1. Who carried out reforms in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century?
2. What is the name of the city that became the capital of Russia in the era of Peter I?
Saint Petersburg.
3. In which city was the first university in Russia established in the 18th century?
The first university was established in Moscow.
4. Which Russian scientist played a major role in the creation of the first university in Russia?
Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich
5. When and under what Russian empress did the Crimean Peninsula become part of Russia?
On April 8, 1783, Catherine II signed a manifesto "On the annexation of the Crimean Peninsula, Taman Island and the entire Kuban side under the Russian state"
6. Who was A.V. Suvorov?
Count, then Prince Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov - the great Russian commander, military theorist, national hero of Russia.
7. What monument is the symbol of the city of St. Petersburg?
Bronze Horseman monument to Peter I.
8. In which city is the largest museum in Russia - the Hermitage?
The Hermitage Museum is located in St. Petersburg.
Topic 4. Russia in the 19th century
1. When was the Patriotic War?
The Patriotic War was in 1812.
2. What is the name of the largest battle of the Patriotic War?
Battle of Borodino.
3. Who won the Patriotic War?
Russian victory; almost complete destruction of Napoleon's army.
4. Who was the commander-in-chief of the Russian army during the war years?
Kutuzov M.I.
5. Who are the Decembrists?
Russian revolutionaries who raised an uprising in December 1825 against the autocracy and serfdom.
6. When was serfdom abolished in Russia?
The abolition of serfdom took place in 1861.
7. Under what Russian emperor was serfdom abolished?
under Alexander II.
8. When did Central Asia join Russia?
In 1880.
9. Who was A.S. Pushkin?
A.S. Pushkin is a Russian poet, playwright and prose writer.
10. Which Russian scientist discovered the periodic law of chemical elements in the second half of the 19th century?
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev.
11. Who was Leo Tolstoy?
Russian writer and thinker, revered as one of the world's greatest writers. Member of the defense of Sevastopol.
12. Who was P.I. Tchaikovsky?
Russian composer, conductor, teacher, musical and public figure, music journalist.
13. Who was F.M. Dostoevsky?
Great Russian writer, thinker, philosopher and publicist. Dostoevsky is a classic of Russian literature and one of the world's best novelists.
Topic 5. The Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century
1. What major religions were represented in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century?
The main religions represented in Russia are Christianity (mainly Orthodoxy, but also Catholics and Protestants), as well as Islam and Buddhism.
2. Representatives of what religion made up the majority of the population of the Russian Empire?
The predominant religion of the Russian Empire was Orthodoxy.
3. When did the First Russian Revolution take place?
In 1905.
4. What was the main result of the First Russian Revolution?
New state bodies were formed - the beginning of the development of parliamentarism; some limitation of autocracy; democratic freedoms were introduced, censorship was abolished, trade unions and legal political parties were allowed; the bourgeoisie got the opportunity to participate in the political life of the country; the situation of workers has improved, wages have been raised, the working day has decreased to 9-10 hours; redemption payments of peasants were canceled, their freedom of movement was expanded; limited the power of zemstvo chiefs.
5. Who was the leader of the Bolshevik Party?
Lenin Vladimir Ilyich.
6. When was World War I?
7. Who was A.P. Chekhov?
A.P. Chekhov is a Russian writer, a universally recognized classic of world literature. Doctor by profession. Honorary Academician of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in the category of fine literature. One of the most famous playwrights in the world.
8. What was the name of the Russian scientist and inventor of radio?
Popov Alexander Stepanovich.
9. What is the name of the theater in Moscow, famous all over the world for its performances of opera and ballet?
The unification of Rus' is a process of political unification of disparate Russian lands into a single state.
Prerequisites for the unification of Kievan Rus
The beginning of the unification of Rus' dates back to the 13th century. Until that moment, Kievan Rus was not a single state, but consisted of disparate principalities that were subordinate to Kyiv, but still largely remained independent territories. Moreover, smaller destinies and territories arose in the principalities, which also lived an autonomous life. The principalities were constantly at war with each other and with Kiev for the right to independence and independence, and the princes killed each other, wanting to claim the throne of Kiev. All this weakened Rus', both politically and economically. As a result of constant civil strife and enmity, Rus' could not gather a single strong army in order to resist the nomadic raids and overthrow the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Against this background, the power of Kyiv was weakening and a need arose for the emergence of a new center.
Reasons for the unification of Russian lands around Moscow
After the weakening of the power of Kyiv and constant internecine wars, Rus' desperately needed to be united. Only an integral state could resist the invaders and finally throw off the Tatar-Mongol yoke. A feature of the unification of Rus' was that there was no one clear center of power, political forces were scattered throughout the territory of Rus'.
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were several cities that could become the new capital. The centers of the unification of Rus' could be Moscow, Tver and Pereyaslavl. It was these cities that had all the necessary qualities for the new capital:
- They had a favorable geographical position and were removed from the borders on which the invaders ruled;
- They had the opportunity to actively engage in trade due to the intersection of several trade routes;
- The princes ruling in the cities belonged to the Vladimir princely dynasty, which had great power.
In general, all three cities had approximately equal chances, however, the skillful rule of the Moscow princes led to the fact that it was Moscow that seized power and gradually began to strengthen its political influence. As a result, it was around the Moscow principality that a new centralized state began to form.
The main stages of the unification of Rus'
In the second half of the 13th century, the state was in a state of strong fragmentation, new autonomous territories were constantly separated. The Tatar-Mongol yoke interrupted the process of natural unification of lands, and the power of Kyiv by this period was greatly weakened. Rus' was in decline and needed a completely new policy.
In the 14th century, many territories of Rus' united around the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 14-15 centuries, the great Lithuanian princes owned Gorodensky, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Kyiv and other principalities, Chernihiv, Volyn, Smolensk and a number of other lands were under their rule. The reign of the Ruriks was coming to an end. By the end of the 15th century, the Lithuanian principality had grown so much that it came close to the borders of the Moscow principality. The North-East of Rus' all this time remained under the rule of a descendant of Vladimir Monomakh, and the Vladimir princes bore the prefix "all Rus'", but their real power did not extend beyond Vladimir and Novgorod. In the 14th century, power over Vladimir passed to Moscow.
At the end of the 14th century, Lithuania joined the Kingdom of Poland, after which a series of Russo-Lithuanian wars followed, in which Lithuania lost many territories. New Rus' began to gradually unite around the strengthened Moscow principality.
In 1389 Moscow becomes the new capital.
The final unification of Rus' as a new centralized and unified state was completed at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries during the reign of Ivan 3 and his son Vasily 3.
Since then, Rus' periodically annexed some new territories, but the basis of a single state had already been created.
Completion of the political unification of Rus'
In order to keep the new state together and avoid its possible collapse, it was necessary to change the principle of government. Under Vasily 3, estates appeared - feudal estates. The fiefdoms were often crushed and smaller, as a result, the princes, who received their new possessions, no longer had power over vast territories.
As a result of the unification of the Russian lands, all power was gradually concentrated in the hands of the Grand Duke.
In the middle of the 15th century, the most important task that Ivan III had to cope with was the annexation of Veliky Novgorod to Moscow. But he was not the only contender for these lands. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania also tried to claim its rights to them.
The beginning of the conflict
It is no secret that the history of Moscow has always been closely connected with Novgorod. The roots of the conflict itself go back to the outbreak among the descendants of Prince Dmitry Donskoy, which lasted several decades - from 1425 to
The main opposing sides were Vasily the Dark and after the defeat in the battle for power, the latter took refuge in Novgorod. Vasily the Dark managed in 1449 to conclude a profitable agreement with the Lithuanian prince and the then Polish king Casimir IV that each of the parties would not accept each other's political opponents on its territory. In addition, Lithuania agreed to abandon the encroachment on Novgorod. After 4 years, Vasily, with the help of his faithful people, poisoned Shemyaka.
Yazhelbitsky world
The history of Veliky Novgorod knows many bloody battles. One of them happened in 1456 near a city called Rusa. Then the Moscow troops managed to take it quite easily and almost without resistance. But soon they were attacked by the Novgorod cavalry. Muscovites, under the leadership of their voevodas Striga and Basenok, hid behind a snow-covered hill. They began to shoot arrows not at the Novgorod warriors, but at their horses. There was confusion. Novgorodians were dressed in heavy armor, so they could not fight on a par with Muscovites. As a result, most of the boyars were captured or killed.
Thus, Moscow won a complete victory over Novgorod. At the same time, the number of troops of the first side was 20 times less than the second. After some time in Yazhelbitsy, Vasily the Dark received an embassy, which was headed by Archbishop Evfimy II of Novgorod with the aim of concluding a peace treaty. After some negotiations, the parties signed a bilateral agreement. According to him, the losers had to pay the winner a fairly large contribution, amounting to 8 thousand rubles. But the annexation of Novgorod to Moscow did not take place. He has remained independent for the time being.
Situation after peace
The history of Novgorod says that back in 1136 it became the very first free republic located on the territory of Kievan Rus. It operated such a democratic institution as the veche. It existed until the events that led to the annexation of Novgorod to Moscow. But, despite this, not all the townspeople stood up for the independence of their lands and were ready to fight for it.
It is worth noting the fact that the rights of ordinary, poor citizens were most often not respected, and the poorest population, which consisted of smerds, was generally deprived of the right to attend the veche. The gap between the poor and the rich was too great, so ordinary Novgorodians were not eager to fight Moscow for the rights of the boyars.
In 1460, Vasily Vasilyevich arrived with an embassy in Novgorod for negotiations. But the townspeople opposed him and even tried to kill him. So another conflict broke out, which was resolved by Bishop Jonah, who intimidated the Novgorodians with the invasion of the Tatars along with the Muscovites.
3 years after the Moscow prince visited Novgorod, this republic refused military support to Pskov, who asked for help to fend off the attacks of the Livonian knights. Help came from Moscow. After that, Novgorod took an openly hostile position in relation to Pskov. This time, the wise policy of Prince Ivan III resolved the conflict.
New disagreements
The Novgorod elite was constantly under constant pressure from two neighboring rather powerful states - Moscow and the Principality of Lithuania. The boyars were well aware that they would succeed in maintaining their possessions only if they made an alliance with one of them.
The history of Moscow points to the fact that disagreements about the annexation of land existed in Veliky Novgorod itself. The boyars stood up for an alliance with the Principality of Lithuania, because they expected to retain all their privileges, while ordinary citizens supported the Moscow tsar, since in his person they saw, first of all, an Orthodox ruler.
Reasons for hostilities
The reason that served as the reason for the campaign in May 1471 on Veliky Novgorod was rumors allegedly indicating that the majority of the boyars, led by Martha Boretskaya, the widow of the posadnik, signed an agreement with the Lithuanian side about many historians believe that these rumors were only the reason for reprisal. But still, there is the fact that the Novgorodians asked the Lithuanian prince to become their governor. In addition, they still sought to create their own church, independent of Moscow. That is why the campaign against Veliky Novgorod took the form of a war against apostates and for the restoration of the Orthodox faith.
Another campaign
This time the military actions against the republic were headed by the Moscow prince Daniil Kholmsky. I must say that this was a considerable risk, since the spring that year turned out to be quite cold, and a large amount of snow that had not yet melted could significantly slow down the advance of the troops. But it was impossible to postpone the trip. The Golden Horde and the Principality of Lithuania were ready to come to the aid of Novgorod.
In the first days of the campaign there were almost no fights. The Moscow army effortlessly captured the cities of the republic one after another. Only in mid-July did the Battle of Shelon take place. The army of Novgorod, consisting of 40 thousand people, and the 12 thousandth army of their enemy converged on the battlefield. The final outcome of this battle was decided by a powerful attack of the Moscow cavalry. Poorly organized Novgorodians could not withstand such an onslaught.
2 weeks after the Shilon battle, another battle took place near the Shilenga River. It also ended with the victory of Muscovites. After that, negotiations began on the conclusion of peace in Korostyn.
Armistice consequences
As a result, Novgorod had to refuse the patronage of the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir IV. In addition, the defeated paid about 15 thousand rubles, and also actually recognized the supremacy of the Moscow prince. So the campaign of 1471 was more than successful. He proved that ordinary Novgorodians, unlike the boyars, do not want to fight with their neighbors.
In part, the fate of this republic has already been sealed. But the final annexation of Novgorod to Moscow will take place only after 7 years.
Last trip
In the spring of 1477, not the first Novgorodian embassy arrived in Moscow. But it turned out that it was sent not by a veche, but by a handful of boyars. They wanted the quickest and final recognition of the supremacy of Moscow, which would give them the right to keep all their lands and wealth. Learned about it in Novgorod. At the next veche, several pro-Moscow boyars were killed, and supporters of the Lithuanian prince came to power. But their reign was short-lived.
In October 1477, the last campaign against the republic took place under the leadership of Ivan III. This time, the Novgorod army did not leave the city. Long negotiations began. After 2 months, Muscovites put forward final demands. They consisted in the abolition of the township position and the cessation of the existence of the veche. The Novgorodians agreed with these two demands, but the discussion about the preservation of their estates by the boyars dragged on. In the end, they still had to give the Moscow prince the monastic and sovereign lands. With this, the negotiations were completed. On January 15, the Moscow prince and his entourage, accompanied by a squad, entered the city without a fight.
Results
In history, 1478 is the year Novgorod was annexed to Moscow. The wars are finally over. This time there were no executions, but many boyar families were deported outside Novgorod. Among them was a posadnitsa with her grandson. She was later tonsured as a nun and her property confiscated.
When Novgorod was annexed to Moscow, 4 governors began to manage all the lands, who had the right to dispose of the inheritance and conduct courts. Trade, agriculture and industry were now under the control of the new government.
The boyar leadership and veche were liquidated. The symbol of the independence of Veliky Novgorod - the veche bell - was taken out. From that moment on, it became a secondary city, and the possessions of Muscovy almost doubled. Thus ended the history of a republic that lasted more than three centuries.
Until 1651, for almost 20 years, Ukraine waged a war of liberation against Poland, under whose rule it was. Poland at that time was tormented by internal strife, which allowed the Ukrainians to drag out this war so much. But by 1651, it became clear that Ukraine alone would not be able to defeat Poland. For Ukrainians, it became obvious that this was the only chance to get rid of dependence on Poland. As a result, Hetman Bogdan Khmelnitsky turned to the Russian Tsar, Alexei Mikhailovich, with a request to accept Ukraine into Russia. Many citizens opposed the accession, since for the past 20 years Russia has not been at war with Poland. Peace reigned in the country. To accept Ukraine actually meant to independently declare war on Poland. Russia was not ready for such a war. In order to discuss in more detail annexation of Ukraine to Russia Tsar Alexei assembled the Cathedral. Opinions were divided. The majority of those who took part told the tsar that Ukraine should not be accepted in order to avoid a war with Poland. The council dragged on until 1653. For Ukraine, such a delay was like death, so Khmelnitsky announced to the Russian tsar that if Russia did not accept Ukraine, then Khmelnitsky would turn to Turkey with the same proposal. These threats worked because the war with Poland was more acceptable to Russia than the common Russian-Turkish border. As a result of these actions, a war broke out between Russia and Poland.
Bogdan Khmelnitsky died in 1657. His place was taken by the new hetman Ivan Vyhovsky. He decided to use to his own advantage the fact that Russia was engaged in battles with the Swedes, and made an alliance with Poland. Poland, which by that time was falling apart due to the war, as well as due to internal problems, gladly accepted an ally. The Russian tsar at that moment, probably for the first time, realized what worthwhile advice the nobles gave him, who dissuaded the tsar from joining Ukraine. It turned out that just 4 years after it happened annexation of Ukraine to Russia, Ukraine betrayed Russia. To the credit of the bulk of the Ukrainian people, it is worth noting that the people were against serving Poland. In 1659, Vygovskoy was expelled, and Yuri Khmelnitsky, the son of Bogdan, took the place of the hetman. Theoretically, this was supposed to contribute to the rapprochement of peoples, but in reality it turned out differently.
In 1660, the united Russian-Ukrainian army set off on a campaign against Lvov. The Russians put up 30 thousand people, the Ukrainians - 25. The beginning of the campaign was successful, but it ended with the largest military defeat of Russia in the 17th century. It happened on September 5, 1660. Near the city of Lyubara, the Russian commander Sheremetev stumbled upon the Polish army, which was reinforced by the Crimean army. For more than two weeks, Sheremetev held back the onslaught of the enemy. The Russians fought to the last. They were given strength by the confidence that from day to day the Ukrainian army, headed by Khmelnitsky, should appear on the battlefield and deliver a decisive blow to the Poles. But Khmelnytsky and his army never came to the aid of the Russians. Moreover, he made peace with the Poles and pledged not to fight against them. As a result, the Russian army capitulated on October 23, 660 near the city of Chudnov. Most of the Russians died, the rest were taken into slavery by the Crimean Tatars. Only a few managed to return to their homeland after slavery. Among them was Sheremetev, who returned to Russia only 21 years later. The Ukrainians, because of whom the Russians got involved in the war with Poland, betrayed the Russians twice in just 4 years.
The results of the accession of Ukraine
As a result, annexation of Ukraine to Russia cost the Russians not only good neighborly relations with Poland, but also the whole army, which was destroyed due to the betrayal of Yuri Khmelnitsky. After these events, the war with Poland did not progress very actively, since both countries were preoccupied with internal problems and could not fight each other properly. As a result, in January 1661, a peace treaty was signed, which announced a truce for 13.5 years.
The results of the annexation of Ukraine:
- Russia started a war with Poland
- Ukraine received the opportunity to fully form its nation.
- Ukraine acquired a special status (national, religious, state).
The process of formation of the Russian centralized state (the second half of the 13th - the beginning of the 16th century).
Modern historian N.S. Borisov noted that “the recognition of the policy of the Moscow princes at the end of the 13th - the first half of the 14th century. An important (and even decisive) factor in Moscow's success in unifying the Russian lands has long been a commonplace in historical writings. Another modern researcher A.A. Gorsky singled out several mechanisms of Moscow "imaginations", as they called in the Middle Ages the accession to the possessions of lands that were not originally the property of the clan. These mechanisms varied and were used depending on the situation. As a result of the vigorous activity of the Moscow princes, by the end of the first quarter of the 16th century, a new united state of the Eastern Slavs was formed with its capital in Moscow.
background
The Moscow principality was not the only one that carried out “inventions”. One way or another, representatives of many branches of the Rurik dynasty sought to expand their territory and influence. After the collapse of the Kievan state (1132), a significant number of lands passed from hand to hand, changing "homelands" and "grandfathers". However, in pre-Mongolian times, the hunt for "imaginations" did not become a common phenomenon, changes in political geography did not occur often. Things were different starting from the second half of the 13th century, when the Mongol invasion and the subsequent establishment of the dependence of the Russian lands on the Golden Horde led to the breakdown of many political traditions of the previous era.
Reasons for the rise of Moscow
Already in the works of historians of the 19th century, the reasons why it was the Grand Dukes of Moscow who managed to unite the Russian lands around their throne and, ultimately, create a single Russian state, were outlined. Part of the historians agreed in their assessments, while certain provisions of their constructions differed. V.O. Klyuchevsky. His concept turned out to be extremely tenacious - up to the present day, in educational and popular literature, the explanation of the reasons for the rise of Moscow, expressed by Klyuchevsky, is often read. The great historian wrote about the favorable economic and military-strategic position of the Moscow principality, the support of the aspirations of the Moscow princes by the Church, and also that the policy undertaken by the princes themselves was extremely precise and accurate, surpassing the similar actions of their rivals.
Meanwhile, the sketchiness and ambiguity of Klyuchevsky's constructions at the present level of historical knowledge can hardly be in doubt. The objective process of the rise of Moscow from the point of view of the reasons explaining why this particular city managed to become the new capital of the united state of the Eastern Slavs can still be explained relatively relatively.
When discussing the unification of the lands around Moscow, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the political system in the North-East of Rus', in the former Vladimir-Suzdal land, in the post-Mongolian period. On the one hand, the Grand Duchy of Vladimir is taking shape here - a political entity that consisted of a number of territories and the disposal of which depended on the will of the ruling Horde Khan. On the other hand, North-Eastern Rus' is divided into many separate possessions, princely "fatherlands" and "dedins", the inheritance of which is the internal affair of the princes themselves (which did not cancel the possibility of sanctions from the Horde khans to secure territories for new owners). Both the Great Vladimir principality and individual principalities could grow with new lands. Until the throne of Vladimir is assigned forever to the Moscow princes, the lands that were part of the Vladimir territorial complex fell into the temporary possession of the prince who received the khan's label. Thus, at the stage of loss of independence, the individual lands that ended up under Moscow dominion could initially be subordinated by no means to Moscow princes. So, the Kostroma principality, the first of those annexed in the post-Batiev time, in 1277 was included in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. Pereslavl-Zalessky, occupied after the death of the local prince Daniil Alexandrovich of Moscow (1276-1303) in 1302, after some time passed in favor of the new Grand Duke of Vladimir Mikhail Yaroslavich.
The first stage of the unification of lands around Moscow
Probably the first city that became directly part of the Moscow principality was Kolomna, the possession of which was the result of a struggle within the Ryazan principality, in which the Moscow princes intervened. Various dates for this event have been given in the historical literature. Apparently, it should be considered that Kolomna was part of Moscow between 1300-1306. Soon Kolomna occupies a special position in the principality, it is no coincidence that N.M. Karamzin called it "Soviet" Moscow. In 1303, the Moscow rati subdued Mozhaisk. A notable milestone in the unification of the lands around Moscow was the "purchase" of Ivan Kalita (1325-1340): Uglich, as well as the northern lands of Beloozero and Galich Mersky. By "purchases" one should understand the acquisition of part or full ownership rights to "fatherlands". This method was widely used by Moscow princes to expand their territories. Some lands were acquired gradually - the former owners could retain the remnants of sovereignty for a long time.
The second stage of the unification of lands around Moscow
A huge political event for the entire North-Eastern Rus' at the end of the XIV century was the approval of the great reign of Vladimir for the Moscow princely house. Dmitry Donskoy (1359-1389), in his will, drawn up shortly before his death in 1389, transfers the right of ownership to his son Vasily (1389-1425): “And now I bless my son, Prince Vasily, with my fatherland a great prince.” This step of Dmitry Donskoy, of course, reflected the increased political power of the Moscow princes, their real weight in the political system of North-Eastern Rus' at the end of the 14th century. However, it is also obvious that such an epochal change could not occur without approval in the Horde. A major Moscow success was consolidated in 1392 with the annexation of Nizhny Novgorod to the Moscow "fatherland".
feudal war. The final stage of the unification of lands around Moscow: Vasily III, Ivan III
The collection of Moscow lands was suspended in the second quarter of the 15th century, when an internecine war (1425-1453) between Vasily II (1425-1462) and his uncle Yuri Zvenigorodsky flared in the Moscow principality, ending with the victory of the forces of centralization.
The final stage of the unification of the Russian lands in the second half of the 15th - the first third of the 16th centuries paid back a hundredfold to the aspirations of the Moscow rulers. This stage is associated with the names of the Grand Dukes Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505) and Vasily III Ivanovich (1505-1533). Moving towards one goal - to concentrate in the hands of a kind of land where they spoke Russian and professed Orthodoxy - these rulers used different methods to expand Moscow's influence. One of these methods was the establishment of preliminary control, which could last for decades while maintaining the formal independence of the state. Examples are the stories of the subjugation of Pskov and Ryazan.
Accession of the Pskov land and Ryazan
The position of Pskov in the system of the Grand Duchy of Moscow finally took shape by the end of the 1460s: in April 1467, Pskov received the Moscow governor, Prince Fyodor Shuisky, and after March 1468, Pskov began to use a new seal in office work: “The seal of the Pskov vodchina of Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich” . From a union state, the Pskov land turned into a vassal of the Grand Duke. The liquidation of formal Pskov independence took place in 1510 under Vasily III.
The history of the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Ryazan to Moscow became longer in time. Back in 1456, the dying Ryazan ruler Ivan Fedorovich "ordered his son Vasily" to the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily the Dark. In 1464, Vasily Ivanovich, who lived for eight years in Moscow, was sent to Ryazan "to his fatherland, to the great reign", and Ivan III's sister Anna was given to him as his wife. Since then, Ryazan has been following Moscow's policy. Only the intensification of separatist sentiments in Ryazan, which increased significantly on the eve of the invasion of the Crimean Khan Mohammed-Girey into Rus' in 1521, prompted Vasily III to remove the last Grand Duke of Ryazan Ivan Ivanovich from power. Most likely, the "capture" of Ivan Ivanovich took place in the winter of 1520/21.
Accession of the Yaroslavl lands and the Principality of Rostov
Among those who became dependent on Moscow in the 1460s were the Yaroslavl lands. It is known from the genealogies that the childless Prince Alexander Fedorovich sold Yaroslavl to Ivan III. The governor Ivan Vasilyevich Striga Obolensky went to the annexed city, whose methods of management were so harsh that in one of the annals he was awarded the characterization of the "existing devil". And on March 23, 1464, Ivan III issued the first of the known charters for the land "in my fatherland, the Grand Duke, in Yaroslavl." However, until the death of Alexander Fedorovich in 1471, a kind of “dual power” existed in the principality. Apparently, Alexander Fedorovich retained some formal princely rights.
In the same years, the final subjugation of the principality of Rostov took place. By the beginning of the reign of Ivan III, a significant part of the Rostov lands, including "half" of Rostov, was already in the power of the Grand Dukes of Moscow. According to the will of Vasily the Dark, these lands were transferred to his wife Maria Yaroslavna, who, having become a widow, settled directly in Rostov. In 1474, the Rostov princes Vladimir Andreevich and Ivan Ivanovich sold to Ivan III the Rostov "half" that remained in their possession.
Annexation of Novgorod land
The most significant success in creating a unified Russian state was the annexation of Novgorod land to Moscow. The offensive Novgorod policy was typical already for the first years of the reign of Ivan III. He perceived Novgorod as his "fatherland" and "grandfather". The reason for the offensive was the events that unfolded in Novgorod at the end of 1470: the struggle over the election of a new archbishop and the arrival in the city at the invitation of the veche of the Lithuanian prince Mikhail Alexandrovich. Moscow was afraid to allow the strengthening of Lithuanian influence on Novgorod, namely, the “Lithuanian trace” was seen behind these Novgorod events. In addition, the Novgorodians' hesitation in choosing the place of ordination of a new archbishop (Moscow or Lithuania) was regarded in Moscow as an attempt to betray Orthodoxy, since Moscow considered itself the guardian of the purity of Eastern Christianity.
In the spring of 1471, the so-called. The “church-service cathedral” is a new phenomenon in the political practice of the Grand Dukes of Moscow, which responded to the desire to enlist the widest possible moral and political support from the population. Ivan III sent out invitations to participate to the bishops, "and for the princes, and for his boyars, and for the governors, and for all his own howling." The cathedral supported the Grand Duke in his desire to start a fight with Novgorod. In May-June 1471, military men moved from Moscow in three directions to Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on July 14 on the river. Sheloni, 30 versts from Novgorod. The Novgorod army was utterly defeated. The confrontation ended with the signing of a peace treaty in the town of Korostyn, according to which the Novgorodians paid a significant contribution, and the independence of Novgorod in both foreign and domestic policy was significantly limited.
The 1470s passed in Novgorod under the sign of a further increase in social contradictions. It was very beneficial for Ivan III that the “living and young” Novgorodians appealed to him with a petition for harassment by the boyars. At the end of 1475, Ivan III personally went to Novgorod and arranged a trial. Four boyars found guilty were sent to Moscow. The decision of the sovereign not only increased the authority of the Grand Duke of Moscow in the eyes of ordinary Novgorodians and secured the subordinate status of Novgorod. The image of Ivan III as a fair judge turned out to be a successful political device. In the spring of 1477, crowds of townspeople moved from Novgorod to Moscow, wishing to receive satisfaction for the insults inflicted on them. The Moscow chronicler noted that “that did not happen from the beginning, just as their land [Novgorod] became, ... before this Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich, but this will bring them to that.” Anti-Moscow unrest in Novgorod itself led to a new military campaign. On September 30, 1477, Ivan III sent a "folding letter" to the Novgorodians - a notice of the beginning of the war. By the end of November, Novgorod was in a dense ring of Moscow troops. Negotiations continued for a month and a half, the Novgorodians ceded one position after another. January 13, 1478 the city was surrendered. Ivan III spent another month in Novgorod, swearing in his inhabitants, punishing his most staunch opponents and liquidating the main veche institutions.
Annexation of the Grand Duchy of Tver
By the mid-1480s, it was the turn of the Grand Duchy of Tver. After the fall of the independence of Novgorod, Tverskaya land turned out to be surrounded on almost all sides by territories belonging to Moscow. Only the southwestern borders of the principality bordered on Lithuania. This created serious inconveniences of a geopolitical nature for Moscow: the Tver principality was strongly wedged deep into the Moscow one and was increasingly inclined towards an alliance with the neighboring state of Lithuania. At the same time, Lithuania saw in Tver not an equal ally, but an object of expansion. The first Moscow-Tver war began at the end of 1484. As in the history of Novgorod, the reason for the war was "treason": the intention of Grand Duke Mikhail Borisovich to intermarry with the Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Casimir IV, marrying his granddaughter. The main goal of the war was reconnaissance in force - testing the forces of the Grand Duchy of Tver and Casimir's readiness to help Tver. The king, as in the case of Novgorod, chose not to interfere. This inspired Ivan III to take more decisive action. The second Moscow-Tver war, which ended with the subjugation of Tver, began in August 1485. The campaign was given a general Russian character. After several days of siege, the Grand Duke of Tverskoy Mikhail Borisovich fled to Lithuania. The city surrendered on 12 September. On the Tver table, Ivan III seated his eldest son and co-ruler Ivan the Young, who came from a Tver princely family on his mother's side.
Fight with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
In parallel with the annexation of independent Russian lands, Ivan III and Vasily III began a struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, about 90% of whose territory was Russian lands. At the end of the XIV - beginning of the XVI centuries Chernigov and Bryansk lands, Smolensk were conquered from Lithuania.
Results
The vigorous activity of the Moscow princes leads to the fact that already in the first third of the 16th century the young Moscow state becomes the largest in Europe. It will stretch from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Donetsk steppes in the south; from the Gulf of Finland, Lake Peipsi, the upper reaches of the Western Dvina and the Dnieper in the west to the Urals and the Ob in the east. The vast territories to which the power of the sovereign of "All Rus'" would extend were not the same in their natural conditions. However, in general, they were characterized by an abundance of forests. The presence of a large number of forests also affected the soil conditions, which were not good. The low fertility of the soil, coupled with harsh climatic conditions, led to low and inconsistent yields. The situation was aggravated by the predominance of archaic farming systems - cuttings, fallows, inevitable in those natural and climatic conditions. Although the three-fields existed, it occupied an insignificant place in the general structure of agriculture, often combined with archaic systems. The vastness of the territory did not provide the state with sufficient natural resources, the need for which was constantly increasing. Iron ore was predominantly of low quality, mined from the surface layers. There were few stocks of precious and non-ferrous metals necessary for monetary and military affairs. The limited economic opportunities of the Muscovite princes made them even more eager to expand their territories in a persistent attempt to discover resources. Thus, a characteristic feature of the Russian socio-political structure was laid - a low population density. Presumably, it was 5-7 times lower than in Europe as a whole. As a result, the implementation of the most important state tasks was complicated: effective management and tax collection. The low population density impeded trade and the spread of various technical improvements, and contributed to the preservation of archaic social relations. These circumstances left a seal on the entire political system and the nature of relations between the monarch and his subjects, largely determining the nature of political and social psychology in Russia.
In the Middle Ages, the concept of "state" was embodied in the personality of the ruler, who was also the owner of his principality. The unity of the state was maintained thanks to personal loyalty to the ruler of a rather thin ruling stratum. Therefore, in the central administration of the Moscow principality, a special role was played by the princely "court", which consisted of administrative departments of economic origin. From the Moscow "court", which gradually lost its economic properties, over time, a bureaucratic central apparatus of power grew. In the bowels of the "court" gradually increased the layer of officials; there were groups of employees - clerks - who were responsible for the most important branches of government. The boyars of the annexed lands began to enter the "yard". The advisory body under the prince, consisting of close associates - the Boyar Duma - turned into a permanent supreme council, the composition of which was appointed by the Grand Duke. Representatives of princely lines that had lost their independence (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Tver princes) got into the Duma. Gradually, the "boyars" became court officials, and the Boyar Duma itself turned out to be an important mechanism for rallying the political elite: the princes, who lost power in the localities, acquired it in the center, albeit in the rank of servicemen.
The growth of the territory of the Moscow Principality took place much faster than the organization of internal life on new principles. The country needed a new army, a system of government and justice. Traditional socio-political institutions, which were still fully consistent with their tasks in the first half of the 15th century, turned out to be insufficient in the second half of the century. The state also needed to create a unified financial system. The most important task was the unification of taxation. To this end, since the end of the 15th century, economic descriptions have been undertaken in the country. Their results were fixed in the so-called. scribe books, which served as the basis for taxable land taxation - soshny writing. The oldest scribe books have been preserved in the Novgorod land. An obstacle to the coordinated action of the mechanism of a single state was the tax privileges of secular and ecclesiastical landowners. The Grand Duke's government sought to limit them.
The unification of Russian lands by Moscow led to the gradual merging of numerous local cultural traditions into a single all-Russian one. The process of convergence of artistic traditions was reflected in literature, architecture, icon painting, monumental painting, etc. The difference in dialects was leveled in the language. The most important manifestation of the emerging unity was the formation of a common Russian ethnic identity. It was in the territories collected by the Grand Dukes of Moscow that the Great Russian ethnos was established. Of course, all these processes were not simultaneous. Such epochal changes could not happen suddenly and continued into the 16th century, and sometimes much longer.
