from English E. F. Levina. M., 2003. -204 p.
95. Raie D. T. The Art of Byzantium. M., 2002. - 254 p.
96. Runciman S. Eastern schism. Byzantine theocracy. M., 1998. - 239 p.
97. Runciman S. The Fall of Constantinople in 1453 / Transl. from English, preface I. E. Petrosyan and K. N. Yuzbashyan. M„ 1983. - 200 p.
98. Rainier L. Daily life of the Desert Fathers of the 4th century / Trans. from French, intro. art., afterword, comment. A. A. Voitenko. M., 2008. - 334 p.
99. Rudakov A.P. The Legacy of Constantine. M„ 2007.
100. Rudakov A.P. Essays on Byzantine culture according to Greek hagiography. St. Petersburg, 1997. - 296 p.
101. Skabalanovich N. A. The Byzantine state and the church in the 11th century: In 2 volumes. St. Petersburg, 2004. - 448 e., 416 p.
102. Smetanin V. A. Byzantine society XIII-XV centuries. (according to epistolographic data). Sverdlovsk, 1987. - 288 p.
103. Sokolov I. I. Byzantine tradition in the St. Petersburg Theological Academy. The sorrows of the patriarchs before the basileus in Byzantium in the 9th-15th centuries. Patriarchal trial of murderers in Byzantium in the X-XV centuries. On the reasons for divorce in Byzantium in the 9th-15th centuries. / Afterword A. V. Markidonova. St. Petersburg, 2005. - 320 p.
104. Sokolov I.I. Lectures on the history of the Greek-Eastern Church: In 2 volumes. St. Petersburg, 2005. - 384 e., 352 p.
105. Sokolov I.I. About Byzantinism in church-historical terms. Election of patriarchs in Byzantium from the middle of the 9th to the beginning of the 15th century (843-1453). Ecumenical judges in Byzantium / Intro. Art. G. E. Lebedeva. St. Petersburg, 2003. - 272 p.
106. Sokolov I. I. St. Gregory Palamas, Archbishop of Thessaloniki, his works and teaching on hesychia. Nikephoros Blemmydes, Byzantine scholar and church leader of the 13th century. Church policy of the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos / Intro. Art. A. V. Markidonova. St. Petersburg, 2004. - 248 p.
107. Sokolov I.I. The state of monasticism in the Byzantine Church from the middle of the 9th to the beginning of the 13th centuries. (842-1204). Experience in church historical research. St. Petersburg, 2003. - 464 p.
108. Sokolova I. V. Seals of Byzantine emperors. Collection catalogue. St. Petersburg, 2007, -120 p.
109. Solodovnikov V. Early cathedrals. Merovingian Gaul VI - VIII centuries. M., 2004.
110. Sorochan S. B., Zubar V. M., Marchenko L. V. Life and death of Chersonese. Sevastopol, 2006. - 832 p.
111. Taft R. F. Byzantine Church Rite. Brief essay. St. Petersburg, 2005. -160 p.
112. ThierryA. Heresiarchs of the 5th century: Nestorius and Eutyches. Minsk, 2006.
113. Udaltsova 3. V. Byzantine culture. M., 1988. - 288 p.
114. Udaltsova Z. V. Ideological and political struggle in early Byzantium. M., 1974. - 352 p.
115. Udaltsova Z. V., Litavrin G G Ancient Rus' and Byzantium. M., 1980.
116. Uspensky F.I. History of the Byzantine Empire: In 5 volumes. M., 2001-2002. - 624 e., 624 e., 798 e., 496 e., 560 p.
117. Uspensky F.I. Essays on the history of Byzantine education. History of the Crusades. M., 2001. - 444 p.
118. Uspensky F.I. Essays on the history of the Trebizond Empire. M, 2003. - 319 p.
119. Florovsky G.V. Eastern Fathers of the Church. M., 2005. - 640 p.
120. Freyberg L. A., Popova T. V. Byzantine literature of the heyday (IX-V centuries). M„ 1978. - 287 p.
121. Khvostova K.V. Byzantine civilization as a historical paradigm. St. Petersburg, 2009. - 207 p.
122. Christian emperors of Rome: Collection of articles. Perm, 2005.
123. Haldon D. History of the Byzantine Wars. M., 2007. - 461 p.
124. Chekalova A. A. Constantinople in the 6th century. The Nika uprising. St. Petersburg, 1997. - 332 p.
125. Cheretaev A. A. Byzantium. Justinian's era. M., 2004. - 364 p.
126. Shabaga I. Yu. Hail, Emperor! Latin panegyrics from Diocletian to Theodosius. M„ 1997. - 114 p.
127. Cheine J.-C. History of Byzantium / Trans. from fr. V. B. Zuseva. M„ 2006. - 158 p.
128. Shikanov V.I. Byzantium - the shield of Europe (Arab-Byzantine wars of the 7th-11th centuries). St. Petersburg, 2004. - 96 p.
129. Shikanov V.N. Byzantium - eagle and lion (Bulgarian-Byzantine wars of the 7th-14th centuries). St. Petersburg, 2006. - 156 p.
130. Shikanov V.N. Byzantium - Roman Dream (Western Wars of Byzantium VI-XIV centuries). St. Petersburg, 2008. - 192 p.
131. Schmeman A., protopresbyter. The historical path of Orthodoxy. Kyiv, 2003.
132. Shuvalov P.V. The secret of Justinian’s army. St. Petersburg, 2006. - 304 p.
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Not included in the lists above:
Vasiliev A.A. History of Byzantium. Byzantium and the Crusaders. M., 1923.
Vasiliev A.A. History of Byzantium. From the beginning of the Crusades to the fall of Constantinople. M., 1989.
Byzantine civilization in the light of Russian scientists. 1884-1927. M: Ladomir, 1998, 800 pp. Transl., 70x100/16, v. 1000, ISBN 5-86218-357-4 (v. 1), 5-86218-341-8
Byzantine civilization in the light of Russian scientists. 1947-1991. M: Ladomir, 1998, 800 pp., trans., 70x 100/ 16, vol. 1000, ISBN 5-86218-358-2 (vol. 1), 5-86218-341-8
Grenberg Yu.I. Greek and South Slavic erminias and typics in the lists of the 15th-19th centuries on the technique of icon painting, wall painting and handwritten books GosNIIR, 2000, 160. Region.
Gunter of Paris. From “The History of the Conquest of Constantinople” // M.A. Fences. History of the Crusades in documents and materials. M., 1977. S. 231-236.
Dashkov S.B. Emperors of Byzantium. M., 1997
Dobiash-Rozhdestvenskaya O.A. The era of the Crusades. Pg., 1918.
Dostalova R. Byzantine historiography // Byzantine timebook. 1982. T. 43.
Zaborov M.A. History of the Crusades in documents and materials. M., 1977. S. 206 - 268.
Zaborov M.A. Papacy and the Crusades. M.. 1960.
John Kameniata. Capture of Thessalonica // Two Byzantine chronicles of the 10th century. M., 1959. S. 159-211.
History of the Crusades / Under. ed. J. Riley-Smith. M., 1998.
History of the Middle Ages: Reader / Compiled by: V.E. Stepanova, A.Ya. Shevelenko. M., 1969. Part I. P. 259.
Kazhdan V.P. Byzantine cities in the 7th-9th centuries. // Middle Ages. 1951. Issue. 21.
Kazhdan V.P. Village and city in Byzantium 9th-10th centuries. M., 1960.
Kugler B. History of the Crusades. Rostov n/d., 1998.
Kurbatov G.L., Lebedeva G.E. Byzantium: the problem of the transition from antiquity to feudalism. L., 1984.
Kurbatov G.L., Lebedeva G.E. The city and state of Byzantium in the era of transition from antiquity to feudalism // City and state in ancient societies. L., 1982.
Le Goff J. Civilization of the medieval West. M., 1992.
Luchitskaya S.I. The image of the “other”: Muslims in the chronicles of the Crusades. St. Petersburg, 2001.
Pigulevskaya N.V. Byzantium and Iran at the turn of the 6th - 7th centuries. M.;L., 1946.
The story of the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204 // Izbornik. Tales of Ancient Rus'. M., 1986.
Wright J. K. Geographical ideas in the era of the Crusades. M., 1988.
Collection of documents on the socio-economic history of Byzantium. M., 1951. S. 127-218.
Medieval Europe through the eyes of contemporaries and historians / Under. ed. A.L. Yastrebitskaya. M., 1995. Part II. pp. 296-308.
Udaltsova Z.V. On the question of the genesis of feudalism in Byzantium // Byzantine essays. M., 1971. P. 3-25.
Udaltsova Z.V., Osipova K.A. Distinctive features of feudal relations in Byzantium // Byzantine temporary journal. 1974. T. 36. P. 3-30.
Udaltsova Z.V., Osipova K.A. Formation of the feudal-dependent peasantry in Byzantium // History of the peasantry in Europe. The era of feudalism. M., 1985. T. 1.
Uspensky F.I. History of the Crusades. St. Petersburg, 2001.
The Walk of Abbot Daniel // Book of Walks. M., 1993.
