Even in primitive communal society, people knew about the structure and function of the main organs of the body of animals and humans, as evidenced by rock paintings of the Paleolithic era. For many centuries, medical knowledge and skills were based on anatomical knowledge. In Europe, the first scientists who left behind written information about the structure of the human body were Democritus and Hippocrates from Ancient Greece (5-4 centuries BC).

The first autopsies of human corpses for research purposes were performed by the doctors of Alexandria Herophilus and Erasistratus (4th century BC). They described the membranes and ventricles of the brain, venous sinuses and plexuses, the prostate gland, the duodenum, the membranes of the eye, sensory and motor nerves, valves of the heart and veins, large arteries and veins, and introduced the terms “artery” and “parenchyma”. All these studies were summarized by the ancient Roman physician Claudius Galen (2nd century AD). But in his time, the Christian religion forbade dissecting corpses and Galen could only study anatomy on animals, so there were many errors in his multi-volume “Canon of Medical Science”. In the 13th and 14th centuries, universities opened in Western Europe and medical education expanded. The beginning of a new, scientific stage in the development of anatomy occurs during the Renaissance and is associated with the works of the great scientists of this era: Lenardo da Vinci and Andrei Vesalius, who built the foundation of scientific anatomy. L. da Vinci (15-16th century) - a brilliant Italian scientist and artist is the founder of plastic anatomy, who studied human organs that influence the external shape of the body. Andrei Vesalius, the founder of modern scientific anatomy, having developed and used a high technique for dissecting corpses, at the age of 29 published his main work “On the structure of the human body” in 7 books, illustrated by the artist S. Kalkar. Doctors studied from this book until the 19th century. The 16th century produced a whole galaxy of outstanding anatomists. Vesalius' successors were Eustachius, Colombo, Fallopius, Botallo, Fabricius, and Varolius, who described various organs of the human body. 16th century anatomists created a solid foundation for descriptive anatomy.

In the 19th century and to the present day, functional anatomy is developing - the structure of organs and their variability in connection with their function (high-altitude, underwater, space conditions), increased and decreased physical activity, etc. At the same time, a new type of anatomy is being formed - anatomical anthropology. Since the mid-20th century, in connection with the development of genetics, a new direction in anatomy began to develop: causal-systemic, when they began to study not only how the body is structured, but also why it is structured this way.

In the Middle Ages in Belarus, along with monastic medicine, secular medicine received significant development. Medical doctors have been known since the end of the 15th century. They were divided into three levels: the lowest level was occupied by “lazebniki” - bathhouse attendants. They were only allowed to use cups, apply plasters, and engage in massage, mainly in baths. For these manipulations, some knowledge of human anatomy was already needed. The next level of professional doctors were barber-surgeons. They treated fractures, dislocations, abscesses, wounds and, taking the master's exam, had to answer a series of questions on anatomy, pathology and surgery. Some barbers completed their education at European universities and became certified specialists.

The scientific history of anatomy in Belarus dates back to the opening of the Grodno Medical Academy in 1775. The first professional anatomists were professors J. E. Gilibert and K. I. Virion. Gilibert founded an anatomical museum and an anatomical theater. In teaching anatomy, dissection of corpses was practiced. Gilibert's scientific research (anatomy of the bison, elk, beaver and other animals little known in Europe) earned him recognition as the founder of comparative anatomy in Belarus, Lithuania and Poland. After the academy was closed in 1781, its funds, including the anatomical museum, became the basis for the opening of the medical college of the main school of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was transformed in 1803 into the medical faculty of Vilna University. Students and some teachers moved to Vilna. At this time, the department of anatomy was headed by Professor S. Bissi. He founded an anatomical museum and wrote a textbook on myology.

In the next 20 years (1820-1840), the department was headed by natives of Belarus V.V. Pelikan, A. Belkevich and L.S. Sevruk. In the scientific research of Professor of Surgery V.V. Pelikan, special attention was paid to the anatomical basis of surgical operations. After the closure of the medical faculty in Vilna, Professor L. S. Sevruk headed the department of anatomy at Moscow University for the next 12 years. The property of the Department of Anatomy from Vilna was transferred to Kyiv University, where some preparations have been preserved to this day. One of the first anthropologists of Belarus was I. Yasinsky, a graduate of the Grodno Medical Academy and Vilna University, Doctor of Philosophy, Medicine and Surgery, author of the book “Anthropology on the Physical and Moral Qualities of Man.”

Since in the 18th-20th centuries Belarus was part of the Russian Empire, let us consider the formation of anatomical knowledge in Russia. Here two large periods can be distinguished: the first - educational - the accumulation and dissemination among the population and doctors of empirical anatomical knowledge and knowledge acquired in the cultural centers of the East and West, and the second - the development of scientific anatomy, thanks to the organization of scientific centers and the establishment of scientific anatomical schools. The first period lasted from the Middle Ages, when monasteries were centers of culture and knowledge, until the 18th century, at the beginning of which, under the influence of the reforms of Peter I, hospitals were opened, and with them medical schools for training doctors. Anatomical theaters were organized in schools, anatomy was taught according to the textbook of the Dutchman N. Bidloo.

In 1725, the Russian Academy of Sciences was created in St. Petersburg, and later Moscow University, where the departments of anatomy were organized. At first, professors invited from Western Europe taught and did research on anatomy here. However, at the same time, Russian national personnel were also being trained. Thus, the first Russian academician-anatomist A.P. Protasov (1724-1796) was engaged in the development of Russian anatomical terminology and the translation of medical books. He began to teach an anatomy course in Russian at St. Petersburg University only in 1763. Other famous anatomists and clinicians of the 18th century (M. I. Shein, K. I. Shchepin, N. M. Maksimovich-Ambodik) also developed Russian anatomical terminology, translated foreign textbooks on anatomy, sometimes supplementing them with their own data. Of the Russian anatomists of the 18th century, the following are known: Professor of Moscow University S. G. Zybelin (1735-1862), who developed an original classification of human constitutions and showed the importance of heredity and environment in morbidity; P. M. Shumlyansky (1735-1802), who defended his dissertation “On the development of the kidneys” in Strasbourg, where, using the injection of blood vessels and tubules, he described the glomerular capsule and the direct connection between arterial and venous vessels.

The second period, scientific, in Russia began in the 19th century. This was facilitated by the opening of the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg, where P. A. Zagorsky (1764-1846) founded the first scientific anatomical school, his students - I. V. Buyalsky, P. A. Naranovich and other immigrants from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. P. A. Zagorsky published the first Russian original textbook. Outstanding anatomists: N. I. Pirogov - the founder of topographic anatomy, P. F. Lesgaft developed dynamic anatomy, N. M. Yakubovich, V. A. Bets, D. N. Zernov, V. M. Bekhterev made a great contribution in the study of the central nervous system.

In the twentieth century, the schools of V. N. Tonkov, V. P. Vorobyov, G. M. Iosifov, D. A. Zhdanov, V. N. Shevkunenko, M. F. Ivanitsky, M. G. Prives, V. received worldwide recognition. V. Kupriyanova.

Higher medical education in Belarus resumed only in 1921 with the opening of the Faculty of Medicine of the Belarusian State University. The formation of the Department of Anatomy is associated with the name of Moscow University professor P. I. Karuzin. He selected a building for the department, he was involved in equipping it and selecting teachers. During the first academic year he lectured, periodically coming from Moscow. For the next 12 years (1922-1934) the department was headed by prof. S. I. Lebedkin. He continued equipping the department, creating an anatomical museum, laid down the scientific direction of the department - embryoanatomy, designed a device for graphic reconstructions, and developed issues of theoretical anatomy. In teaching, he followed the traditions of Moscow University: explaining the structure from the perspective of onto- and phylogeny, linking anatomical data with clinical practice. Professor S.I. Lebedkin is recognized as the organizer of the department and the founder of the school of Belarusian ebryologists: his students are academicians D.M. Golub and P.Ya.Gerke, professor Z.K. Slobodin.

Academician David Moiseevich Golub (1801–2001), headed the department from 1934 to 1975. He developed the problem of embryonic development of the peripheral nervous system and, as its continuation, an experimental substantiation of the possibility of reinnervation of internal organs. Under the guidance of D. M. Golub, doctoral dissertations were completed by P. I. Lobko, A. S. Leontyuk, I. I. Novikov and others, and several dozen candidates of science were prepared.

In 1934, the Vitebsk Medical Institute was opened. From the moment of its organization until 1937, the department was headed part-time by Professor S.I. Lebedkin, then until 1951. - Professor V.I. Oshkaderov, who studied the lymphatic vessels of the skeleton. His successor at the department, Professor Z. I. Ibragimova and her colleagues studied the comparative anatomy of the bone labyrinth, vascularization and innervation of the hearing organ, and blood supply to the lymph nodes. Nowadays the department is headed by Doctor of Medical Sciences A.K. Usovich.

In 1958, the Grodno Medical Institute was opened. The first lectures were given by Academician D. M. Golub. Until 1981, the department of anatomy was headed by Professor A. N. Gabuzov, who studied the anatomy of the cerebral vessels and solved the problems of establishing a young department. From 1982 to 2001, the department was headed by corresponding member. International Academy of Integrative Anthropology, Professor S. S. Usoev, and from 2001 to the present - Professor E. S. Okolokulak. The department studies anatomical variability due to chromosomal and gene mutations, substantiates the presence of normal, abnormal and conditionally abnormal constitutions, and also explores variant anatomy, linking it with the development of various nosological forms of human diseases. A number of doctoral and master's theses have been defended on these topics.

The Department of Human Anatomy (headed by Associate Professor V.N. Zhdanovich) of the Gomel Medical Institute, opened in 1991, is in its infancy: the museum is developing, personnel are being trained.

A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF ANATOMY

The history of anatomy is the history of the struggle between materialism and idealism in views on the structure and development of the human body. This struggle begins with the emergence of classes in the era of the slave system.

In ancient Greece, under the influence of materialism. Democritus and the dialectic of Heraclitus, who expressed the famous position “everything flows” (panta rhei), a materialistic view of the structure of the human body is formed.

Thus, the famous doctor of Ancient Greece, Hippocrates (460-377 BC), taught that the basis of the structure of the body is made up of four “juices”: blood (sanguis), mucus (phlegma), bile (chole) and black bile ( melaina chole). The types of human temperament depend on the predominance of one of these juices: sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. Consequently, a person’s temperament, as one of the manifestations of his mental activity, is determined by the state of the juices of the body, that is, matter. This was the materialism of Hippocrates.

The named types of temperament determined, according to Hippocrates, simultaneously different types of human constitution, which is diverse and can change according to changes in the same body juices (dialectics).

Based on this idea of ​​the body, Hippocrates also looked at diseases as the result of improper mixing of liquids, as a result of which he introduced various “liquid” remedies into the practice of treatment. This is how the “humoral” (humor - liquid) theory of the structure of the body arose, which to a certain extent has retained its significance to this day, which is why Hippocrates is considered the father of medicine.

The enemy of materialism and the representative of ancient idealism was the ideologist of the aristocratic reaction Plato (427-347 BC). According to Plato, the human body is controlled not by a material organ - the brain, but by three types of soul, or “pneuma” located in the three main organs of the body - the brain, heart and liver (Plato’s tripod).

Plato's student Aristotle (384-322 BC) was an eclectic dualist. On the one hand, he developed the idealistic teaching of his teacher Plato about the soul, which is an active, life-giving principle - entelechy; everything in nature, including man, is subordinated to the highest purposiveness of teleology (telos - goal). On the other hand, unlike Plato, he adhered to a materialistic view of the soul, which is in unity with the body and which is mortal and dies with it. He made the first attempt to compare the body of animals and study the embryo and was the founder of comparative anatomy and embryology. Aristotle expressed the correct idea, contrary to religion, that every animal comes from an animal (omne animal ex animali).

In ancient Rome, Claudius Galen (130 - about 200 AD) was an outstanding philosopher, biologist, physician, anatomist and physiologist. In his views on the organism, on the one hand, he developed the idealism of Plato and the teleology of Aristotle, and on the other, he approached the study of the organism materialistically, that is, he was essentially an eclectic. As a zealous Platonist, he believed that the body is controlled by three organs: the liver, where physical pneuma is produced, distributed through the veins; the heart, in which the vital pneuma arises, transmitted through the arteries, and the brain, the focus of the psychic pneuma, spreading through the nerves.

Following the teleological principles of Aristotle, Galen looked at the body as a marvelous machine created for a higher purpose, according to the plan of the supreme artist. Along with such idealistic views, Galen also coexisted with materialistic ones. He considered the human body to be composed of solid and liquid parts (influence of Hippocrates).

Galen's materialism was also revealed in his very approach to the study of the body, which he studied by observing patients and dissecting corpses. He was the first to use vivisection and was the founder of experimental medicine.

Throughout the Middle Ages, medicine was based on the anatomy and physiology of Galen.

In the era of feudalism IV-XVII centuries. Of the medical works, only the works of Galen were disseminated, from which the clergy emasculated the materialistic essence. They patronized the propaganda of Galen's idealistic and theological views about the creation of man according to a higher plan, i.e., by God, and persecuted those who criticized them.

By making Galen's teachings scholastic and dogmatic, the church ensured the dominance of Galenism throughout the era of feudalism, preventing the further development of anatomy and medicine in general. This was the case in Western Europe. In the East, free from the influence of Catholicism, medicine continued to develop.

After the baptism of Rus', Byzantine culture spread along with Orthodoxy and monastic medicine was created, which used the best creations of ancient science.

Anatomy and physiology for the first Russian doctors were set out in a treatise by an unknown author entitled “Aristotle’s Problems”, as well as in the comments of the abbot of the Belozersky Monastery Kirill entitled “Galinov’s Teaching on Hippocrates”, and anatomical terminology - in the work of Johann Exarch “Six Days”.

The Muslim East also played a positive role in the continuity of ancient science. Thus, Ibn Sina, or Avicenna (980-1037), wrote the “Canon of Medicine” (about 1000), which contains significant anatomical and physiological data borrowed from Hippocrates, Aristotle and Galen, and to which Ibn Sina added his own ideas that the human body is controlled not by three organs (Plato’s tripod), but by four: the heart, brain, liver and testicle (Avicenna’s quadrangle).

The “Canon of Medicine” was the best medical work of the era of feudalism, and doctors of the East and West studied according to it until the 17th century.

Ibn al-Nafiz from Damascus (12th century) first discovered the pulmonary circulation.

The Renaissance was an era “that needed titans and that gave birth to titans in the power of thought... in versatility and learning.”

Such titans also appeared in anatomy. They destroyed Galen's scholastic anatomy and built the foundation of scientific anatomy. The founder of this titanic work was Leonardo da Vinci, the founder was Vesalius and the finisher was Harvey.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), having become interested in anatomy as an artist, later became interested in it as a science, was one of the first to dissect human corpses and was a true innovator in the study of the structure of the body. In his drawings, Leonardo was the first to correctly depict various organs of the human body; made a major contribution to the development of human and animal anatomy, and was also the founder of plastic anatomy. The work of Leonardo da Vinci is believed to have influenced the works of the revolutionary in anatomy A. Vesalius.

In the oldest university of Venice, founded in 1222, the first medical school of the capitalist era (Patuan School) was formed and the first anatomical theater in Europe was built (b 1490).

It was on the soil of Padua, in an atmosphere of new interests and demands, that the anatomical revolutionary Andrei Vesalius (1514-1565) grew up. Instead of the scholastic method of interpretation characteristic of medieval science, he approached the study of the organism materialistically and used the objective method of observation. Having widely used autopsy of corpses, Vesalius was the first to systematically study the structure of the human body. At the same time, he boldly exposed and eliminated numerous errors of Galen (more than 200) and thereby began to undermine the authority of the then dominant Galenic anatomy. At that time, as Engels noted, before starting to study processes, it was necessary to study things. Thus arose a metaphysical, analytical period in anatomy, during which many discoveries of a descriptive nature were made.

Therefore, Vesalius paid special attention to the discovery and description of new anatomical facts, set out in the extensive and richly illustrated manual “On the structure of the human body in seven books” (1543), which I. P. Pavlov characterized in the following words: “The work of Vesalius is the first anatomy man in the modern history of mankind, I not repeating only the instructions and opinions of ancient authorities, but relying on the work of a free exploring mind.”

The publication of Vesalius's book caused, on the one hand, a revolution in the anatomical concepts of that time, and on the other, furious resistance from reactionary Galenist anatomists who tried to preserve Galen's declining authority. Vesalius died in this struggle, but his work was developed by his students and followers.

Thus, Gabriel Fallopius (1523-1562) gave the first detailed description of the development and structure of a number of organs. His discoveries are presented in the book Anatomical Observations. His name has been preserved to this day to designate a number of anatomical formations: “fallopian tubes”, “fallopian canal”.

Bartolomeo Eustachius (1510-1574), in addition to descriptive anatomy, also studied the history of the development of organisms, which Vesalius did not do. His anatomical knowledge and descriptions are set out in the “Manual of Anatomy”, published in 1714. His name has been preserved to this day in the designation of various anatomical formations: “Eustachian tube”, “Eustachian valve”.

Vesalius, Fallopius and Eustachius (a kind of “anatomical triumvirate”) were built in the 16th century. a solid foundation of descriptive anatomy. XVII century was a turning point in the development of medicine and anatomy. In this century, the defeat of the scholastic and dogmatic anatomy of the Middle Ages was finally completed and the foundation of truly scientific ideas was laid. This ideological defeat is associated with the name of an outstanding representative of the Renaissance, an English doctor, anatomist and physiologist

William Harvey (1578-1657) Harvey, like his great predecessor Vesalius, fought against idealism in anatomy and approached the study of the body materialistically, i.e. using observations and experience.

When studying anatomy, Harvey did not limit himself to a simple description of the structure, but approached from a historical (comparative anatomy and embryology) and functional (physiology) point of view. He expressed a brilliant guess that an animal repeats phylogeny in its ontogeny, and thus was the first to establish the biogenetic law, first proven by A. O. Kovalevsky and later formulated by Haeckel and Muller in the 19th century. Harvey also put forward, as a counterweight to religion, the materialistic position that every animal comes from an egg (omne animal ex ovo). This position became the slogan for the subsequent development of embryology, which gives the right to consider Harvey the founder of embryology.

Opening of blood circulation. Since the time of Galen, medicine has been dominated by the idealistic doctrine that blood, endowed with pneumata, moves through the vessels in the form of ebbs and flows: there was no concept of the blood circulation before Harvey. This concept was born in the struggle against Galenism, in which a number of materialist anatomists participated.

Thus, Vesalius, having become convinced of the impenetrability of the septum between the ventricles of the heart, was the first to criticize Galen’s idea of ​​​​the passage of blood from the right half of the heart to the left, allegedly through holes in the interventricular septum.

Vesalius's student Peald Colombo (1516-1559) showed that blood from the right heart enters the left not through the indicated septum, but through the lungs through the pulmonary vessels. The Spanish physician and theologian Miguel Servet (1509-1553) wrote about this in his work “The Restoration of Christianity.” As an enemy of idealism, he was accused of heresy and burned at the stake with his book in 1553. Thus, the development of anatomy was associated with the tragic fate that usually befell many advanced fighters of science who encroached on the authority of the church. Neither Colombo nor Servetus apparently knew about the discovery of the Arab Ibn al-Nafiz, mentioned above.

Another successor of Vesalius and Harvey's teacher, Hieronymus Fabrice (1537-1619), described venous valves in 1574. These studies prepared the discovery of blood circulation by Harvey, who, on the basis of his many years (17 years) of experiments, rejected Galen’s idealistic teaching about pneuma and instead of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe ebb and flow of blood, he painted a harmonious picture of its circulation.

Harvey outlined the results of his research in the famous treatise “An Anatomical Study of the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals” (1628).

Harvey's little book created an era in medicine.

Its publication caused a double reaction: sympathetic - from advanced scientists and angry - from conservatives. The scientific society of that time was divided into two parties - Galenists and Harveyists, who expressed two worldviews in science - idealistic and materialistic. Harvey himself, like Vesalius, was subjected to persecution and slander, but the materialist teaching defeated him. This is the dialectical law of irresistibility in the development of the living, progressive.

After Harvey’s discovery, the transition of arteries into veins was still unclear, but Harvey predicted the existence between them of anastomoses invisible to the eye, which was later confirmed by Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694), when the microscope was invented and microscopic anatomy arose. Malpighi made many discoveries in the field of the microscopic structure of the skin (Malpighian layer), spleen (Malpighian corpuscles), kidney (Malpighian corpuscles) and a number of other organs.

Having studied the anatomy of plants, Malpighi expanded Harvey's position “every animal is from an egg” into the position “every living thing is from an egg” (omne vivum ex ovo).

Malpighi was the one who discovered the capillaries predicted by Harvey. However, he believed that blood from the arterial capillaries first enters the “intermediate spaces” and only then into the venous capillaries.

Only A. M. Shumlyansky (1748-1795), who studied the structure of the kidneys, proved the absence of mythical “intermediate spaces” and the presence of a direct connection between arterial and venous capillaries. Thus, A. M. Shumlyansky was the first to show that the circulatory system is closed, and this finally “closed” the circle of blood circulation.

So, the idea of ​​​​blood circulation was the result of the collective creativity of a number of brilliant scientists. At the beginning of this row stands Vesalius, at the end - Harvey. Between them there was a whole period of struggle between materialists and idealists, as a result of which scholastic Galenism in medicine was finally defeated.

Therefore, the discovery of blood circulation was important not only for anatomy and physiology, but also for all biology and medicine. It marked a new era: the end of the scholastic medicine of feudalism and the beginning of the scientific medicine of capitalism.

In the era of capitalism, French materialism of the 18th century emerged. Fighting against idealism and religion, French materialism tore the crown of divine creation from man and proved that all nature, inorganic and organic, including man, is subject to general laws. Since of all the sciences at that time only mechanics was the most developed, these general laws were reduced to the laws of mechanics, and French materialism itself was mechanistic. Among its representatives were doctors. “This school begins with the doctor Leroy, with the doctor Cabanis it reaches its culmination, the doctor La Mettrie is its center.”

Julien Auffray La Mettrie (1709-1751) viewed the human body as a special kind of animated machine, and he entitled his famous treatise “Man is a Machine.” For the publication of this atheistic work, La Mettrie was attacked and persecuted by churchmen.

The views of the largest anatomists of the 15th century were formed on the basis of mechanistic materialism. -Morgagni, Bisha et al.

Giovanni Morgagni (1682-1771) created pathological anatomy. Since during the autopsy of corpses changes in large structures - organs - were striking, he considered the cause of the disease to be diseases of the organs and looked at the body as a mechanical sum of them. This is how the organolocalistic direction in medicine arose, which had progressive significance until a certain time.

C. Bichat (1771-1802) deepened this mechanistic direction, shifting attention from organs to tissues and laying the foundations of histology (the science of tissues). If Morgagni looked at the body as a sum of organs, then Bichat saw it as a sum of tissues; He considered them carriers of diseases.

Although Bichat's general views on the organism represent a mixture of mechanistic materialism with idealism (he endowed tissues with a special vital force), nevertheless they played a large role in the development of morphology.

In the 19th century The cellular theory was created, which consisted in recognizing in cells that which is common to plants and animals and from which the tissues and organs of all living organisms arise. Therefore, Engels pointed out among the three great discoveries of natural science of the 19th century. cell theory.

The German morphologist Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) applied the theory of cellular structure to the study of a diseased organism and created the so-called cellular pathology. This is the positive side of Virchow’s work. However, his views also had a negative impact. Supporting the then bourgeois system of Prussia as a statesman, he compared the body with a state of cells, a federation of cellular territories. Such a denial of the integrity of the organism was a mechanism, and the endowment of individual cellular territories with the ability for independent life was vitalism, i.e., idealism. Such views of Virchow on the body ran counter to the advanced philosophy of dialectical materialism that was already emerging at that time, as a result of which they were criticized by one of the founders of this philosophy, Engels. Virchow did not recognize the leading role of the nervous system in unifying the body and thereby hindered the development of the idea of ​​nervism. He also opposed Darwin's evolutionary idea, which showed himself to be a metaphysician.

The totality of all these idealistic, mechanistic and metaphysical ideas, called “Virchowianism... began to dominate in bourgeois medicine, which acquired an anatomical-localistic character. And it took a long time - almost 100 years - to ideologically defeat Virchowianism. This was done in our country - the birthplace of the dialectical-materialist idea of ​​nervism, which replaced the reactionary idea of ​​Virchowianism.

In contrast to the metaphysical view in the 19th century. The dialectical idea of ​​development began to strengthen, which revolutionized biology and medicine and became an entire doctrine (Darwinism), which laid the foundation for evolutionary morphology.

Darwinism was prepared by the entire course of previous science, primarily embryology and comparative anatomy. Thus, member of the Russian Academy of Sciences K.F. Wolf (1733-1794) showed that in the process of embryogenesis no initial transformation (preformation) of organs exists, but they arise and develop anew (epigenesis). Therefore, in contrast to the idealistic theory of preformationism, he put forward the materialist theory of epigenesis and was a pioneer of materialist embryology, for which he was persecuted by idealist scientists.

The French naturalist Lamarck (1774-1828), in his work “Philosophy of Zoology” (1809), was one of the first to express the idea of ​​the evolution of an organism under the influence of the environment.

The continuator of Wolf's embryological research, Russian academician K. M. Baer (1792-1876), discovered the egg of mammals and humans, established the main laws of individual development of organisms (ontogenesis), which underlie modern embryology, and created the doctrine of germ layers. These studies made him famous as the father of embryology. Baer, ​​shortly before Darwin, expressed the idea of ​​​​transformation of species, and although he criticized Darwin for his position on the struggle for existence, he believed that he “prepared Darwin’s teaching.”

The brilliant English scientist Charles Darwin (1809-1882), in his epoch-making work “The Origin of Species” (1859), proved the unity of the animal world and came to the conclusion that man originated, along with modern anthropomorphic apes, from a now extinct form of highly developed apes.

The totality of the facts discovered by Darwin and his theory were called Darwinism, which exposed the biblical legend about the creation of man by God and dealt a crushing blow to religion. Therefore, the church and reactionary science began to hinder the development of Darwinism in Western Europe and America. It should be noted that thanks to the works of advanced Russian materialist scientists, Darwinism began to develop rapidly in Russia, where it found, as it were, a second home.

The embryological studies of A. O. Kovalevsky, as well as Baer, ​​Müller, Darwin and Haeckel, found their expression in the so-called biogenetic law (“ontogenesis repeats phylogeny”). The latter was deepened and corrected by A. N. Severtsov. A. N. Severtsov showed the influence of environmental factors on the body structure of animals and, applying evolutionary teaching to anatomy, became the creator of evolutionary morphology. This is how Darwinism received its development in the works of Russian morphologists and embryologists.

The classics of Marxism, on the one hand, criticized Darwinism for its methodological errors, and on the other, highly rated it as one of the three greatest discoveries of natural science of the 19th century. Engels even compared the role of Marx in the science of society with the role of Darwin in the science of nature.

Having shown that man descended from some ancient ape, Darwin resolved this issue one-sidedly, illuminating it from the biological side; he was not able to show the factors that determined the emergence of man. This problem was resolved by the founders of Marxism, K. Marx and F. Engels, of whom the latter, in his essay “The Role of Labor in the Process of Transformation of Ape into Man” (written in 1876, published in 1896) proved that the decisive condition for the formation of man was the use of tools, thanks to which a herd of monkeys turned into a society of people, “labor created man.” This theory of Engels, called the labor theory of human origins, formed the basis of advanced modern science.

Biology is one of the largest and largest sciences in the modern world. It includes a number of different sciences and sections, each of which studies certain mechanisms in the functioning of living systems, their vital functions, structure, molecular structure, and so on.

One of these sciences is the interesting, very ancient, but still relevant science of anatomy.

What does he study?

Anatomy is a science that studies the internal structure and morphological characteristics of the human body, as well as human development in the process of phylogenesis, ontogenesis and anthropogenesis.

The subject of studying anatomy is:

• the shape of the human body and all its organs;
• structure of human organs and body;
• origin of people;
• individual development of each organism (ontogenesis).

The object of study of this science is man and all his external and internal structural features.

Anatomy itself as a science developed a very long time ago, since interest in the structure and functioning of internal organs has always been relevant for humans. However, modern anatomy includes a number of related sections that are closely related to it and are considered, as a rule, comprehensively. These are such sections of anatomy as:

1. Systematic anatomy.
2. Topographical or surgical.
3. Dynamic.
4. Plastic.
5. Age.
6. Comparative.
7. Pathological.
8. Clinical.

Thus, human anatomy is a science that studies everything that in any way relates to the structure of the human body and its physiological processes. In addition, this science is closely connected and interacts with such sciences that have spun off from it and have become independent, such as:

• Anthropology is the study of man as such, his position in the system of the organic world and interaction with society and the environment. Social and biological characteristics of a human being, consciousness, psyche, character, behavior.
• Physiology is the science of all processes occurring inside the human body (mechanisms of sleep and wakefulness, inhibition and excitation, nerve impulses and their conduction, humoral and nervous regulation, and so on).
• Comparative anatomy - studies the embryonic development and structure of various organs, as well as their systems, while comparing animal embryos of different classes and taxa.
• Evolutionary doctrine is the doctrine of the origin and formation of man from the time of his appearance on the planet to the present day (phylogeny), as well as proof of the unity of all the biomass of our planet.
• Genetics - the study of the human genetic code, the mechanisms of storage and transmission of hereditary information from generation to generation.

As a result, we see that human anatomy is a completely harmonious, complex combination of many sciences. Thanks to their work, people know a lot about the human body and all its mechanisms.

History of the development of anatomy

Anatomy finds its roots in ancient times. After all, from the very appearance of man, he was interested in knowing what was inside him, why, if he gets hurt, blood comes out, what it is, why a person breathes, sleeps, eats. All these questions have haunted many representatives of the human race since ancient times.

However, answers to them did not come immediately. It took more than one century to accumulate a sufficient amount of theoretical and practical knowledge and to give a complete and detailed answer to most questions about the functioning of the human body.

The history of the development of anatomy is conventionally divided into three main periods:

• anatomy of the ancient world;
• anatomy of the Middle Ages;
• new time.

Let's look at each stage in more detail.

Ancient world

The peoples who became the founders of the science of anatomy, the first people interested in and describing the structure of human internal organs, were the ancient Greeks, Romans, Egyptians and Persians. Representatives of these very civilizations gave rise to anatomy as a science, comparative anatomy and embryology, as well as evolution and psychology. Let's look at their contribution in detail in the form of a table.

Time frame	Scientist	Discovery (contribution)
Ancient Egypt and Ancient China XXX - III centuries. BC e.	Doctor Imhotep	He was the first to describe the brain, heart, and the movement of blood through the vessels. He made his discoveries based on autopsies during the mummification of the corpses of pharaohs.
	Chinese book "Neijing"	Human organs such as liver, lungs, kidneys, heart, stomach, skin, and brain are described.
	Indian scripture "Ayurveda"	A fairly detailed description of the muscles of the human body, descriptions of the brain, spinal cord and canal, types of temperaments are defined, and types of figures (physiques) are characterized.
Ancient Rome 300-130 BC e.	Herophilus	The first who dissected corpses to study the structure of the body. He created a descriptive and morphological work "Anatomy". Considered the father of the science of anatomy.
	Erasistratus	He believed that everything consists of small particles, not liquids. He studied the nervous system by dissecting the corpses of criminals.
	Doctor Rufiy	He described many organs and gave them names, studied the optic nerves, and drew a direct relationship between the brain and nerves.
	Marin	He created descriptions of the palatine, auditory, vocal and facial nerves, and some parts of the gastrointestinal tract. In total he wrote about 20 essays, the originals of which have not survived.
	Galen	He created more than 400 works, 83 of which were devoted to descriptive and comparative anatomy. He studied wounds and the internal structure of the body on the corpses of gladiators and animals. Doctors were trained on his works for about 13 centuries. The main mistake was in theological views on medicine.
	Celsus	He introduced medical terminology, invented a ligature for ligating blood vessels, studied and described the basics of pathology, diet, hygiene, and surgery.
Persia (908-1037)	Avicenna	The human body is controlled by four main organs: the heart, testicle, liver and brain. He created a great work, “The Canon of Medical Science.”
Ancient Greece VIII-III centuries. BC e.	Euripides	Using animals and corpses of criminals, he was able to study the portal vein of the liver and describe it.
	Anaxagoras	Described the lateral ventricles of the brain
	Aristophanes	Discovered the presence of two meninges
	Empedocles	Described the ear labyrinth
	Alcmaeon	Described the ear tube and optic nerve
	Diogenes	Described many organs and parts of the circulatory system
	Hippocrates	He created the doctrine of blood, mucus, yellow and black bile as the four fundamental fluids of the human body. A great doctor, his works are still used today. Recognized observation and experience, denied theology.
	Aristotle	400 works from various branches of biology, including anatomy. He created many works, considered the soul to be the basis of all living things, and spoke about the similarities of all animals. Drew a conclusion about the hierarchy in the origin of animals and humans.

Middle Ages

This period is characterized by devastation and decline in the development of any sciences, as well as the dominance of the church, which prohibited dissections, research and the study of anatomy on animals, considering it a sin. Therefore, no significant changes and discoveries were made at this time.

But the Renaissance, on the contrary, gave many impetus to the modern state of medicine and anatomy. The main contributions were made by three scientists:

1. Leonardo da Vinci. He can be considered the founder of his artistic talents for the benefit of anatomy, creating over 700 drawings accurately depicting the muscles and skeleton. The anatomy of organs and their topography are shown to them clearly and correctly. I studied for work
2. Jacob Silvius. Teacher of many anatomists of his time. He opened grooves in the structure of the brain.
3. Andeas Vesalius. A very talented doctor who has devoted many years to a thorough study of anatomy. He made his observations based on autopsies of corpses, and learned a lot about the bones from materials collected at the cemetery. The work of his entire life is the seven-volume book “On the Structure of the Human Body.” His works caused opposition among the masses, since in his understanding anatomy is a science that should be studied in practice. This contradicted the works of Galen, which were held in high esteem at that time.
4. His main work was the treatise “Anatomical study of the movement of the heart and blood in animals.” He was the first to prove that blood moves through a closed circle of vessels, from large to small through tiny tubes. He also made the first statement that every animal develops from an egg and in the process of its development repeats the entire historical development of living things as a whole (modern biogenetic law).
5. Fallopius, Eustachius, Willis, Glisson, Azelli, Pequet, Bertolini are the names of those scientists of this era who, through their works, gave a complete understanding of what human anatomy is. This is an invaluable contribution that gave rise to a modern start in the development of this science.

New time

This period dates back to the 19th - 20th centuries and is characterized by a number of very important discoveries. All of them could be accomplished thanks to the invention of the microscope. Marcello Malpighi supplemented and substantiated practically what Harvey had predicted in his time - the presence of capillaries. The scientist Shumlyansky confirmed this with his work, and also proved the cyclicality and closedness of the circulatory system.

Also, a number of discoveries made it possible to reveal the concept of “anatomy” in more detail. These were the following works:

• Galvani Luigi. This man made a huge contribution to the development of physics, since he discovered electricity. However, he was also able to examine the presence of electrical impulses in animal tissues. Thus he became the founder of electrophysiology.
• Kaspar Wolf. He refuted the theory of preformationism, which stated that all organs exist in a reduced form in the reproductive cell, and then simply grow. Became the founder of embryogenesis.
• Louis Pasteur. As a result of many years of experiments, he proved the existence of bacteria. Developed vaccination methods.
• Jean Baptiste Lamarck. He made a huge contribution to evolutionary teachings. He was the first to express the idea that man, like all living things, develops under the influence of the environment.
• Karl Baer. He discovered the reproductive cell of the female body, described it and gave rise to the development of knowledge about ontogenesis.
• Charles Darwin. He made a huge contribution to the development of evolutionary teachings and explained the origin of man. He also proved the unity of all life on the planet.
• Pirogov, Mechnikov, Sechenov, Pavlov, Botkin, Ukhtomsky, Burdenko are the names of Russian scientists of the 19th-20th centuries who gave a complete understanding that anatomy is a whole science, complex, multifaceted and all-encompassing. Medicine owes their work in many respects. It was they who became the discoverers of the mechanisms of immunity, higher nervous activity, the spinal cord and nervous regulation, as well as many issues of genetics. Severtsov founded a direction in anatomy - evolutionary morphology, which was based on the basis (authors - Haeckel, Darwin, Kovalevsky, Baer, ​​Muller).

Anatomy owes its development to all these people. Biology is a whole complex of sciences, but anatomy is the oldest and most valuable of them, since it affects the most important thing - human health.

What is clinical anatomy

Clinical anatomy is an intermediate section between topographic and surgical anatomy. It considers the issues of the general plan structure of any specific organ. For example, if we are talking about the larynx, then before the operation the doctor needs to know the general position of this organ in the body, what it is connected to and how it interacts with other organs.

Today, clinical anatomy is very widespread. You can often find the expression clinical anatomy of the nose, pharynx, throat or any other organ. Clinical anatomy will tell you what components a given organ is made of, where it is located, what it borders on, what role it plays, and so on.

Each specialist doctor knows the full clinical anatomy of the organ he is working on. This is the key to successful treatment.

Age anatomy

Age anatomy is a section of this science that studies human ontogenesis. That is, it considers all the processes that accompany it from the moment of conception and the stage of the embryo until the end of the life cycle - death. At the same time, the main foundation for age-related anatomy is gerontology and embryology.

Karl Bar can be considered the founder of this section of anatomy. It was he who first suggested the individual development of each living being. Later this process was called ontogeny.

Age-related anatomy provides insight into the mechanisms of aging, which is important for medicine.

Comparative anatomy

Comparative anatomy is a science whose main task is to prove the unity of all life on the planet. Specifically, this science is concerned with comparing embryos of different animal species (not only species, but also classes and taxa) and identifying general patterns in development.

Comparative anatomy and physiology are closely related entities that study one common question: how do embryos of different creatures look and function in comparison to each other?

Pathological anatomy

Pathological anatomy is a scientific discipline that deals with the study of pathological processes in the cells and tissues of a human being. This makes it possible to study various diseases, view the impact of their course on the body and, accordingly, find treatment methods.

The tasks of pathological anatomy are as follows:

• study the causes of various diseases in humans;
• consider the mechanisms of their occurrence and progression at the cellular level;
• identify all possible complications of pathologies and variants of disease outcome;
• study the mechanisms of death from diseases;
• consider the reasons for the ineffectiveness of treatment of pathologies.

The founder of this discipline is the one who created the cellular theory, which speaks about the development of diseases at the level of cells and tissues of the human body.

Topographic anatomy

Topographic anatomy is a scientific discipline, otherwise called surgical. It is based on the division of the human body into anatomical regions, each of which is located in a specific part of the body: the head, torso or limbs.

The main objectives of this science are:

• detailed structure of each area;
• syntopy of organs (their location relative to each other);
• connection of organs with skin (holotopia);
• blood supply to each anatomical region;
• lymphatic drainage;
• nervous regulation;
• skeletotopia (in relation to the skeleton).

All these tasks are formed in terms of the principles: study taking into account diseases, pathologies, age and individual characteristics of organisms.

Introduction

Anatomy is the science of the origin and development, forms and structure of the human body. The word "anatomy" comes from the Greek "anathem" - to dissect, to dismember.

This name is determined by the fact that the original and main method by which anatomy obtained factual material related to the internal structure of a person was the method of anatomy, i.e. division, dismemberment into parts of the human body.

History of the study of the human body, i.e. The history of the gradual accumulation of knowledge about the structure of the human body, as well as about the activity and purpose of individual parts of the body, arose in ancient times, when primitive people began to notice what nature itself and their everyday life showed them. But we don’t know exactly when this began, just as we don’t know when the beneficial properties of fire were discovered, when the ax and knife appeared, when a person first connected two round pieces of wood so that they turned into wheels that could move, and became the most important part of the cart.

How the ancient peoples developed a complete understanding of the structure of the human body and its functions is difficult to say, since peoples separated by seas, mountains and rivers had very different views and knowledge, and the evidence at our disposal of this, of course, is very sparse . Common to most peoples and eras was the fear of dismembering the human body, of performing an “autopsy.” This has always been prohibited by law almost everywhere. In many countries, the prevailing belief was that a person should appear before God as he was during life, in order to be justified or to expect a new life and return to earth - nothing should have been missing. We find this belief, and hence the prohibition of dismemberment of the body, already among the ancient Chinese (if we start with them), who for a very long time played a huge role in the spiritual development of mankind. Only very late, at the end of the 4th century, in China, the governor of one of the provinces decided to hand over the corpses of forty beheaded people to doctors, allowing them to be opened in the interests of science.

History of the development of anatomy

Human anatomy (from ancient Greek - dissection, above and cutting) is a branch of biology that studies the morphology of the human body, its systems and organs. The subject of study of human anatomy is the form and structure, origin and development of the human body. Human anatomy is one of the fundamental disciplines in the system of medical and biological education, closely related to disciplines such as anthropology and human physiology, as well as comparative anatomy, evolutionary studies and genetics.

The anatomy of a “normal” (healthy) human body is considered according to organ systems - normal (systematic) human anatomy.

The history of anatomy goes back to ancient times. People of primitive society already had some idea of ​​the purpose of the parts of the human body and its structure. Apparently, the origin of human cognitive activity is associated with the dismemberment of killed animals and the comparison of the information obtained about the shape and structure of organs in animals and a wounded person. This is confirmed by cave and rock paintings found in Spain and China (1400-2600 BC). Against the background of the contours of the depicted animals, the location and shape of some internal organs (heart, respiratory organs, stomach, kidneys, etc.) are correctly shown.

3000 BC in Ancient China, a book written by Gwang Ti contained anatomical information and illustrations. In the ancient Hindu books - the Vedas - many muscles, nerves, organs and vessels of the human body were described. In Ancient Egypt, priests achieved great skill in embalming corpses, which required known knowledge of the anatomy of the chest and abdominal cavities and the skull. In ancient Greece, it was forbidden to dissect human corpses, so Aristotle dissected animal corpses, and he received a number of accurate information on the comparative anatomy of animals. He coined the term “aorta” and pointed out the difference between nerves and tendons. In the 3rd century. BC, doctors of the Alexandrian school, the most prominent representatives of which were Erasistratus and Herophilus, for the first time in the history of anatomy performed educational autopsies on the corpses of executed criminals. They described the diaphragm and established its role in breathing; they studied the skeleton and viscera, isolated the duodenum as part of the intestine into which bile and pancreatic juice flow; gained an understanding of the lymphatic vessels of the mesentery, nerves, heart valves, meninges, etc. The writings of Alexandrian doctors have not reached our time. The encyclopedia of ancient medicine and anatomy is represented by the works of the ancient Roman physician C. Galen. Dissecting the corpses of dogs and monkeys and assuming that the body structure of monkeys was close to the structure of the human body, he often mistakenly transferred the data obtained during the autopsy of animals to humans.

Galen's descriptions of organs and views on their functions, set out in his main work “De usu partium” (“On the purpose of the parts of the human body”), were considered infallible for 14 centuries. The Catholic Church recognized and approved with its authority everything that was written in the books of Galen.

In the 4th-2nd millennium BC. the center of science and culture is formed in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Babylon and Ancient Palestine. At this time, a peculiar caste of doctors emerged - priests, who began to widely use water, oils, herbal infusions, etc. to treat diseases. The word "doctor" literally meant "knower of water" or "knower of oil." Healing involved studying the basic structure of the human body. In Ancient Egypt, embalming of corpses became widespread: small incisions were made in the body, internal organs and brain were removed, and the body of the deceased was soaked in saline solutions and resinous compounds.

The anatomical information of this period was in many ways extremely fantastic and incorrect. In particular, the heart was considered the organ of thinking, through which blood, mucus, air, water and urine supposedly pass.

Information about the conscious study of the structure of the human body dates back to the 5th-4th centuries. BC. - II century AD and are associated with the history of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

Anatomy of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The founder of ancient Greek anatomy and physiology is considered to be Alcmaeon of Croton, who at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC. wrote a treatise on the structure of the animal body. He was the first to point out that the brain is the main organ of perception and thinking, described individual nerves and their importance for the function of the senses.

The history of anatomy is part of medicine and can be divided into two periods:

1. The period of ancient (pre-scientific) anatomy.

2. The period of scientific anatomy.

Each of these periods is divided into separate stages.

I. Ancient period (XX century BC – XV century AD).

1. Ancient anatomy stage(anatomy in Ancient China, India, Egypt – XX century BC – III-V centuries AD).

2. Stage of primitive descriptive anatomy(Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome – V-III centuries BC).

3. Stage of scholastic anatomy(Italy, France, East - II-XV centuries AD).

II. The period of scientific anatomy (starts from the time of Andrei Vesalius - 16th century AD and continues to the present day).

1. Stage of macroscopic (descriptive) anatomy– Renaissance (XVI-XVII centuries).

2. Stage of microscopic (evolutionary-functional) anatomy(XVII-XX centuries)

3. Stage of ultramicroscopic (molecular) anatomy(60s of the twentieth century - up to the present).

Ancient anatomy. The history of the development of anatomy goes back to prehistoric times. It was then that elementary ideas about the structure of the body arose. This is confirmed by cave and rock paintings found in Spain and China (1400-2600 BC).

In the fourth - second millennium BC. When embalming human and animal corpses, the accumulation of initial information about organs, vessels, and structures of the heart, bones, and brain begins.

Beginning in the 8th century BC, the strict ban on autopsy of human corpses was lifted in Ancient India. The first information on human anatomy began to appear in the sacred books of the Hindus. In particular, it was believed that a person consists of membranes, 300 bones, 107 joints, 400 vessels, 900 ligaments, 90 veins, 9 organs and 3 fluids. Methods of maceration and primitive ideas about some functions of the body are described. Mentions of the heart, liver, lungs and other organs of the human body are contained in the ancient Chinese book “Neijing” (XI-VII centuries BC), the Indian book “Ayurveda” (“Knowledge of Life”, IX-III centuries BC AD) there is information about muscles and nerves.

Information about the purposeful (conscious) study of the structure of the human body dates back to the 5th-4th centuries BC and is associated with the history of Ancient Greece.

Anatomy of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The first Greek anatomist is considered a physician and philosopher Alcmaeon of Croton, the found records of which indicate an excellent dissection technique. At the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century BC. he wrote a treatise on the structure of the animal body, in which he was the first to describe individual nerves and understand their significance for the function of the sense organs.

Outstanding representatives of medicine of the ancient world were Hippocrates, Aristotle, Herophilus, Erasistratus, etc.

Hippocrates (460-377 BC)- one of the greatest ancient Greek doctors and anatomists, who is rightly called the father of medicine, formulated the doctrine of four main types of physique and temperament, described some bones of the skull roof, vertebrae, ribs, internal organs, eyes, joints, muscles, large vessels.

Aristotle (384-322 BC)- creator of the huge work “History of Animals”. He distinguished between tendons and nerves, bones and cartilage in the animals he dissected. He owns the term “aorta”.

Herophilus (born 340 BC)- was the first doctor in Ancient Greece who began dissecting corpses. He described some of the cranial nerves, their exit from the brain, the meninges, the duodenum, and the lymphatic vessels of the mesentery of the small intestine. Herophilus’s book “Anatomica” served as an incentive for the birth of an entire science.

Erasistratus (350-300 BC) – was an outstanding surgeon, dissected corpses, he came to the idea that it was not the “soul”, but the brain that controlled human movements. He divided the nerves into motor and sensory.

Thus, the work of ancient Greek scientists became the origins of anatomical research. These studies were very fragmented, often contained misconceptions and needed clarification.

Anatomy of Ancient Rome. The Roman Empire reached its culminating expansion in the second century AD. An outstanding physician of Ancient Rome was Claudius Galen (130-200 AD), whose main merit was that he generalized and systematized all the anatomical facts obtained in the ancient period. His main works are called “On Anatomy”. They are presented in the form of 16 books. The name Galen is associated with: classification of bones, description of the muscles of the spinal column, identification of the three membranes of the artery, description of the vagus and facial nerves, etc. He studied in detail the structure of the meninges and veins of the brain, so one of the veins of the brain is named after him.

Anatomy in the Middle Ages. One of the great representatives of Eastern scientists in the Middle Ages was Abu Ali Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna (980-1037) - a great Tajik scientist, philosopher and doctor. His most significant work is the “Canon of Medicine,” written in the 11th century. This work consists of 5 volumes, combining the experience and views of Greek, Roman, Indian and Arab doctors. Avicenna did a lot in the field of diagnosis and treatment of various diseases.

Since the 13th century, universities have had medical faculties. In the XIV-XV centuries. In them, 1-2 corpses per year began to be dissected for demonstration to students. In 1326, professor at the University of Bologna Mondinus dissected two female corpses and wrote a textbook on anatomy, which was reprinted 25 times over two centuries.

Anatomy of the Renaissance (Renaissance). It is famous for the great scientific discoveries of such anatomists as Leonardo da Vinci, Jacob Silvius, Andrei Vesalius and others.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)- a brilliant artist and scientist. He was interested in plastic anatomy and made many accurate anatomical drawings with explanatory notes. He opened 30 human corpses and studied the anatomy of muscles, bones and internal organs not from books, but through scientific observation.

Jacob Silvius (1478-1555)- famous physician and anatomist of France. He was the first to describe the lateral sulcus of the brain, venous valves, appendix, hepatic sulci, etc.

Andrew Vesalius (1514-1564)- considered a reformer of anatomy. He opened and dissected corpses, made sketches of bones, muscles and internal organs. The result of many years of hard work was his famous work “On the Structure of the Human Body.” The great Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov spoke about the work of Vesalius in the following way: “This is the first human anatomy in the modern history of mankind, which does not repeat only the knowledge and opinions of ancient authorities, but is based on the work of a free research mind.” Vesalius's works formed the basis of modern anatomy.

After Andrei Vesalius, many scientists began to conduct research in the field of anatomy, accumulated scientific facts, describing previously unknown organs and deepening knowledge about the structure of the human body.

For example, Gabriele Fallopius (1523-1562)- first described the fallopian tubes, the canal of the facial nerve. His discoveries are presented in the book Anatomical Observations.

Bartolomeo Eustachius (1510-1574)- was the first to discover and describe the auditory tube, the valve of the inferior vena cava. His anatomical knowledge is outlined in the Manual of Anatomy, published in 1714. K. Varoliy (1543-1575) described – part of the brain stem – pons, A. Spigelius (1578-1625)– caudate lobe of the liver, V. Silvius (1614-1672)- cerebral aqueduct, N. Gaymore (1613-1726)- maxillary sinus.

The 17th century was a turning point in the development of medicine and anatomy.

In 1628 William Harvey published the work “Anatomical studies on the movement of the heart and blood in animals,” which described the systemic and pulmonary circulation and the laws of blood movement. Harvey's work marked the beginning of the functional direction in anatomy.

Anatomy in the XVII-XIX centuries. enriched with new facts. Microscopic anatomy was started by a professor at the University of Bologna M. Malpighi (1628-1694), who discovered blood capillaries using a microscope in 1661. Another Italian anatomist G. Morgagni (1682-1771) was the founder of pathological anatomy.

In the 20th century, anatomy made great strides. This applies, first of all, to functional anatomy, histology, cytology (C. Golgi, S. Ramon y Cajal, etc.).

History of Russian anatomy. Many Ukrainian scientists also played an important role in the development of domestic anatomy. These include Professor N.M. Maksimovich-Ambodik (1744-1812), compiled the first Russian dictionary of anatomical terms called “Anatomical and Physiological Dictionary in Russian, Latin and French” (1783).

In the 18th century, the foundations of microscopic anatomy were laid, which is associated with the name A.M. Shumlyansky (1784-1795). He wrote a dissertation “On the structure of the kidneys,” in which he described the microscopic anatomy of the kidneys 60 years earlier than Boyman.

With the name of an outstanding surgeon, anatomist N.I. Pirogov (1810-1881) A whole era in the development of anatomy is connected. N.I. Pirogov’s great merit as an anatomist was the discovery of an original method for studying the human body using cuts from frozen corpses. This made it possible to accurately and clearly identify the relative positions of the organs. The results of many years of work by N.I. Pirogov summarized in the book “Topographic anatomy, illustrated by cuts made through the frozen human body in three directions.” Peru N.I. Pirogov owns the “Complete course of applied anatomy of the human body.” In the field of anatomy N.I. Pirogov made many discoveries. The lingual triangle in the neck, the aponeurosis of the biceps brachii muscle, the lymph node located on the deep ring of the femoral canal, and other anatomical formations are named after him. He was one of the first to conduct experiments on animals and corpses to solve clinical problems.

By the end of the 19th century, anatomy had largely finished collecting facts. Scientists have moved on to their generalization, the formation of patterns in the structure of organs of the human body, the influence on the structure of the body of the external environment, living conditions, physical exercises, to the identification of individual, gender and age differences, and the study of changes in anatomical organs during pathological processes. A whole network of universities with medical faculties was opened, in which many doctors and scientists were trained. A huge contribution to the development of domestic anatomy was made by Lvov, Kharkov, Kiev, Odessa (Novorossiysk), and Crimean anatomical schools. The scientific achievements of these schools glorified Russian anatomy.

LVIV ANATOMICAL SCHOOL. It dates back to 1784, when the medical faculty was opened at the university. Famous representatives of this school were Professor G. Kidii (1851-1912)– head of the department since 1894, organized a fundamental anatomical museum, used formaldehyde to fix corpses. His works are devoted to the blood supply to the spinal cord and hand. I.A. Markovsky (1874-1947)– headed the department for 30 years. His work concerns the development of the dural sinuses and cerebral veins. Tadiy Martsenik (1895-1966)– examined abnormalities of the bones and muscles of the upper limb. A.P. Lyubomudrov (1895-1972)- student of Academician V. M. Tonkov, studied blood vessels in normal conditions and experimentally (collateral circulation). Professors E.F. Goncharenko (1921 – 1979),
L. M. Lichkovsky, A. M. Netlyukh- headed the department. The Lviv anatomical school made a great contribution to the study of the functional anatomy of the cardiovascular system.

The further development of anatomy in Ukraine was facilitated by the opening of medical faculties at Kharkov (1805), Kiev (1841) and Novorossiysk (Odessa, 1900) universities.

KHARKIV SCHOOL OF ANATOMY. This school played an important role in the formation and development of Russian anatomy, and its anatomists (D.F. Lambl, M.A. Popov, G.M. Iosifov, V.P. Vorobyov, R.D. Sinelnikov, etc.) glorified domestic and world science.

An outstanding representative of the Kharkov school of anatomists was V.P. Vorobyov (1876-1937). He proposed an original method of macro- and microscopic examination of anatomical objects. He made a great contribution to the study of the peripheral and especially the autonomic nervous system. He put forward a hypothesis about the communication between the lymphatic and venous systems. He proposed original methods of embalming organs and corpses. Vorobyov was the first to create the five-volume Atlas of Human Anatomy. In 1924, he headed the team for embalming the body of V.I. Lenin. The successors of the scientific traditions of the Kharkov school were R.D. Sinelnikov (1896-1981), student of academician V.P. Vorobyova, author of the Atlas of Human Anatomy in three volumes, which went through several reprints. V.V. Bobbin– from 1971 to 1992 he headed the Department of Human Anatomy. Develops the problem of symmetry and asymmetry in the structure of the nervous system.

Kyiv SCHOOL OF ANATOMS headed by professors M.I. Kozlov (1814-1880), O.P. Walter (1817-1889), V.O. Betz (1834-1894), M.A. Tikhomirov (1848-1902), F.A. Stefanis (1865-1917), A.V. Starkov (1874-1927), M.S. Spirov (1892-1973), I.E. Kefeli (1920-1980).

The pride of the Kyiv School of Anatomy is the professor V.A. Betz (1834-1894), who discovered giant pyramidal cells (Betz cells) in the fifth layer of the cerebral cortex and discovered differences in the cellular composition of different parts of the layers of the cerebral cortex. He laid the foundation for the doctrine of the cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex. M.A. Tikhomirov (1848-1902)– the scientist outlined his achievements in the monograph “Variants of arteries and veins of the human body.” F. Stefanis (1862-1917)– is the founder of Russian lymphology. M.S. Spirov (1892-1973)– the main works are devoted to the study of the interrenal system, the embryogenesis of the human meninges, the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid and the structure of the lymphatic system.

ODESSA (NOVOROSSIYSK) SCHOOL OF ANATOMS. It was organized in 1900. The first head of the department was a professor M.O. Batuev (1855-1917), prepared and published the textbook “Lectures on Human Anatomy”. N.K. Lysenkov (1865-1941) studied all anatomical disciplines that study the normal structure of a person: normal, topographic and plastic anatomy. In 1932, he wrote a manual on “Normal Human Anatomy” (together with V.I. Bushkovich, 1878-1945).

Under the direction of M.S. Kondratieva (1888-1951), F.A. Volynsky (1890-1970), the nervous and cardiovascular systems were studied. They made a great contribution to the development of domestic anatomy and were the creators of original scientific directions.

CRIMEAN SCHOOL OF ANATOMS. It was headed by famous scientists - R.I. Gelvig, V.V. Bobin, V.I. Zyablov. They continued to develop traditional scientific problems of human anatomy, creating new scientific directions, continuing to form the Crimean anatomical school. R.I. Helwig (1873-1920)– Professor of Medicine, Anatomy. In 1918 he organized and headed the department of anatomy at Tauride University. Not a single modern researcher can do without a brilliant course on the history of human anatomy, the atlas “Anatomy of the human muscular system” and the textbook “Cranial nerves, the structure of the human head and skull, the anatomy of the blood vessels of the human head” and other brilliant works. V.V. Bobin (1931-1993) – the first head of the Department of Human Anatomy at the Crimean Medical Institute. With his participation, a museum, an X-ray room, and scientific laboratories were created. Professor V.V. Bobin published over 100 scientific papers devoted to the innervation of the bladder, the membranes of the brain and spinal cord, and studies of current problems in anthropology. IN AND. Zyablov (1967-1993) - a famous domestic morphologist, honored worker of higher education in the Ukrainian SSR, headed the department from 1967 to 1993. Professor V.I. Zyablov skillfully combined administrative (rector of the institute), public work with scientific research. The main direction of research is devoted to the problem of morphogenesis and regeneration of the central and peripheral parts of the nervous system. G.N. Petrov (1926-1997)– Associate Professor of the Department of Normal Anatomy, in the 50s, he was the first in the world to trace all stages of fragmentation of a human egg in vitro, and carried out in vitro fertilization, which was an important contribution to the development of in vitro fertilization. V.V. Tkach (1931-2008)– professor, headed the study of the influence of cerebrospinal fluid on the morphogenesis of organs and tissues, developed a method for making surgical and ophthalmic threads from the dura mater of the spinal cord of cattle, etc. Since 2001, the Department of Normal Human Anatomy of the Crimean State Medical University. S.I. Georgievsky is headed by Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor Vasily Stepanovich Pikalyuk, student of the famous anatomist, professor V.G. Koveshnikova. The staff of the department solves scientific problems in the following priority areas: “Age-related morphological characteristics of organs and systems of the body under the influence of exogenous factors of various etiologies” and “Morphogenesis of organs and systems under the influence of xenogeneic cerebrospinal fluid.”

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