The Mongol-Tatar invasion caused irreparable damage to Russian culture. From the beginning of the 14th century. she is reborn.
Literature
1. One of the most common genres is becoming historical story, which intricately combined historical facts with literary fiction. The authors of the works often used hyperbolization (exaggeration). Such stories as “About Shchelkan Dudentievich”, “About the ruin of Ryazan by Batu” and others have become widespread. Imbued with the spirit of optimism and patriotism, the works that inspired Russian culture after the glorious victory in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The famous historical stories “The Legend of The Massacre of Mamayev" and "Zadonshchina".
2. Another literary genre was also very popular - “walking” – descriptions of travel to distant countries. For example, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin in “Walking across Three Seas” (dating to the third quarter of the 15th century) described his long journey to India.
3. Genre hagiographies (lives of saints) in Rus' it also became widespread. It is characteristic that the style of “weaving words” was borrowed from Byzantine and Bulgarian literature, which implied pomp and pomp. In particular, the lives of Sergius of Radonezh and Stephen of Perm, written by Epiphanius the Wise (early 15th century), are in this style.
4. Evolved chronicle: many chronicles, including one of the earlier ones, Laurentian (1370s), have survived to this day in the original. In 1442, the “Russian Chronograph” began to be created - a description of world history, which was compiled by Pachomius Logofet.
5. During the denunciation of heresy, the Novgorod priest Gennady Gonzov at the end of the 15th century. made up The first Russian codex of the Bible. From the same time, polemical treatises appeared from opponents of intra-church groups: the “Osifites” (Joseph Volotsky) and the “non-possessors” (Nil Sorsky).
Architecture
In Novgorod a large number of small stone churches were built (Kovalevskaya, Spasa on Ilyin Street, Volotovskaya, etc.).
In the Moscow Principality the first stone buildings were churches in Zvenigorod and Zagorsk, the Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow. In 1367, the first white stone walls of the Moscow Kremlin were erected. In the second half of the 15th century. the Kremlin was significantly rebuilt: new walls were erected, beautiful cathedrals were built: Assumption (1476–1479), architect - Italian Aristotle Fiorovanti; Blagoveshchensky (1484–1489), built by Pskov craftsmen; Arkhangelsky (1505–1509). The Chamber of Facets (1487–1491) was built for ceremonial receptions.
Painting
In the second half of the XIV - first half of the XV centuries. created by two great Russian painters - Feofan the Greek And Andrey Rublev. They achieved perfection in icon painting. Theophanes the Greek was the author of frescoes in the Moscow Church of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, and participated in the painting of the Archangel Cathedral.
For style of Theophanes the Greek Characteristic in icon painting:
1) choice of bright, rich colors;
2) emotionality;
3) expression.
The works of Andrei Rublev are characterized by:
1) high spiritual pathos;
2) the insight and humanity of the images.
25. “Code of Law” 1497
In Moscow, under Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich, in 1497, a new legislative code was drawn up and approved, which went down in Russian history under the name Code of Laws of 1497.
Code of laws of 1497- this is the first collection of laws of a single centralized Russian state. It reflected the norms of civil, criminal and other types of law. In particular, the rules for conducting court hearings in counties were changed. The chief judges were the princely governors. But in order for the courts to be conducted fairly, the court hearings had to be monitored by representatives of local residents - elders and elected “best people”. Thus, the Code of Laws showed that the Grand Duke of Moscow respects ancient veche traditions and relies not only on his government officials, but also takes into account popular opinion.
The Code of Law regulated property relations and the position of various groups of urban and rural populations. In particular, the Code of Law introduced for the first time a restriction on the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another. Typically, such transitions occurred after the end of field work: if the peasant did not like living with one owner, he, in accordance with ancient custom, could go to another. But in different parts of the country the rules for the transition were different. Now a single deadline for the transfer of peasants was established for all - a week before and a week after the autumn holiday of St. George the Victorious (November 26, according to the new style - December 9). In Rus', St. George has been called Yuri since ancient times, which is why this autumn day was called Yuri’s Day. In accordance with the norms of the Code of Laws, the peasant had to pay the previous owner a certain amount of money for his transition. This payment was called “elderly”, and in different areas it ranged from half a ruble to a ruble. Modern scientists believe that the introduction of St. George's Day marked the beginning of the legislative registration of serfdom.
26. The state-political system of Russia in the second half of the 15th and early 16th centuries. Ivan 111 "Sovereign of All Rus'".
The political system of the Russian state at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. developed towards strengthening centralization and further increasing the power of the Moscow sovereign. The latter was an inevitable consequence of the completion of the process of gathering Great Russian lands by Moscow into a single state and the transformation of the Grand Duke of Moscow into the political leader of the entire Russian nation. Awareness of this situation was expressed in Ivan III’s acceptance of the title “Sovereign of All Rus'.”
He consistently pursues the idea of the divine origin of his power /title: “John, by the grace of God, Sovereign...”/. The procedure for occupying the throne, established by Ivan III, served to confirm this idea - through the solemn church rite of “wedding” with a grand-ducal crown. An important role in the rise of monarchical power was played by the marriage of Ivan III with the last Byzantine princess Sophia Paleologus /1472/ Thus, the Russian sovereign seemed to act as the political successor of the Byzantine emperors. The titles “tsar” and “autocrat” began to be introduced into use. The latter originally meant an independent sovereign, not subject to any external authority. However, already Ivan III begins to interpret the title of “Autocrat” as meaning the unlimited power of the monarch.
The factor that weakened the grand ducal power was the incompleteness of the process of centralization of the country, primarily the lack of an extensive state administrative apparatus. There were only 2 national departments:
“Palace” - was in charge of the lands of the Grand Duke and resolved land disputes;
"Treasury" is the state office that managed finances and foreign policy.
The administration of individual territories was carried out by Moscow through governors who appointed Moscow boyars. They were called “feeders” because they were completely supported by the local population - they “fed” at their expense. “Feeding” was given for a period of one to three years.
From the end of the 15th century. The Boyar Duma acquires a permanent character. However, its composition was small - approx. There were 20 people, and the possibilities were limited - it was only an advisory body with which the king only discussed and coordinated his proposals. This situation did not satisfy the boyars, who sought to counteract the autocratic aspirations of the Moscow sovereigns. The boyars were not opposed to the unity of the country, but their political ideal was a limited monarchy, in which the power of the tsar would be combined with the power of the boyar council, performing government functions.
Among the boyar nobility there were also supporters of an estate-representative monarchy. Their ideologist, Prince Kurbsky, allowed the people to participate in governing the country through the all-class Zemsky Sobor.
From the end of the 15th century. A unified executive power begins to take shape in the form of new governing bodies - “orders”. The orders grew out of temporary instructions given to the boyars. To carry out assignments / orders / the boyar selected competent officials - “deacons”, created a special public place - “izba”.
The clerks, as the real executors of the plans of the grand ducal power, began to play an increasingly significant role in public administration. Specializing in the implementation of certain assignments (financial, diplomatic, military), clerks prepared the creation of governing bodies with a functional, rather than territorial, distribution of affairs.
History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 20th century Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich
North-Eastern Rus' in the XIV–XVI centuries.
In the lands of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the population increased between the Oka and Volga rivers. These territories were relatively far from the eastern borders of Rus' and were less vulnerable from the Golden Horde, which led to an increase in arable land and the widespread spread of three-fields. Many lost crafts and trades were resumed here. The main factor in the social development of North-Eastern Rus' was the intensive growth of feudal land ownership, where the dominant form of ownership was the patrimony. The owner of the estate could be a prince, a boyar, or even a monastery. In order to better develop their estate, as well as to have military support, its owners transferred part of the land to the nobles (they made up the court of a prince or boyar) for conditional land ownership. Such land holdings were called estate. The feudal class consisted of princes, boyars, nobles, and church feudal lords. From the middle of the 14th century. There has been a significant increase in monastic land ownership. The Golden Horde khans retained intact all the privileges of the Orthodox Church. The Russian princes were also interested in her support. The growth of feudal land ownership entailed a further attack on the rights of the peasantry. The development of new lands continued, where feudal lords gave peasants benefits on duties for 5-15 years (this is how settlements appeared - from the word “freedom”). Receiving land from the feudal lord on preferential terms meant attaching peasants to it and transferring them under the authority of the feudal lord. This is how serfdom gradually developed. In the 14th century a new term has appeared - peasants. In addition to private feudal land ownership, there was, especially on the outskirts of the country, a significant number of free peasant communities - “black lands” that paid taxes to the treasury. The destruction of old cities, former centers of Kievan Rus, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, and changes in trade routes led to the emergence and development of new cities (Moscow, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Kolomna, Kostroma, etc.). Russian cities remained dependent on feudal lords. Strengthening of this dependence in the 14th century. led to the almost universal destruction of veche law. The political centralization of Rus' occurred much faster than its economic fragmentation was overcome (subsistence farming continued to reign supreme). This is explained by the presence of external danger from the East and West, the need to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and gain independence.
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The strengthening of the Moscow principality led to a change in attitude towards the Tatars. The essence of this change was the transition from a policy of humility and obedience to the Horde to a policy of struggle against it, especially since strife and a decline in the importance of the khan’s power were observed in the Golden Horde at that time. For the period from 1360 to 1380. 14 khans were replaced in the Horde. But Mamai managed to temporarily eliminate the strife and concentrate power in his hands. He decided to call the Moscow prince to order and in 1378 he made a campaign against Rus', but on the Vozha River (a tributary of the Oka) the Tatar army was defeated. After this, both sides began to prepare for a decisive battle. To this end, Mamai entered into an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello and entered into secret relations with the Ryazan prince Oleg, dissatisfied with the supremacy of Moscow.
Despite the fact that neither Tver, nor Novgorod, nor Nizhny Novgorod took part in the fight against Mamai, Dmitry managed to create an unprecedented army, which numbered 100-150 thousand people. In this matter, the prince was provided with significant assistance by the clergy, first of all, the Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, who, with the example of his life, “raised the fallen spirit of his native people, awakened in them confidence in themselves, in their strengths, and inspired faith in their future” (V. O. Klyuchevsky ). Saint Sergius not only blessed Dmitry Ivanovich for his feat, but also predicted the death of Mamai, exclaiming: “Go, sir, to the filthy Polovtsy, calling on God, and the Lord God will be your helper and intercessor!” The outcome of the battle was decided by the Battle of Kulikovo, which took place on the day of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary on September 8, 1380 on the right bank of the Don at the confluence of the Ne-Pryadva River. The battle went on for several hours. The Tatars trembled and ran. Chroniclers called the Battle of Kulikovo “Mamaev’s Massacre”, and the people gave Dmitry the honorary nickname “Donskoy”, with which he went down in history.
The Battle of Kulikovo had enormous political and national significance. “The event was,” said V. O. Klyuchevsky, “that the people, accustomed to tremble at the mere name of a Tatar, finally gathered their courage, stood up to the enslavers and not only found the courage to stand up, but also went to look for the Tatar hordes in the open steppe and there he fell on his enemies like an indestructible wall, burying them under his many thousands of bones.” There was great joy in Rus', but great was also sorrow, since the Russian army suffered huge losses.
The battle was won, but Dmitry Donskoy failed to free Rus' from the Mongol yoke. In 1382, the new khan of the Golden Horde, Tokhtamysh, invaded the Russian regions and devastated Moscow. Dmitry had to agree to the resumption of tribute payments. And yet, the dependence of the Russian lands on the Horde became more and more nominal.
Dmitry Donskoy inherited the Vladimir Grand Duke's throne to his son Vasily I as a patrimony, without asking the khan's permission (label). Vasily I continued to gather Russian lands under the rule of the Moscow principality. His death marked the beginning of a long and acute political crisis that filled almost the entire reign of his son Vasily II Vasilyevich (1425 -1462). The fact is that Vasily Dmitrievich, before his death, blessed his 10-year-old son Vasily for the great reign. But after the death of Vasily I, his brother Yuri Dmitrievich refused to recognize the seniority of his nephew and entered into the struggle for the grand-ducal throne. This struggle, which after the death of Yuri was continued by his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, had the character of a feudal war, lasted more than 20 years and reached extreme cruelty on both sides.
The strife was complicated by the turbulent and complex relations between Vasily II and the Mongols. The Tatar Khan at the very beginning recognized him as the Grand Duke, but in 1445 a large detachment of one of the Tatar khans, Ulu-Makhmet, broke into Moscow possessions, defeated the Russian troops and took Vasily II prisoner. The Grand Duke was released from captivity for a huge ransom. Taking advantage of the discontent caused by the collection of funds for the ransom, Dmitry Shemyaka in 1446 captured Vasily Vasilyevich in the Trinity Monastery and blinded him (hence the nickname Dark), and in February of the same year occupied Moscow. However, the population of Moscow, especially the clergy led by Bishop Jonah of Ryazan, opposed Shemyaka. Dmitry Shemyaka was forced to liberate Vasily the Dark, who in December 1446 entered the capital of his principality.
In addition to political strife, the reign of Vasily II was also shaken by church unrest. In 1431, Moscow wanted to install Bishop Jonah as metropolitan, but the Patriarch of Constantinople installed the Greek Isidore as metropolitan in Rus'. In 1439, at a council in Florence, a union was concluded to unite the Orthodox and Catholic churches with recognition of the supreme power of the Pope. The Act of Union was also signed by the Russian Metropolitan Isidore. But when he returned to Russia as a Roman cardinal, the Grand Duke and the Russian clergy refused to recognize the union. Isidore was deposed, and in 1448, at a council of Russian bishops, Jonah was elected metropolitan for the first time without the knowledge of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The Russian Church became autocephalous (independent).
Currently, some historians believe that during the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century. Alternative options for centralization could still be realized. The unification of ancient Russian lands could be headed by the trading Novgorod or the northern Galician land with its developed industries and a significant number of free peasants, and possibly the principalities of Lithuania and Russia, where the Lithuanians played a unique role as “Varangians”. However, the victory in centralization remained with the Moscow Prince Vasily II, who used the Horde as allies. In the struggle for central power, Vasily II was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church.
The end of the feudal war meant the final victory of the unification trend around the Moscow principality. This trend was consolidated and became irreversible during the reigns of Ivan III and Vasily III.
The character of Ivan III Vasilyevich was formed in a difficult environment. The childhood and adolescence of the future first sovereign of all Rus' fell on the final, most dramatic stages of the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century. In the seventh year of his life, the prince was engaged to the 4-year-old daughter of the Tver Grand Duke. A few years later, 10-year-old Maria Tverskaya turned into the Grand Duchess of Moscow. At that time, early marriages were not surprising. Dynastic and political interests were of decisive importance here. From childhood, Ivan Sh was taught to hike. The governors and warriors got used to looking at him as their future sovereign. Already at the age of 12, Ivan went on his first independent trip. Naturally, experienced commanders were actually at the head of the army. But formally, the leadership and personal participation of the prince became a step towards his political maturity. By his 17th birthday, he no longer formally bore the title of Grand Duke. The physical helplessness of the blind father emphasized the importance of his son. As Vasily II's closest assistant, he took a real part in the administration of the grand duchy.
7, 8. North-Eastern Rus' at the end of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries. Principality of Moscow under Ivan Kalita and Dmitry Donskoy
Gradually, the largest and strongest principalities emerged in Rus': Moscow, Tver, Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan. The Vladimir principality was considered the center of Rus'; the Vladimir prince had a label (letter) from the Mongol khan. Moscow’s position especially strengthened under Ivan Kalita; under him, Kolomna, Pereyaslavets, and Mozhaisk were annexed. In 1327, an uprising against the Tatars broke out in Tver. Ivan Kalita helped suppress it and received the khan's label for the Great Reign. Under him, the Metropolitan moved from Vladimir to Moscow - it essentially became the ecclesiastical capital of Rus', this to some extent strengthened the authority of the prince. Thanks to Ivan Danilovich’s competent policy towards the Horde, the Tatar raids stopped, which also contributed to the strengthening of Moscow and Rus' as a whole. His descendants continued the same policy. Moscow slowly but surely became the center around which other principalities united.
In the 14th-15th centuries. Moscow became the basis for the unification of Rus' into a single state, the center of the constituent Russian nation. Already the Moscow princes Yuri Danilovich (reigned in 1303-1325) and Ivan Kalita (reigned in 1325-1340) received from the khans labels for reign, which from that time was firmly held by the Moscow princes. Under Ivan Kalita, the metropolitans moved their residence from Vladimir to Moscow, and it became the political and spiritual center of the then Rus'. In the second half of the 14th century. Moscow led the fight against the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The Moscow militia formed the main core of the Russian troops that defeated the Mongol-Tatar hordes of Mamai on the Kulikovo Field (1380) under the leadership of Dmitry Donskoy (prince in 1359-1389). The population of Moscow heroically defended the city from the Tatar khans Tokhtamysh in 1382 and Edigei in 1408; in 1480 it demanded from Ivan 3 a decisive struggle against the hordes of Khan Akhmat, fortified the city and prepared for a siege. Moscow was a center of developed crafts, especially the production of metal products and weapons. Construction skills, icon and book making, etc. also achieved high development. Moscow was the largest trading city in Eastern Europe, as it was connected by waterways (Moscow River, Oka, Volga, etc.) with the Volga region, Central Asia, Transcaucasia and Persia. From the upper reaches of the Don began the journey along the Don, Azov and Black Seas to Constantinople. Merchants who traded with the Italian colonies in Crimea, in particular with the city of Surozh (Sudak), were called “guests-surozhans” in Moscow. Through the city of Dmitrov, Moscow was connected to the upper reaches of the Volga with waterways to Beloozero and further to Surozh. Overland roads connected Moscow with Novgorod and Smolensk. In terms of size, Moscow was one of the largest European cities.
The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the establishment of Horde dominance over most Russian lands led to serious socio-political and economic changes in Rus'. Russian statehood was preserved only in North-Eastern Rus' (Vladimir-Suzdal land), in the Novgorod, Murom and Ryazan lands. Western and southern Russian lands, weakened by the invasion, were absorbed by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: the Polotsk and Turov-Pinsk principalities - by the beginning of the 14th century, Volyn - in the middle of the 14th century, Kiev and Chernigov - in the 60s of the 14th century, Smolensk - at the beginning of the 15th century.
The old political system, in which independent principalities-lands were ruled by different branches of the Rurik princely family and a kind of hierarchy existed, ceased to exist. The principalities began to be considered by the Horde as uluses. The Russian princes recognized the supreme power of the khans of the Golden Horde, thus losing their sovereignty. The princes were required to travel to the Golden Horde and Mongolia to confirm their right to reign. Khans issued letters (“labels”) confirming the right of a particular prince to reign. Often labels were given to the prince who paid the most tribute and distributed the most bribes in the Horde. The essence of the grand ducal title itself has changed. In the Kiev period, the Grand Duke was the oldest prince in the family, a collector and defender of the lands. With the establishment of the dominance of the Mongols, the title began to give the right to collect the Horde output and designated the prince responsible for the Mongol-Tatar order in the Russian lands. The violation of the patrimonial principle of transfer of power in the principalities led to intense rivalry between the princes for the possession of great principalities, which was to the advantage of the Horde. Troubles and civil strife made it possible to maintain Mongol rule over Russia.
After Batu's invasion, despite some reduction in territory, the Vladimir Principality remained the largest in North-Eastern Rus'. The loss of sovereignty (the Horde khans issued labels to the Russian princes for the Great Reign of Vladimir, the prince was responsible for collecting the “exit”, etc.) did not stop the princely feuds, which led to the fragmentation of North-Eastern Rus': to the six appanage principalities that existed before, more were added seven. In each of them, a certain branch of the descendants of Vsevolod the Big Nest began to rule. In 1263-1271 The Vladimir table was occupied by Yaroslav Yaroslavich Tverskoy, brother of Alexander Nevsky. Then in 1272-1276. Vladimir was ruled by the younger Yaroslavich - Vasily Kostromskoy. Following this, a long internecine struggle for the Vladimir throne unfolded between the sons of Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry and Andrei.
Sometimes the borders of Russian principalities were changed by the Horde. In 1328, after the Anti-Horde Tver Uprising (1327), Uzbek Khan divided the territory of the Vladimir Principality between the Moscow and Suzdal princes, and in 1341 he separated the Nizhny Novgorod Principality from the Grand Duchy of Vladimir.
In 1362, Moscow Prince Dmitry Donskoy seized the Vladimir Grand Duchy and declared the Vladimir Grand Duchy his “fatherland” (inheritance, possession), uniting it into one with the Moscow Grand Duchy.
The rise of the Moscow principality began at the end of the 13th century. According to his father’s will, the first Moscow prince was the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniil Alexandrovich (1263-1303). This ruler managed to somewhat expand the lands of his principality. In the early 90s. Daniel annexed Mozhaisk to the Rostov principality, and in 1300 he conquered Kolomna from Ryazan.
From 1304, Daniil's son Yuri Danilovich fought for the great reign of Vladimir with Mikhail Yaroslavich Tverskoy, who received the label for the great reign in the Horde in 1305. The Moscow prince was supported by Metropolitan Peter of All Rus'. In 1317, Yuri achieved the receipt of a label for the grand-ducal throne from the hands of Uzbek Khan, and a year later, Yuri’s main enemy, Mikhail Tverskoy, was killed in the Horde. After the death of the latter in 1332, the label for the great reign was almost constantly in the hands of the Moscow princes.
Ivan Kalita managed to strengthen his influence in Novgorod, acquire labels in the Horde for appanage principalities with centers in Uglich, Galich and Beloozero. In addition, Ivan I bought villages in other principalities, which became strongholds for the “gathering” of Russian lands around Moscow. Caring about strengthening the principality, Kalita willingly accepted immigrants from other lands into his service. Kalita was the first to use the transfer of land (estate) as payment for service. Under this prince, a wooden fortress was erected in Moscow. During the reign of Ivan Kalita, the territory of the principality increased fourfold.
Ivan Kalita's policy of strengthening the Moscow principality was continued by his sons - Semyon Proud and Ivan II the Red. During the reign of these princes, the devastating raids of the Horde and Lithuanians ceased.
After the death of Ivan II the Red, his 9-year-old son Dmitry (1359-1389) became the prince of Moscow. At this time, the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich took possession of the label for the great reign. A sharp struggle developed between him and the group of Moscow boyars. On the side of Moscow was Metropolitan Alexy, who actually headed the Moscow government until Moscow finally won the victory in 1363. Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich continued the policy of strengthening the Moscow principality. In 1367, the white stone Moscow Kremlin was erected. In 1371, Moscow inflicted a strong defeat on the Ryazan Grand Duke Oleg. The struggle with Tver continued. When in 1371 Mikhail Alexandrovich Tverskoy, having received the label for the great reign of Vladimir, tried to occupy Vladimir, Dmitry Ivanovich refused to obey the khan’s will. In 1375, Mikhail Tverskoy again received a label to the Vladimir table. Then almost all the princes of North-Eastern Rus' opposed him, supporting the Moscow prince in his campaign against Tver. After a month-long siege, the city capitulated, according to the agreement concluded between the Moscow and Tver princes, Mikhail recognized Dmitry as his “eldest brother,” i.e. became in a subordinate position.
As a result of the internal political struggle in the northeastern Russian lands, the Moscow principality achieved a leading position in the “gathering” of Russian lands and became a real force capable of resisting the Horde and Lithuania. Since 1374, Dmitry Ivanovich stopped paying tribute to the Golden Horde.
The reasons for the strengthening of the Moscow Principality were:
favorable economic and geographical location. Moscow was located on the busy trade route Baltic - Volga region - Central Asia, and the profitable grain trade brought considerable income to the princely treasury.
favorable strategic position. Moscow, which controlled the supply of grain to Novgorod from the Volga region, blocked trade routes in crisis situations, which made the Novgorodians more accommodating. Since the 14th century in Novgorod, princes controlled by Moscow were elected.
the seizure of the Great Reign of Vladimir, which gave Moscow economic (collection of “exit”) and political (in case of disobedience, Horde detachments were used against local princes) control over all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus'.
understanding by the Moscow princes of the special role of Orthodoxy during the period of the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The Moscow princes maintained good relations with Metropolitan Peter. After the death of Peter, Kalita achieved his canonization. The residence of the metropolitans was soon in Moscow. Ivan Kalita built the first stone Moscow Cathedral of the Assumption of the Mother of God. Moscow turned into the religious center of North-Eastern Rus'.
exceptional pragmatism of the Moscow princes. They were among the first to cooperate closely with the Horde. This made it possible to subjugate almost all the principalities of North-Eastern Rus' to Moscow and ensure the end of the Horde pogroms, as well as restrain the onslaught of Lithuania.
The formation of a centralized state is an important stage in the development of Russian statehood. The process of centralization took place over two centuries, filled with turbulent, dramatic events.
Reasons for the formation of a centralized state
1. Growth of material production, development of commodity economy.
2. Development of cities - centers of trade and crafts. Their interest in unification.
3. The interest of small and medium-sized feudal lords in centralized power, capable of keeping large feudal lords in check and ensuring the safety of their lands from peasant uprisings.
4. The need to liberate Russian lands from the Mongol yoke.
5. Ensuring the country's defense on the western borders.
6. Expansion of the scale of land ownership of large feudal lords, which forced them to look for ways to secure the peasants with the help of a strong central government.
7. The rise of craft production, especially in industries related to military production (firearms appeared at the end of the 14th century)
Lecture 12
The Rise of Moscow
The principality of Moscow became the head of the unifying state. A number of reasons contributed to the economic growth and political rise of Moscow:
1) Favorable geographical location;
2) Moscow was in the center of the Russian principalities, which protected it from attacks from the outside;
3) People flocked to Moscow from all sides, seeking refuge, and this increased its population
4) Moscow stood at the crossroads of the most important trade routes:
water - the Moscow River connected the upper Volga with the middle Oka
and land - connecting South-Western Rus' with North-Eastern Russia, as well as Novgorod with the Oka-Volga region.
5) The skillful, far-sighted policy of the Moscow princes.
Lecture 13
Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340)
By the beginning of the 14th century, the Moscow principality almost doubled in size. Moscow emerged as a contender for the great reign and entered into a fight with the main enemy Tver. In the bloody drama that played out over the next two decades, both the Tver prince Mikhail and his enemy, the Moscow prince Yuri, and the son of the Tver prince fell. Probably no soothsayer or clairvoyant could have said at that time which side would win.
But the Moscow princely table went to the talented and energetic Prince Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita (grandson of Alexander Nevsky). Of the five brothers, only he survived, and the rest died childless. This seemingly historical accident led to important consequences. The Moscow principality was not divided or split between heirs. It fell entirely into the hands of Ivan Danilovich. And these hands were reliable.
An excellent diplomat and skillful politician, Ivan Danilovich managed to protect the Principality of Moscow from Tatar raids. The chronicler noted that after Ivan’s reign “there was great silence for 40 years, and the Tatars stopped fighting the Russian land and killing Christians...”. The fact is that Ivan Danilovich very successfully pursued the policy of giving gifts, which had already become traditional for Moscow princes. Both the khan and his wives knew that every visit of Ivan was a mountain of gifts, a huge tribute collected in the Russian lands. Ivan Danilovich used peace and friendship with the Horde to strengthen the positions of the Moscow principality.
He dealt a terrible blow to Tver, Moscow’s main rival. In 1327, an uprising against the Tatars broke out in Tver. Ivan led the punitive expedition. The Tver land was devastated, and the Horde khan Uzbek transferred the label to the great reign to Ivan Kalita, as well as the right to collect Tatar tribute.
Using relations with the Tatars and the right to collect tribute, Ivan Kalita pursued a skillful policy of strengthening and expanding his principality. For hoarding, he received the nickname Kalita (“purse”), but went down in history as the “gatherer of Russian land.”
The relocation of the head of the Russian Orthodox Church to Moscow was important. Since the time of the Kyiv prince Vladimir, the Russian land has had one metropolitan. His place of residence was a very important matter for the princes. The city in which the head of the Russian church lived was considered the capital of the Russian land. The far-sighted Ivan Danilovich built the first stone church in Moscow, the Assumption Cathedral, and invited Metropolitan Peter, who lived in Moscow for a long time, to leave Vladimir completely. Peter agreed. His successor Theognostus finally made Moscow the center of the Russian metropolitanate.
Ivan Kalita strengthened the position of the Moscow Principality and laid the foundations of its power. Kalita is called the first collector of Russian land, who laid the foundation for the rise of Moscow. He devoted a lot of time and attention to the construction of the new capital of the Russian land - Moscow. After the Assumption Cathedral, the Archangel Cathedral, which became the tomb of the Moscow princes, and the court church of the Savior on Bor were soon built.
Ivan Danilovich died in 1340, having become a monk. History remembers him as a wise politician who laid the first foundation stones of the Russian centralized state. The Orthodox Church was a powerful ally of his policies. And such a policy, which made it possible to work peacefully, found support among the people. From the second half of the 14th century. The North-Eastern lands with the center in Moscow received the name "Great Rus'". This is where the name “Great Russian people” comes from.
Lecture 14
Battle of Kulikovo
The reign of Kalita's grandson, Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359 - 1389), was noted as an outstanding political success of Moscow. A distinctive feature of the Moscow prince was military valor. Having established his power over the Russian princes, subjugating Tver and Ryazan to Moscow, Dmitry Ivanovich decided to enter into the fight against the main enemy of Rus' - the Golden Horde.
In the 60s of the XIV century. In the Golden Horde, Temnik Mamai seized power. Mamai is preparing a decisive campaign against Rus': he gathers a huge army, enters into an alliance with the Lithuanian prince Jagiel and a secret alliance with the Ryazan prince Oleg, dissatisfied with the strengthening of Moscow.
Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich prepared in advance to repel the Mamaev hordes, strengthening the unity of the country, gathering an all-Russian army. According to the chronicler, 23 princes responded to his call to all Russian princes to gather at Kolomna with troops and governors. The blessing of St. Sergius of Radonezh, abbot of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, the most influential church figure on an all-Russian scale, had a huge moral and spiritual impact on the morale of the Russian troops. Dmitry Ivanovich managed to assemble an army of 100-150 thousand people, unprecedented for Rus'. In essence, it was a national militia.
To prevent Mamai from uniting with Jagiel, Dmitry Ivanovich hurried to give the Tatars a general battle. The outcome of the struggle was decided by the battle on September 8, 1380 on the Kulikovo Field - on the right bank of the Don at the confluence of the Nepryadva River. Having crossed here, the Russian army deliberately cut off its path to retreat. Strategically, its position was advantageous - both flanks were covered by a river and a ravine, the Tatar cavalry had nowhere to turn around. In addition, Dmitry Ivanovich used an attack from an ambush regiment, which was camouflaged, and at a critical moment in the battle his appearance, unexpected for the Tatars, played a decisive role. At first, the Tatar cavalry managed to push back the center and left flank of the Russians, but an ambush regiment hit them in the rear. The defeat was complete. Having lost two-thirds of his army, Mamai fled. The Battle of Kulikovo Field was perhaps the bloodiest battle in Russian history. However, the victory did not lead to the immediate revival of the independence of the Russian state. Dmitry Ivanovich received the honorary nickname “Donskoy”.
The historical significance of the Battle of Kulikovo is that its result led to the collapse of the Tatar-Lithuanian plans for the division of Rus'. The myth of the invincibility of the Horde was dispelled. In addition, the victory of the all-Russian army under the leadership of the Moscow Prince, blessed by the Orthodox Church, became the strongest factor in the spiritual unity of all Russians. The greatest historian of the 19th century, V.O. Klyuchevsky, rightly believed that the Moscow state was born on the Kulikovo field.
Lecture 15
Muscovite Rus' under Ivan III
Ivan III (1462-1505) made a significant contribution to the strengthening of the Russian centralized state. Ivan Vasilyevich (Donskoy’s great-grandson) was 23 years old when power over North-Eastern Russia passed into his hands. Contemporaries testify that he was thin, tall, with regular, even beautiful features of a courageous face. By the end of his life, Ivan III concentrated in his hands immense power that no European sovereign had possessed. This was achieved not only by his ambition, but also by the support of all classes.
Ivan III was able to lay the foundation of the empire and bring to the end the fight against the foreign yoke. Moscow governors ruled in the former princely capitals - Nizhny Novgorod, Suzdal. Yaroslav, Rostov, Beloozero. In 1478, Ivan III conquered the Novgorod feudal republic. Following Novgorod, the Grand Duchy of Tver was conquered. In 1480, the Tatar-Mongol yoke was overthrown.
Ivan III carried out a military reform: instead of feudal squads supplied by boyars, the army was staffed with noble militias, noble cavalry, and foot regiments with firearms (arquebuses).
A centralized administration apparatus was formed with the participation of the nobility - the Boyar Duma, the Grand Palace and the Treasury.
The most significant was the judicial reform of Ivan III, promulgated in 1497 in the form of a special collection of laws - the Code of Laws.
Ivan III carried out a calendar reform. Since 1472 (since the seven thousandth year from the creation of the world), the New Year began to be celebrated not on March 1, but on September 1.
According to most historians, Ivan III was a worthy descendant of the Moscow princes - collectors of Russian lands. If in 1462 Ivan III inherited a principality of 430 thousand sq. km, then already upon the accession of his grandson Ivan IV to the throne in 1533, the state territory of Rus' increased 6 times, reaching 2,800 thousand sq. km. km with a population of several million people. From now on, the largest European and Middle Eastern countries had to take the powerful Russian state into account.
In accordance with his new political position as sovereign over the united Russian land, Ivan III officially called himself: "Sovereign of All Rus'".
In order to increase the prestige of his power, Ivan III, after the death of his first wife, married Sophia Paleologus, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI. The outward expression of continuity with the Byzantine Empire were barmas (mantles) and the “Monomakh’s hat,” allegedly given by the Byzantine emperor to Vladimir Monomakh.
Under Ivan III, a new coat of arms of the Russian state was adopted. The old Moscow coat of arms, depicting a horseman slaying a serpent with a spear, was combined with the Byzantine double-headed eagle.
Lecture 16
Annexation of Novgorod to the Moscow Principality
During the years of the formation of a centralized state, the existence of a powerful independent land - the Novgorod feudal republic - became an obstacle to political unification.
In 1462, the Moscow throne was occupied by Ivan III, the son of Vasily II the Dark. The first decade of his reign, he was busy preparing an active campaign against Novgorod.
The Novgorod rulers realized that maintaining independence from Moscow, which was growing stronger every year, would not be easy. The internal situation of Novgorod was further complicated by the fact that there was no unity among the Novgorodians themselves: part of the population believed that they should submit to the Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III. But despite all these problems, the Novgorod government, actually headed by Marfa Boretskaya (the widow of the mayor), decided to defend its independence. The Novgorodians entered into an alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in order to find a counterbalance to the growing Moscow. An agreement with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir was signed. Under its terms, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania guaranteed the independence of the Novgorod Republic.
Ivan III soon became aware of the agreement. He regarded his appeal to Lithuania as a betrayal of the Orthodox faith (after all, the rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were Catholics). It was decided to start a war. The decisive battle took place on the Shelon River (July 1471). The Novgorod troops were completely defeated, some boyars - opponents of Moscow - were captured, among them the son of Martha Boretskaya, mayor Dmitry. By order of the Grand Duke, the most stubborn opponents of Moscow, who were captured, were executed.
The defeat of the Novgorodians was predetermined because there was no unity among the residents of Novgorod - some of the townspeople did not approve of turning to Lithuania for help against Moscow. In addition, one of the most combat-ready units of the Novgorod army, the archbishop's regiment, refused to participate in the battle, and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir did not provide any assistance to his allies. In such conditions, continuing the fight with Moscow had no chance of success. However, Ivan III did not abolish the independence of Novgorod this time; the power of the Grand Duke in judicial matters was only strengthened and the republic was deprived of the right to foreign relations.
Novgorod was finally conquered in January 1478. The city was surrounded by Moscow troops, and the government of the Novgorod Republic had to capitulate. The symbol of independence - the veche bell - was taken to Moscow, and governors appointed by the Grand Duke began to govern Novgorod. Subsequently, most of the Novgorod boyars were evicted from the city, their lands were confiscated, and Novgorod forever became part of the Russian state.
Lecture 17
The fall of the Horde yoke.
In the 30s XV century The collapse of the once mighty Golden Horde began. In the lower reaches of the Volga, an entity called the Great Horde continued to exist. The khans of the Great Horde sought to restore the power of the Tatar-Mongol state. Khan Akhmat managed to achieve some success in this direction. Under him, the Horde strengthened somewhat.
At the same time, Moscow was strengthening. In the first years of the reign of Ivan III, Rus' still continued to pay tribute, but from about the mid-70s. payment of tribute ceases. The rulers of the Great Horde, and first of all Khan Akhmat himself, understood that only military pressure, a victorious and destructive campaign could force the Russians to resume paying tribute. Khan Akhmat intensively prepared for such a campaign: an army was gathered, an alliance was concluded with Lithuania, which envisaged a joint action against Ivan III. The Russian ruler was also preparing for an impending decisive clash with the Horde. Ivan III entered into an alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey, who did not benefit from the strengthening of Akhmat, who laid claim to Crimea.
Events unfolded in 1480. Akhmat’s huge army (about 100 thousand) set off on a campaign. Most likely, the Tatars planned to unite with the Lithuanian troops, but at that moment the possessions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were raided by Ivan III’s ally Mengli-Girey. In such conditions, the Lithuanian ruler was unable to provide assistance to Khan Akhmat. Meanwhile, the troops of the Great Horde found themselves on the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka River). On the other bank there were Moscow troops. The Tatars tried to cross the river, and the Russians tried to prevent this.
The clashes continued for several months, occasionally interrupted by negotiations, during which Akhmat insisted on maintaining the yoke. Clashes and negotiations came to nothing. Meanwhile, autumn came, Ugra froze, snow fell. Akhmat's ally Kazimir Lithuanian never appeared. The Tatars began to experience a shortage of food and fodder. On November 11, 1480, Akhmat withdrew his troops to the steppes. Thus ended the event that went down in history as “standing on the Ugra.” The Horde yoke, which lasted 240 years, ended. Soon the Khan of the Great Horde, Akhmat, was killed by his rivals, and a few years later the Horde finally disintegrated.
Lecture 18
Reign of Vasily III.
After the death of Ivan III, his eldest son from his second wife Sophia Paleologus Vasily III (1505 - 1533) became the Grand Duke. The new Grand Duke continued the policies of his father. What Ivan III did not have time to complete, Vasily completed.
Under Vasily III, the independence of the last remaining unannexed Russian lands was finally eliminated. In 1510, the independent history of Pskov ended: the veche bell was removed and taken to Moscow, and the city began to be governed by the governors of the Grand Duke.
In 1521, the Ryazan principality suffered a similar fate. The last Ryazan prince fled to the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Another task was no less important: to return the Russian lands that continued to be part of Lithuania. In 1512 - 1522 There was another Russian-Lithuanian war. The Moscow government apparently hoped to occupy Smolensk, and then the territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine. But these optimistic hopes were not destined to come true. The only major success was the capture of Smolensk (1514). After this, one could expect new victories, but in reality it happened differently: in the same year, Russian troops suffered a heavy defeat near Orsha. The war, which continued for several more years, did not lead either side to decisive successes. Under the terms of the truce of 1522, only Smolensk and its surrounding area became part of Russia.
As a result, under Vasily III, the return of the main core of the Great Russian lands was completed.
Lecture 19
Ivan the Terrible and his time. Domestic policy of Ivan IV
The reign of Ivan the Terrible was of great importance for Russian history, for the further strengthening of the Russian state and autocratic power
The policy of Ivan IV went through two stages:
1) The reforms of the 50s strengthened autocratic power, limited by estate-representative institutions in the center and locally.
2) Then the oprichnina became an attempt to establish an absolute monarchy.
On January 16, 1547, for the first time in Russian history, the crowning of the former Grand Duke Ivan IV took place. The adoption of the royal title emphasized the autocratic nature of power.
Under the young king, a council is created - “Elected Rada” from representatives of the nobility and nobility. Alexei Adashev and Archpriest Sylvester had a special influence on the tsar. Princes Kurbsky, Sheremetyev and others also participated in the development of reforms.
February 1549 marks the beginning of the activity of “Zemsky Sobors” in Rus'. The first council is usually considered to be a meeting convened by the tsar on January 27, 1550. Ivan IV addressed representatives of the boyars and nobles with a program of reforms.
The government begins to develop a new Code of Law, which was adopted in 1550 by the Boyar Duma. The Code of Law of 1550 strengthened the centralization of state administration by increasing the role of central bodies - orders and sharply limiting the power of governors.
The tax privileges of large secular and spiritual feudal lords were limited.
The Code of Law increased the payment of peasants for leaving their master on St. George’s Day.
The Code of Law significantly strengthened serfdom.
The adoption of the Code of Law marked the beginning of a number of reforms.
The “Code of Service”, adopted in 1556, according to which patrimonies were equated militarily to estates, completed the formation of the Russian army. The basis of the armed forces was now the horse militia of landowners. The landowner or patrimonial owner had to go to the service “Horse, crowded and armed.” In addition to them, there were service people according to the instrument (recruitment): city guards, artillerymen, archers. The militia of peasants and townspeople also remained. The Streltsy were a regular army, armed with the latest weapons and supported by the treasury.
In the middle of the 16th century, the highest state body arose - the Zemsky Sobors, convened to resolve the most important issues. The participation of boyars, nobles, clergy and merchants in them spoke of the transformation of the state into an estate-representative monarchy.
In 1555-1556. The feeding system is being eliminated and local management is changing.
Instead of governors, elected zemstvo elders of wealthy people and peasants appear.
General supervision of local government was carried out by provincial elders.
In those same years, church reform was carried out. At church councils, an all-Russian canonization of saints was carried out, which should symbolize the unification of the Russian people into a single state. In 1551, at the Stoglavy Cathedral, services and church rituals were unified, and measures were taken to strengthen the authority of the church.
Oprichnina (1564 – 1572)
Solving the most important task - Russia's access to the Baltic Sea, Ivan IV in 1558 declared war on the Livonian Order. All failures in this war, in the opinion of Ivan IV, were rooted in boyar treason: 1) the commander of the Russian army, Andrei Kurbsky, went over to the side of the enemy; 2) opposition to the boyars was created even in the government. The boyars oppose the great war for Livonia.
The government and the “Elected Rada” are disintegrating. Conspiracies are uncovered, reprisals and executions follow. All this, as well as the need to mobilize forces for war, prompts Grozny to introduce a new order of government in the country. It is aimed at the complete destruction of any opposition to the autocracy.
Grozny introduced the oprichnina, carrying out a kind of coup d'etat on December 3, 1564. According to the new order, the central administration is divided into oprichnina and zemstvo courtyards. The country's lands were also divided into oprichnina and zemshchina. The oprichnina included mainly central, partly southern counties, where princely-boyar land ownership predominated.
Boyars and nobles who were not registered in the oprichnina moved to the zemshchina, receiving new estates there. “Oprichna service people” were placed on the lands taken from them. Disgraced boyars were deprived of their ancestral estates. Such measures dealt a strong blow to the political and economic power of the “Great Boyar families”. The main measure was the creation of an oprichnina army (1000 people - the tsar’s personal guard). The guardsmen, who became the middle-class nobles, were given extraordinary punitive functions - “gnaw traitors” and “sweep out treason from the state” (the sign of the guardsman is the head of a dog and a broom at the saddle of a horse) - i.e. carry out surveillance and reprisals throughout the country. Secret investigations, torture, mass executions, destruction of estates, plunder of the property of disgraced boyars, punitive expeditions to cities and counties became commonplace. The Novgorod massacre is one of the bloodiest cases of the oprichnina. In 1572, the oprichnina was abolished.
Lecture 20
Ivan the Terrible and his time. Foreign policy of the Russian state under Ivan IV.
The main directions of foreign policy in the middle of the second half of the 16th century were the following:
1. In the east and southeast, the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the advance into Siberia
2. In the west, an attempt to reach the Baltic Sea
Annexation of the Kazan and Astrakhan Khanates.
Two campaigns of Russian troops against Kazan were unsuccessful.
In 1551, on the approaches to Kazan, the powerful fortress of Sviyazhsk was built, where the main forces of the Russian troops began to gather. In the summer of 1552, a huge army led by Ivan the Terrible besieged Kazan. The army of the Crimean Khan, an ally of the Kazan Khan, was repulsed; Russian troops, after a month-long siege, took the city by storm.
The outcome of the “Kazan War” determined the fate of the Astrakhan Khanate. In 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate was taken by Russian troops. As a result, the Middle and Lower Volga regions were annexed to Russia. The Nogai Horde and Bashkiria were also annexed to Russia. The Volga trade route, which connected the Russian state with the East, turned out to be free.
Annexation of Western Siberia.
In 1581, at the expense of wealthy merchants the Stroganovs, a military expedition of Cossacks was organized under the leadership of Ermak. In 1582, the Cossacks took the main fortification of the Siberian Khan Kuchum. Later, Kuchum attacked the Cossacks at night and Ermak was killed. But the fate of the Khanate was already predetermined: the peoples of Western Siberia were annexed to Russia.
Livonian War (1558-1583).
The main reason for the war was Russia's struggle for access to the Baltic Sea. For 25 years, Ivan IV fought the grueling Livonian War. The war was caused by the need to establish close ties with Western Europe, which were then easiest to establish across the seas, as well as the need to defend the western borders.
There are 4 stages in the history of the war:
1. Marked by brilliant victories of Russian weapons. Narva, Yuryev and other cities were taken. In 1561, Livonia as a state of German knights ceased to exist. However, Lithuania, Poland, Germany, Sweden, and Denmark did not want to put up with Russia's access to the Baltic Sea.
2. Russian troops suffer major defeats. The commander of the Russian army, Andrei Kurbsky, went over to the side of the enemies. Military operations are progressing with varying degrees of success, and the international situation is becoming increasingly unfavorable for Russia. In 1569, under the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania became a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Since 1569, the Crimean Tatars, incited by Turkey, began predatory raids on Russian lands. The largest of these was the attack on Moscow in 1571, when the capital was burned.
3. Russia's main opponent is Sweden. Russian troops won a number of victories, but were unable to take Riga and Revel.
4. Polish king Stefan Batory makes a series of major campaigns against Russian lands and besieges Pskov. Sweden captures Narva and the entire Russian coast of the Gulf of Finland. Russia did not have the strength to continue the war. In 1582, peace was concluded between Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with both sides renouncing the conquered territories. In 1583, a truce was concluded between Russia and Sweden. Narva and the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland, except for the mouth of the Neva River, passed to Sweden.
As a result of the Livonian War, Russia not only was unable to access the sea, but also lost many of its ancestral lands in the Baltic states.
The reasons for the defeat were explained by the country's unpreparedness for a long war and the poor equipment of the Russian army. At the same time, the opponents of the Russian army were the armies of Western states, equipped according to Western European models. Russia found itself in international isolation. The oprichnina and the internal crisis in the country further weakened its strength.
The significance of this war for the history of Russia was that the Livonian Order ceased to exist. Access to the Baltic Sea became the main issue of Russian foreign policy in the subsequent period.
Lecture 21
The Moscow state at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. Troubles.
In 1584, the son of Ivan IV, Fedor, ascended the Russian throne. But in fact, his relative, boyar Boris Godunov, a cautious and intelligent politician who enjoyed the trust of the tsar, became the ruler. Boris Godunov managed to withstand a fierce struggle with the boyar aristocracy for influence on state affairs and could take the throne after the death of the childless Fedor. This task was made easier by the unexpected death on May 15, 1591 of the nine-year-old Tsarevich Dmitry, the youngest son of Ivan IV. Opponents of Boris Godunov attributed to him the murder of the prince in order to seize power.
Troubles
In 1601-1602, the fugitive monk of the Chudovo Monastery, Grigory Otrepiev, appeared in the Polish possessions in Ukraine, posing as Tsarevich Dmitry, the son of Ivan the Terrible, who allegedly escaped from assassins in Uglich. The impostor turned to Polish magnates and King Sigismund of Poland for help. He had to pay for his help with some Russian lands and a promise to subordinate the Russian Orthodox Church to the papal throne. False Dmitry secretly converted to Catholicism. The Polish king did not dare to openly support the impostor and the invasion of Russia was organized as a private enterprise of Polish magnates.
In the fall of 1604, False Dmitry with a small army of Poles and Cossacks crossed the Russian border and moved towards Moscow. The news of the appearance of the “legitimate Tsar Dmitry” raised hopes among peasants and townspeople for a better life. In April 1605, Boris Godunov died suddenly. In June 1605, an uprising broke out in Moscow. The boyars took advantage of this, arrested and then killed Boris Godunov's son Fedor and his mother. False Dmitry entered Moscow. However, having seized the throne, he could not hold it. False Dmitry did not transfer the outlying lands to Poland because it would have looked like a clear betrayal. It was also impossible to convert the Russian people to Catholicism, since this would provoke resistance not only from the church, but also from the entire people. False Dmitry causes serious discontent among everyone. Muscovites were especially outraged by the behavior of 2 thousand Poles who arrived in Moscow for the wedding of False Dmitry with the daughter of a Polish tycoon, Marina Mniszech. Taking advantage of this, the boyars led by Vasily Shuisky raised an uprising in Moscow on May 17, 1606. False Dmitry was killed.
Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610) comes to power. Having become king, he pursues policies in the interests of a narrow circle of boyar nobility. Peasant unrest that arose in some areas developed into a peasant war - an uprising led by Ivan Bolotnikov (1606-1607). The unstable internal situation in Russia made it possible to once again intensify the aggressive plans of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Polish magnates found a new impostor, False Dmitry II (1607-1610). Hopes for a “good tsar” Dmitry again attracted masses of peasants and townspeople (townspeople) to the impostor. Some of the boyars and nobles who were dissatisfied with Vasily Shuisky went over to his side. In a short period of time, the power of the impostor, who received the nickname “Tushino thief”, came into power. And the Polish gentry spread to many regions. In June 1608, False Dmitry II approached Moscow, but he failed to take it and he became a camp near the capital in the village of Tushino. The siege of Moscow dragged on for a year and a half. Polish troops scattered throughout the country in attempts to gain dominance over all of Russia, but the robberies and outrages of the Tushino troops caused powerful popular resistance.
Vasily Shuisky, fearing the spontaneous movement of the grassroots, turned to Sweden for help, sacrificing national interests. In February 1609, an alliance was concluded with Sweden, according to which Russia renounced its claims to the Baltic coast, and Sweden provided troops to fight False Dmitry II. The Swedish government viewed this agreement as a convenient pretext for interfering in Russia's internal affairs and pursuing its territorial claims. However, the political situation in the country has worsened even more.
Lecture 22
Foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles. People's militias.
In 1609, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which no longer needed False Dmitry II, declared war on Russia. Open intervention began. In 1610, the Swedes left the Russian army and began plundering northwestern Russia. Discontent with the government of Vasily Shuisky has reached its limit. As a result of a conspiracy in July 1610, Moscow boyars and nobles overthrew Shuisky from the throne. Power passed into the hands of seven boyars. This government was called the “Seven Boyars” (1610-1613). To save their power and privileges, the boyars took the path of national treason. In August 1610, an agreement was concluded with the Poles on the recognition of the son of the Polish king Sigismund III, Vladislav, as the Russian Tsar. Polish invaders occupied the capital and many cities in the center and west of the country. The Swedes ruled the north-west. During this most difficult period of the Russian state, the Russian people appeared on the historical stage. From the beginning of 1611, the first people's militia was created in Ryazan, headed by the nobleman Lyapunov. However, this militia was not successful. As a result of internal disagreements, it collapsed, and Lyapunov was killed.
In September 1611, in Nizhny Novgorod, the posad elder Kuzma Minin and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky formed the Second Militia, which in October 1612 liberated Moscow from the invaders. In February 1613, the head of state, the new Tsar Mikhail Romanov, was elected at the Zemsky Sobor. Tsar Mikhail Romanov (1613-1645) was tasked with putting an end to the interventionists. Mikhail Romanov was the son of Metropolitan Philaret, who, after returning from captivity in 1619, was elected patriarch of Russia and became the de facto ruler of the state. The new government faced the most difficult task of eliminating the consequences of the intervention. In 1617, the “Peace of Stolbovo” was concluded with Sweden, according to which the coast of the Gulf of Finland with the cities of Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod again went to it. In 1617, the Polish prince Vladislav made a campaign against Moscow, but could not capture it. In 1618, the Deulin truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was signed, depriving Russia of Smolensk and Chernigovo-Seversky lands. As a result of the fight against the invaders, Russia lost some lands, including access to the Baltic Sea. The economic devastation lasted for a long time. But the historical significance of the fight against the invaders is that the Russian people defended the independence of their Motherland.
Russia at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries ( Text from the textbook by E.D. Polnera)
Time of Troubles
The Time of Troubles (1598-1613) in the history of Russia is characterized by the weakness of state power
and disobedience of the outskirts to the center, imposture, civil war and intervention, the “great
the ruin of the Moscow state."
I. Causes of the Troubles
1. Oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible, which showed society his lack of rights in the face of the arbitrariness of the tsarist power.
2. The desire of various social groups of the population to improve their class position (serfs strived for the abolition of serfdom, nobles - for promotion for personal qualities, and not for the nobility of the family, etc.).
3. The idea of the people that power in the country should belong only to the “natural king” (the Rurik dynasty), and not to the elected one, which was the soil that nourished the impostors.
II. Conditions that contributed to the development of the Troubles
1. The struggle of the boyars to limit the power of the tsar.
2. The decline of morality (according to contemporaries).
3. Boyar disgraces, crop failures, famine and pestilence during the reign of Boris Godunov (1598-1605).
4. Activity of the Cossacks.
5. Intervention of Poland and the Catholic Church in the internal affairs of Russia.
III. Consequences of the Troubles
1. Temporary strengthening of the role of estate-representative authorities: the Boyar Duma and
1. Zemsky Sobor (during the reign of Mikhail Romanov (1613-1645), ten convocations of the Zemsky Sobor are known).
2. Economic devastation and impoverishment of the people.
3. Deterioration of Russia's international position and loss of territories during the years of turmoil (Smolensk and Northern lands went to Poland, the Baltic Sea coast to Sweden).
4. Accession of the Romanov dynasty (1613-1917).
5. Disorder of localism, which weakened the old aristocracy (boyars) and strengthened
5.positions of the serving nobility.
CONCLUSION.
With the accession of Mikhail Romanov, the reign of a new dynasty began in Russia - the Romanovs, which lasted until 1917.
